FUNDAMENTAL OF COMPTER IN HOTEL

UNIT-1 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

1.1. COMPUTER INTRODUCTION:
 The term computer is derived from the word compute. The word compute means to calculate. A
computer is an electronic machine that accepts data from the user, processes the data by
performing calculations and operations on it, and generates the desired output results. Computer
performs both simple and complex operations, with speed and accuracy.

CHARACTERESTICS OF COMPUTER:
The major characteristics that make the computer such a powerful machine can be enumerated as speed,
storage, accuracy, ability to operate automatically, diligence, scientific approach and versatility.
• Speed and Accuracy: Computer processes the data in a high speed. Computers are 100% accurate. The
data and instructions in the form of binary digits (ON OR OFF state of electricity) flow in the circuitry of a
computer at a speed of light. So, computer is very fast and can process a huge amount of data in a fraction
of seconds. A computer can perform millions of instructions and even more per second.

• Comparison and Calculation: Computers are the basic electronic calculators, which are used to
process complex type of mathematical data. It can perform high range of data calculations in a short
period of time.

• High Storage Capacity: Computers can store the data for the future use. It can be kept permanently.
The devices, which are used to store data, are hard disk, floppy disk and so on. In computer the
terminology in regard to storage capacity applies to both primary and secondary storage. It is normally
measured in terms of Nibble, Byte, Kilobyte (1KB), Mega Byte (MB), Giga Byte (GB), Tera Byte (TB) etc.
The table below shows the different units of storage capacity of a computer.
1 or 0 = bit 1024 GB = 1 Tera Byte
4bits = 1 Nibble 1024 TB = 1 Peta Byte
8 bits = 1 Byte =1 Character 1024 PB = 1 Exa Byte
1024 Bytes = 1 Kilo Byte (KB) 1024 EB = 1 Zetta Byte
1024 KB = 1 Mega Byte(MB) 1024 ZB = 1 Yotta Byte
1024 MB = 1 Giga Byte (GB)

• Automatic: Computers are automatic machines because once started on a job, they carry out the job
without any human intervention until it is finished. The Computers are easy to handle since this machine
does all the processing. We need to instruct a computer to perform any job. Once the instruction is given
to a computer, we do not need to give the instructions again and again.

• Communication Media: Computers are now days mostly used in Information Technology sectors for
the communication purpose. Computers are used to provide the easiest type of communication like e-
mail, chatting, video conferencing and online telephony.

• Multi-Processing Nature: Computers can process two distinct data’s at a time with the same accuracy.
It can perform any kind of operation at enormous speed. The wide use of computers in so many areas
such as scientific, commercial, application, Educational, Industrial areas in day-to-day life there is an
ample evidence of its versatility. Computer can perform word processing, Spreadsheet calculations, data
processing etc. It can process any kind of data at a great speed.

• Diligence: Man suffers from physical and mental fatigue, lack of concentration and laziness which do
not permit him/her to carry on his/her task at the same level of speed and accuracy through the entire
day. The computer on the other hand is capable of operating at exactly the same level of speed and
accuracy even if it has to carry out the most voluminous and complex operations for a long period of
time. Computer has a capacity of performing repeated operations. It does not get tired easily. This
capacity of the computer makes it useful for repetitive jobs like process control and quality control.
 FUNDAMENTAL OF COMPTER IN HOTEL

• Remembering power: Computer has the power of storing any amount of information or data. Any
information can be stored and recalled as long as you require it, for any numbers of years. It depends
entirely upon you how much data you want to store in a computer and when to lose or retrieve these
data.

***********************************************************************************************************
LIMITATIONS OF COMPTUER:
• No Intelligence Quality
• No Feeling
• Needs Electricity Power
• Needs Human to use
• No Decision-Making power
• Expensive
• Causes Depersonalization
• Medium of Cyber crimes
********************************************************************************************************************
2. DATA AND INFORMATION:
Data is the set of raw facts or figures these are raw components of information and that represent as
information after processing. The word data is derived from the Latin word ‘Datum’ which means ‘to give’.
Data is used for communication, interpretation or processing by human or electronic machine.Data are entered
into computer to perform any operation and task and to solve particular problem. For example the raw
material to be purchased may have many facts like type of raw material, vendor name, address, quantity etc.
Example: A, Ram, H-123, Butwal etc.
Types of data:
 Text
 Picture
 Voice
 Command

Information comes after procession of the data. In other words, the result of the data after the processing is
information. The word ‘information is derived from the Latin word ‘informare’ which means ‘to instruct’. Data
becomes information when we understand what it means. Information is organized or classified data which has
some meaningful values for the receiver. Information is very necessary in business, trade, financial accounting,
modern production systems, office automation systems, health care, education, entertainment etc. Characteristics
of Information: Accuracy, Timeliness, Relevance, Completeness, Accessibility, consistency.
Types of Information:
 Individual Information
Information about an individual, detailing his/her personal achievements and qualifications, is called
individual information. An organization stores employee information such as salary details and residential
addresses. This data is of use to the person as well as the organization. This is an example of individual
information
 Department Information
Departments work by conveying progress and other information to their headquarters and sister
departments for the successful running of their organization. Departments benefits by sharing important
information, which is referred to as department information. The total revenue generated by a hotel and the
break-up of revenue generated by each department is an example of department information.
 Corporate Information
The management of a corporation may like to keep its employees informed on the various activities of the
organization. The minutes of a meeting sent to an employee who has been on an official trip abroad is an
example of corporate information.
 National Information
Information pertaining to a particular country that might be of importance to its citizens is called national
information. Newspapers, radio and television provide data that is important from a national point of view.
 International Information
An individual may be interested in knowing what is happening across the globe or what has happened in a
neighbouring country in the past. For example, fluctuations in currency exchange rates differ among
countries.
***********************************************************************************************************
 FUNDAMENTAL OF COMPTER IN HOTEL

Difference between Data and Information:

SN Data Information
1. Data is raw fact. It is the outcome after processing the data.
2. May or may not be meaningful. It is always meaningful.
3. It is an input of any system. It is an output of any system.
4. It must be processed to understand. It is already in understandable form.
5. It is difficult to understand. It is easy to understand.
6. It may not be in the order. It should be in the order.
7. Examples: Characters, images, numbers. Examples: Reports, Students records.
*****************************************************************************
3. APPLICATION AREAS OF COMPTUER:
Computer is being integral part of our daily life. It is widely used in daily life operation at home to offices in
different forms. It is being supporting tools for our every task. It is used in all the fields but some application fields
are described as:
• Use of computer in offices: Various important works performed in the offices such as preparation of
letters, reports, memorandum, copy of advertisement, publicity, contracts, forms, notes etc. Today these all
tasks are efficiently performed by computers. Computer consists of various word processing package
programs. It helps to prepare and maintain different official works easily. In offices accounting, billing,
preparation of pay rolls, data analysis etc are also done using computers.

• Use of computers in Education Field: In educational institutions computers are used as teaching aid,
information resource and computing and research tool. When computer is used as a teaching aid it is referred
to as computer-assisted instructions (CAI).

• Use of computers in Medical Field: Computers are widely used in hospitals to help doctors in diagnosis,
getting information of patients, diseases, treatments, drugs etc. They are also used in administration and in
keeping patient records.

• Use of computers in Industrial control and instrumentation: Computers are extremely used in
industry for automatic control of machines, process, measurement and display of electrical and physical
quantities.

• Use of computers in Communication Field: Computers are extensively used in sending and receiving
information. The information transfer may take place either between two points or throughout a computer
networks that connects a number of computers.

• Use of computers for Data Analysis: Computers are widely used for data analysis. There is special
software like spreadsheet program for data analysis. Statistical packages are also available for analysis of
data. They have functions to calculate average, maximum, minimum, percentage, Sum etc.

• Use of computers in Graphics: Computers are being used to draw drawings, graphics and high resolute
pictures.

Similarly, computer has importance in several fields. Now a days they are used in car control system, computer
based security systems, using in home for playing games, communicating with database services , for word
processing, home management, accounting ,entertainments, on-line shopping etc.
******************************************************************************
4. TYPES OF COMPUTERS:
There are different types of computers developed till today. Today computers are classified on the basic of their
capabilities, sides, model and uses. Computers can be classified on the following basis:
• On the basis of work
• On the basis of Size
• On the basis of Brand
• On the basis of Model
 FUNDAMENTAL OF COMPTER IN HOTEL

• Analog Computers: These computers are used to measure temperature, pressure, physical values etc.
These values are also called continuous values. This computer is faster in speed because calculations are
performed in parallel but it’s not as accurate. They are used widely operation rooms in the hospital to
check the respiration and blood circulation of a percent. The analog computer used in Hetaunda cement
factory is a Process Control used to check the quality of the cement. Slide Rule, Speedometer, Plesley,
Seismograph, thermometer, voltmeter, a gasoline measuring meter in petrol pump etc. are the examples of
analog devices.

• Digital Computers: A digital computers works with discrete values or discontinuous values or binary
digits 0s and 1s. Basically, these computers work counting numbers, letters and symbols. Digital computers
are best suited for statistical data and numerical problems of business and science. The accuracy of this
computer is very high. It has large memory capacity. It is a multipurpose machine. IBM PC , IBM
compatible, Apple/Macintosh are Example in this computers.

S.N. Analog Computer Digital Computer

1. Analog Computers work with natural or physical Digital Computers work with digits.
values.
2. These computers work with continuous data like These computers work with the discrete data like
voltage, pressure, temperature etc. characters, symbols, numbers etc.
3. These computers are special purpose computers. These computers are general purpose computers.
4. Accuracy of Analog computer is low. Accuracy of Digital computer is High.
5. These computers have low storage and memory. These computers have high storage and memory.
6. These computers cannot be re-programmed. For These computers are totally flexible and can be
any new functions the total circuitry system and reprogrammed.
hardware parts are to be replaced with new ones.

• Hybrid Computers: Hybrid computers are a data processing device which combination of the best
feature of both analog and digital computer. They have the speed of analog computer and accuracy of the
digital computer. In hybrid computer, a converter is fixed to convert the analog signals into digital signals
and digital signals to analog signals. These machines are generally used in scientific applications, airplanes
and Industrial control process. The computers used in hospital like CT-Scan machine, ECG
(Electrocardiogram) machine, ECHO (Echocardiogram) ,Ultrasound machine, computers used in jet planes
(Flight Management Computers) are the examples of Hybrid computer.

On the basis of size:

• Supercomputer: They are the special purpose fastest and most expensive machines. They have high
processing speed compared to other computers. They have also multiprocessing technique. One of the
ways in which supercomputers are built is by interconnecting hundreds of microprocessors.
Supercomputers are mainly being used for weather forecasting, biomedical research, remote sensing,
aircraft design and other areas of science and technology. Examples of supercomputers are CRAY YMP,
CRAY2, NEC SX-3, CRAY XMP and PARAM from India.
• Mainframes: These types of computers are generally 32-bit microprocessors. Mainframe computers are
high level business purpose computers which can handle 1000 users at a time. They operate at very high
speed, have very large storage capacity and can handle the work load of many users. They are generally
used in centralized databases. They are also used as controlling nodes in Wide Area Networks (WAN).
Example of mainframes are DEC, ICL and IBM 3000 series.
Differences between Super computer and Mainframe computer:
 FUNDAMENTAL OF COMPTER IN HOTEL

SN. Super Computer Mainframe Computer

1. Super computer is special purpose computer. Mainframe computer is high level business purpose
computer.
2. Super computer is high processing speed Mainframe computer is multiuser computer.
(multiprocessing) computer than compared
to mainframe computer.
3. It is expensive computer than mainframe It is less expensive computer than super computer.
computer.
4. It is used for the larger data processing It is used for the multi-user operating purpose.
purpose.
5. Examples: CRAY-I,PARAM,NEC etc. Examples: IBM 1401,ICL-2050/10,IBM-3000 etc.

• Mini Computer: This is designed to support more than one user at a time. Mini computers are medium
level business propose computers which can handle 100 uses at a time. It possesses large storage capacity
and operates at a higher speed. The mini computer is used in multi-user system in which various users can
work at the same time. This type of computer is generally used for processing large volume of data in an
organization. They are also used as servers in Local Area Networks (LAN). Examples: DEC (Digital
Equipment corporation), IBM (International Business Machine) corporation AS/400 designed the mini
computers. Examples of Mini computers are: MAI Basic4, DEC, PDP and VAX Series
• Microcomputer: Microcomputer is at the lowest end of the computer range in terms of speed and storage
capacity. Its CPU is a microprocessor. The first microcomputers were built of 8-bit microprocessor chips.
The most common application of personal computers (PC) is in this category. The PC supports a number of
input and output devices. An improvement of 8-bit chip is 16-bit and 32-bit chips. Examples of
microcomputer are IBM PC, PC-AT , Desktops, Laptops etc.

• IBM PC: IBM PC stands for Internal Business Machine Personal Computer. The IBM is one of the largest
computers and other electric equipment’s manufacturing company in the world. It was established in USA
in 1924. IBM sells mainframes, mini computers and microcomputers. These computers are known as IBM
computers. IBM PC is a microcomputer produced by IBM Company. The computers produced by this
company are reliable, durable and have high processing capability.
• IBM Compatible: Many companies make clones of IBM's Personal Computer, which are often called
Compatible. IBM compatible can use hardware and software designed for the IBM PC. The internal
architecture of IBM compatible is similar to IBM PC. They are also called duplicate computers. It can
perform all the tasks that an IBM computer does. They are less expensive than original (IBM) computers.
• Apple/Macintosh: Apple/Macintosh Company is one of the largest personal computer manufacturers,
located in California. This company was established in 1976. The internal architecture of this computer is
totally different from that IBM. They have their own software. They are specially used in Desktop-
Designing. They are quite expensive than IBM and IBM Compatible. The operating system and other
peripherals are completely different then IBM and IBM Compatibles.

• IBM PC/XT: XT stands for Extended Technology. It is an IBM PC with slow hard disk. XT was released in
1983. It had an Intel 8088 CPU, 128 of RAM, 10MB HDD drive and eight-bit bus. These computers were
slow processing.
• IBM PC/AT : AT stands for Advance Technology. It was released in 1984 with an Intel 80286 processor
and 16bit bus. It has a medium speed hard disk and also floppy disk. The microprocessor used in AT
computers is 80386SX, 80386DX, 80486DX and 80586. It has an additional co-processor, which helps to
process complex mathematical problems.
• PS/2 : IBM's second generation of personal computer is called PS/2 (Personal System-2). This computer
released in early 1990. It uses refined architecture making the computer faster than AT computer. It uses
3.5" micro floppy disk with capacity of 1.44MB, VGA display and OS/2 operating system.
******************************************************************************
5. COMPUTER SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE:
A computer can process data, pictures, sound and graphics. They can solve highly
complicated problems quickly and accurately. A computer as shown in Fig. performs basically five
major computer operations or functions irrespective of their size and make. These are
 FUNDAMENTAL OF COMPTER IN HOTEL

5.1. Input devices:

It is an action of collecting raw data at the beginning of the computer base information system into a form
that is useable by the computer for processing. The raw data and program are entering into the computer
through input device. It reads the raw data prepared by the user and send them in to the computer as a series
of electronic pulse.
The input device established the communication link between user and the computer system.
Some functions of input devices are:
• Accepting data from the user
• Converting accepted into the machine understandable form.
• Sending converted data to the memory unit for further processing. Some of the input devices
(accessories) are :
1. Keyboard 2. Mouse 3. Light Pen
4. Joystick 5. Touch Screen 6. Scanner
7. Voice recognition Device 8. Digital Camera 9. Web Cam

5.2. Output devices:

Output is the action of getting information from the computer. Once the CPU has executed the program
instruction, may ask that information be communicated to on output device. The output device translates
the data process in the computer from machine code to human code. Some functions of output devices:
• Accepting processed data from the memory unit.
• Converting accepted data into the human understandable form.
• Producing converted data on the screen or by spoken or through printed format.
The output can have two forms:
Softcopy output device :Monitor, Speaker
Hardcopy output device :Printer, Plotter

5.3. Processing Unit: Processing Unit is more commonly known as Central Processing Unit (CPU) . It is the
computing part on any digital computer system; generally composed of the main memory, control unit and
arithmetic and logic unit. It is linked with various peripheral equipments, including input/output devices and
auxiliary storage units. The CPU is usually mounted on the main circuit board, called the motherboard in a
microcomputer. The CPU serves as a "brain" of the computer.
The functions of the processor are:
• To control the use of main storage to store data and instructions.
• To control the sequence of operations.
• To give commands to all parts of the computer system.
• To carry out-processing.
Main components of CPU:
1. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
2. Control Unit (CU)
3. Memory Unit
Arithmetic and Logic Unit:
The arithmetic and Logic unit can perform the arithmetic operations and integer (whole number) and real
number (decimal point) including addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. It can also perform simple
logical tests for equality, greater than and less than between two data items. There is one such register called
accumulator, which is used to store intermediate results obtained during any arithmetical computations.
 FUNDAMENTAL OF COMPTER IN HOTEL

• Performs logical operations on data

• Performs arithmetic operations on data
• Sends data to memory unit after process

Control Unit:
The control unit co-ordinate and control all the other parts of the computer. So that it is responsible for
execution of instructions. Under the direction of a program, the control unit manages and controls all hardware
operations, those of the peripheral, main memory and the processor itself. The control unit consists of several
registers like address register, instruction register, sequence register, decoder etc. Control unit acts as a
nervous system.

Memory Unit:
Memory unit is another main part of CPU that consists of various memory elements like registers, cache
memory to store the data for the processing and during the processing. It is sometimes called Primary memory
or internal memory which directly attached with the system board.

Registers: Registers are memory elements to the CPU for storing data and information temporarily. Registers
are electronic devices made from transistor flip-flops, which serve as temporary storage device in the CPU.
There are some registers used in the computers like Program Counter, Instruction Register(IR),Memory Access
Register(MAR), Memory Buffer Register(MBR) etc.

5.4 Storage Unit:

The process of saving data and instructions permanently is known as storage. Data has to be fed into the
system before the actual processing starts. It is because the processing speed of Central Processing Unit
(CPU) is so fast that the data has to be provided to CPU with the same speed. Therefore the data is first
stored in the storage unit for faster access and processing. This storage unit or the primary storage of the
computer system is designed to do the above functionality. It provides space for storing data and
instructions.
**************************************************************************************************************************************************
Memory Unit:
Storage Unit of computer also called Memory unit which is the main part of the computer which performs the
storage function in the computer system. It has two types: Primary memory and secondary memory.
Sometimes optional memory also counts as another type of memory.
Main Memory (Primary Memory):
Main Memory is the principal internal memory system of the computer. The primary memory is the working
space used by the computer to hold the program that is currently running, along with data it needs and to run
programs process data. Primary memory is a fast, expensive memory, which allows the computer to access
data very quickly. Primary memory is necessary for the computer because it stores all the data, files and
programs for the processing, during the processing and after the processing. There are two types of memory
which listed below:
• RAM (Random access Memory)
• ROM (Read Only Memory)

RAM: The RAM is the temporary memory in a computer. When electric power is failure then data will be lost in
computer. So it is also known as Volatile non-permanent memory. RAM is a high-speed memory that holds a
copy of the operating system currently running programs and other information being processed. There are
two types of RAM such as DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory), SRAM (Static Random Access Memory).
DRAM is a main primary storage device. It is very popular memory technology because of its high density and
low price. The SRAM has a low bit density, high power consumption and it is more expensive.

ROM: ROM is the permanent Memory of computer. The user cannot write ROM. In other words, a user can
only read information stored in it. The combination of hardware and programs written permanently in the
ROM chips is called firmware. So, It is not core (volatile) memory. When a computer switches on, a
sequence of operations is carried out automatically.
Advantages of ROM
 Non-volatile in nature
 These cannot be accidentally changed
 FUNDAMENTAL OF COMPTER IN HOTEL

 Cheaper than RAMs

 Easy to test
 More Reliable than RAMs
 These are static and do not require refreshing
 Its contents are always known and can be verified
ROM is mainly of three types:
• MROM (Masked ROM) :The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set
of data or instructions. These kinds of ROMs are known as masked ROMs. It is inexpensive ROM.
• PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
Programmable read only Memory is a memory that can be modified once by a user. Once the operations are
written into a PROM chip, they cannot be changed. Inside the PROM chip, there are small fuses, which are
burnt open during programming. The user buys a blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM
programmer. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.
• EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory):
Erasable Programmable read only Memory is a memory that can be erased and re-use. It is designed to
overcome the problem of PROM and ROM. All the storage cells must be erased to the same initial state.
Information stored in EPROM exposing the chip for some time ultraviolet light and it erases chip is
reprogrammed using a special programming facility.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
EEPROM is a user modifiable read only memory that can be erased and written to repeat with special
electrical pulse. It has a limit life number of times i.e. it can be written ten, hundreds or thousands of times or
reprogrammed about ten thousand times. The EEPROM is a kind of EPROM chip which doesn’t have to be
removed and sent back to the manufacturer to be reprogrammed.
• CACHE MEMORY:
The cache (pronounced as ‘cash’) memory is placed in between CPU and main memory. It is a semiconductor
memory. It consists of static RAM. It is a special and very high speed memory called a cache is used to increase
the speed of processing by making current program and data available to the CPU at a rapid rate. It stores
instruction codes and data, which are to be currently executed by the CPU. It acts as a buffer between the CPU
and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program which are most frequently used by CPU.
The parts of data and programs are transferred from disk to cache memory by operating system, from where
CPU can access them.

Advantages Disadvantages
Cache memory is faster than main memory. Cache memory has limited capacity.
It consumes less access time as compared to It is very expensive.
main memory.
It stores the program that can be executed
within a short period of time
It stores data for temporary use.

• VIRTUAL MEMORY:
Virtual memory is a technique that allows execution of processes that may not be entirely in memory. Virtual
memory is primary storage that does not actually exist. Virtual memory allows the computer to execute a
program even though only a part of program (which called pages) is in primary memory.
Virtual memory has two major advantages:
• CPU is utilized more fully. Pages of many different programs can reside in main storage at any time.
• Programmers no longer need to concern themselves about primary memory size constraints when writing
programs.

• FLASH MEMORY:
The flash memory is used in battery driven digital devices such as handheld computers, Cell phones, Digital
Cameras, MP3 Players etc. Due to low power consumption, it is electrically erasable and programmable
permanent type memory. It is Just unlike EEPROM. It has the features of the pulse programming. The entire
unit or the block is erased and reprogrammed as a whole at a time. It is suitable for storing firmware or codes.
Flash memory chip up to 1 GB has been also developed.

4.2 Secondary Memory

 FUNDAMENTAL OF COMPTER IN HOTEL

Secondary storage units are an internal part of a computer's peripheral equipment. It is a long-term storage for
data, instructions and programs. Modern removable storage media can be categorized into two types:
Magnetic, optical storage devices. Magnetic storage devices are Magnetic tape, Hard disk, Floppy disk etc.
• Magnetic Tape: Magnetic tape is 0.5 inch wide made of plastic ribbon coated on one side with an iron
oxide material. Magnetic tape is a cheaper means for storing large amounts of data but access to any
particular portion
is slow. A magnetic tape unit typically has a single read/write head, but many have separate heads for
reading and writing. A tape is suitable for storing large amount of data, such as backups of disks or scanned
image.
• Hard disk: Hard disk is storage medium within the computer that stores and provides relatively quick
access to large amount of data on an Electro-magnetically charges surface. A hard disk is made up of
aluminum material that is coated with iron oxide on both sides, which allows data to be magnetically
recorded.
• Floppy Disk: A floppy disk is coated of ferric oxide. The floppy disk allows you to install new programs,
increase hard drive space by saving information to the floppy and backup files on them. A floppy is media of
computer because we can transfer data from one computer to another. According to size and capacities
there are two types of floppy disks: Mini floppy disk and Micro floppy disk.

Optical storage disk:

• Compact Disk (CD)
The most popular among all optical storage devices is the compact disk read only memory (CDROM) type,
which are found in almost all computers. It is non-volatile optical data storage medium using the same
physical format as audio compact disk. CDROM is popular for distribution large databases, software and
especially multimedia applications. The standard 12-cm diameter CDROM store about 660MB.
• Read and Write Optical disk
The users many read and write data many times on Read/Write optical disks. Usually magneto-optical
method is used to read and write data on this type of disks. Therefore they are also called magneto-optical
disks. Magnetooptical disks can be erased and rewrite. It can store data about 650MB.
***********************************************************************************************************
HISTORY OF COMPUTER/Evolution
 According to the technology and concept used on devices we have three types of calculating devices:
 Early development mechanical Calculation devices
 Electro mechanical computers
 Electronic computers

Mechanical calculating devices:

Abacus
Napier’s bone
Slide rule
Pascaline
Leibnitz Step Rockoner
Charles Babbage : Difference Engine (1822),analytical engine
Lady Augusta Ada Lovelace
Herman Hollerith: Punched cards and IBM

Electro-Mechanical Computers:
 Mark-I
 ABC(Atanasoff-Berry computer)

Electronic Computers:

ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer)

EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)
EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator)
UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer)

Development of various calculation and computational devices:

 ABACUS:
 The first calculating device called ABACUS was developed by the Egyptian and Chinese people.
 FUNDAMENTAL OF COMPTER IN HOTEL

 The word ABACUS means calculating board.

 It consisted of sticks in horizontal positions on which were inserted sets of pebbles.

Napier’s bones:
 English mathematician John Napier built a mechanical device in 1617 AD.
 Napier is famous for creating mathematical logarithms, creating the decimal point, and for inventing
Napier's Bones, a calculating instrument.
 There are 9 different 'bones' or ‘strips’ with numbers.
 Napier's bones are good for multiplying a long number by a single digit number.

SLIDE RULE:
 English mathematician William Oughtred developed the slide rule in the 17th century based on the
emerging work on logarithms by John Napier.
 This machine could perform operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
 It is also for functions such as roots, logarithms and trigonometry.
 It was widely used in Europe in 16th century.
 The slide rule, also known colloquially (in the US) as a slipstick, is a mechanical analog computer.

 Pascal's Adding and Subdirectory Machine:

 Pascaline was a calculating machine developed in 1642 by French mathematician Blaise Pascal at the age
of 19.
 It could only add and subtract, but gained attention because 50 units were placed in prominent locations
throughout Europe.
 The machine consisted of wheels, gears and cylinders.
Similarly developed different calculating devices such as:
Stepped Reckoner in 1671 (G. W. V. Leibniz)
Difference Engine in 1833 (Charles Babbage)
Analytical Machine in 1843 (Charles Babbage)
The Mark I computer in 1937 (Howard Aiken)
Atanasoff Berry computer in 1937 (J.V. Atanasoff)
(ENIAC) (J.W. Mauchly &J.P. Eckert)
Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator: First general purpose computer. Introduced in 1943 and
based on decimal number system. Contains 18000 vacuum tubes.

**********************************************************************************************************
Generations of Computer:
Generation” in computer talk is a step in technology. It provides a framework for the growth of computer
industry.
Each generation of computer is characterized by the major technological development.
The custom of referring to the computer era in terms of generation came into wide use only after 1964.

First Generation Computers:(1942-1954):

 They used vacuum tubes as the electronics devices for their hardware implementation and magnetic
drums were used for primary storage medium and mercury delay lines for memory.
 Storage capacity was limited (e.g. 1 Kbytes to 4 Kbytes).
 Slow operating speeds (e.g. Milliseconds).
 Large in size.
 Non-portable.
 Representative systems: ENIAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC-I, UNIVAC-II, Princeton IAS, IBM 701, etc.

Second Generation Computers: (1955-1964):

Transistors were used instead of vacuum tubes.
Magnetic core memories were used for internal storage and magnetic disks and magnetic tapes used for
auxiliary memory.
Machine level language could be used in this generation.
Operating speed is faster (e.g. microseconds)
High speed, reduced size and more reliable in comparison to first generation computer.
They required less electricity and emitted less heat.
 FUNDAMENTAL OF COMPTER IN HOTEL

Representative systems: NCR 315, IBM 1401, IBM 7030, IBM 7050, CDC 1604, UNIVAC LARC, etc.

Third Generation Computer: (1965-1974)

 Integrated circuits (ICs) were used in place of transistors.
 Jack Kilby, an engineer,had developed the integrated circuit (IC) in 1958.
 They were much smaller than second generation computer. So, it requires smaller space.
 They had faster primary and auxiliary (secondary) memory as compared to second generation of
computers.
 They consumed much less power than second generation computers.
 The operating speed of computers was nanoseconds.
 They were used for both scientific and commercial applications.
 High level language was used widely.
 Representative systems: IBM 360/370, CDC 6400, TI- ASC, PDP-8, etc.

Fourth Generation Computer: (1975-1990):

 This generation of computers used Large Scale Integration (LSI) and Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI).
 The Intel Corporation developed the first microprocessor chip Intel 4004 (in 1971).
 The computers were smaller, cheaper, highly reliable and accurate.
 The operating speed was in Picoseconds.
 Micro-computer was introduced.
 Application software for micro-computer became more popular.
 Comparatively smaller in size and greater reliability.
 Representative systems: VAX 9900, CRAY X-MP, IBM 3090, IBM PC, Apple/Macintosh microcomputer, etc.

Fifth Generation Computer: (1991-Present):

The development of the fifth generation of computer system is characterized mainly by the acceptable of
parallel processing.
These machines will incorporate Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI).
These computers will use super conductor technology. The two future devices are Gallium Arsenide and
Biochips.
The cost of hardware and software will decrease.
These computers will have artificial intelligence.
Use high performance multiprocessor system.
Representative systems: Fujitsu VPP500, CRAY/MPP, TMC/CM-5, Intel Paragon, etc.
**********************************************************************************************************
Computer - Number System
 When we type some letters or words, the computer translates them in numbers as computers can
understand only numbers. A computer can understand the positional number system where there are
only a few symbols called digits and these symbols represent different values depending on the position
they occupy in the number.
 The value of each digit in a number can be determined using −
 The digit
 The position of the digit in the number
 The base of the number system (where the base is defined as the total number of digits available in the
number system)

 Decimal Number System

 The number system that we use in our day-to-day life is the decimal number system. Decimal number
system has base 10 as it uses 10 digits from 0 to 9. In decimal number system, the successive positions to
the left of the decimal point represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands, and so on.
 Each position represents a specific power of the base (10). For example, the decimal number 1234
consists of the digit 4 in the units position, 3 in the tens position, 2 in the hundreds position, and 1 in the
thousands position. Its value can be written as
 (1 x 1000)+ (2 x 100)+ (3 x 10)+ (4 x l)
 (1 x 103)+ (2 x 102)+ (3 x 101)+ (4 x l00)
 1000 + 200 + 30 + 4
 1234
 FUNDAMENTAL OF COMPTER IN HOTEL

Binary Number System

 Characteristics of the binary number system are as follows −
 Uses two digits, 0 and 1
 Also called as base 2 number system
 Each position in a binary number represents a 0 power of the base (2). Example 20
 Last position in a binary number represents a x power of the base (2). Example 2x where x represents the
last position - 1.
 Example
 Binary Number: 101012

 Octal Number System

 Characteristics of the octal number system are as follows −
 Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
 Also called as base 8 number system
 Each position in an octal number represents a 0 power of the base (8). Example 80
 Last position in an octal number represents a x power of the base (8). Example 8x where x represents the
last position - 1
 Example
 Octal Number: 125708

Hexadecimal Number System

Characteristics of hexadecimal number system are as follows −
Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F
Letters represent the numbers starting from 10. A = 10. B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14, F = 15
Also called as base 16 number system
Each position in a hexadecimal number represents a 0 power of the base (16). Example, 160
Last position in a hexadecimal number represents a x power of the base (16). Example
16x where x represents the last position - 1
Example
Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16
 FUNDAMENTAL OF COMPTER IN HOTEL

Differentiate between soft copy and hard copy?

SN. Softcopy Output devices Hardcopy Output Devices

1. Produced result through softcopy output devices is
temporary in nature.
2. Softcopy output devices produce result on the
monitor screen or spoken out by the speaker.
3. The output produced through softcopy output
devices is not printed on the paper.
4. The output produced through softcopy output
devices can be changed and modified easily.
5. Softcopy output material can also be saved into
electronic medium like hard disk, pen drive etc. for
future use.
6. Softcopy output can be produced through devices
are faster than hardcopy output.
7. Examples: Monitor, Speaker, Projector etc.
Produced result through hardcopy output devices is
Permanent in nature.
Hard copy output devices produce result as printed
material.
The output produced through hardcopy output
devices is printed on the paper.
The output produced through hardcopy output
devices can not be changed and modified.
Hardcopy output material can not be saved into
electronic medium.
Hard copy output can be produced through devices
are slower than softcopy output.
Examples: Printer, Plotter etc.

Differences between SRAM and DRAM:

SN SRAM DRAM

1. SRAM stands for Static RAM. it holds information DRAM stands for Dynamic RAM. It holds information
in a flip flop circuit consisting six transistors in stray capacitors. Less numbers of transistors
which is needed in each memory chip. requires per memory cell.
2. It is expensive. It is less expensive.
3. It s speed is high. Its speed is slower than SRAM.

4. It occupies large space. It occupies less space.

 FUNDAMENTAL OF COMPTER IN HOTEL

5. High power consumption Less power consumption

6. Refresh circuit is not required. Refresh circuit is required.
7. It has long data lifetime It has short data lifetime

Difference betwenn RAM and ROM

Sr. RAM ROM

1. RAM stands for Random Access Memory. ROM stands for Read only memory.

2. It is read and write memory. It is a read only memory.

3. It stores data temporarily. It stores data permanently.

4. The contents of RAM can be lost if electricity The contents of ROM cannot be lost if electricity
power is off so called volatile memory. power is off so called non-volatile memory.
5. The instructions of RAM can be written and The instructions of ROM can only be written by
modified by the user. manufacturer company.
6. It is expensive than ROM. It is cheaper than RAM.

UNIT:2 COMPUTER SOFTWARE

2.1 INTRODUCTION OF SOFTWARE:

Software is a collection of instructions that enable the user to interact with a computer, its hardware,
or perform tasks. Without software, most computers would be useless. For example, without your
Internet browser software, you could not surf the Internet or read this page. Without an operating
system, the browser could not run on your computer.

2.2 TYPE OF SOFTWARES:

Computer software is normally classified into two broad categories.
• System software
• Application Software
• Utility software

System Software:
 The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control and extend the processing
capabilities of the computer itself. System software are generally prepared by computer manufacturers.
 These softwares comprise of programs written in low level languages which interact with the hardware at a very
basic level. System software serves as the interface between hardware and the end users.
 FUNDAMENTAL OF COMPTER IN HOTEL

 Some examples of system software are Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter, Assemblers, etc.

• Operating system software: Windows 95/98/2000/XP/NT, UNIX, LUNIX, Netware, MS-DOS etc.
• Language processors: Compiler, Assembler, Interpreter, Loader, Linker etc.
• Utility Software: Disk formatting utility, Data compression utility, Data backup utility, Antivirus utility.

Application Software:
Application Software is a set of programs to carry out operations for a specific application. It helps the user work
faster, more efficiently and more productively. Application software may be written by a large software house which
distributes this product widely to address general class problems or may be written by an individual to address
particular problem. For example, payroll is application software for an organization to produce pay slips as an output.
Application software is useful for word processing, billing system, accounting, producing statistical report, analysis of
numerous data in research, weather forecasting, etc.
Types of Application Software:
• Tailored Software: Tailored software is software specially designed to meet the specific requirement of an
organization or individual. Tailored software is written on the demand of an individual need and serves only one
user or organization. For different purposes different tailored programs are written. Example: Result processing
of SLC, Payroll software, Sales Ledgers etc. Tailored Software are written in high level language such as BASIC,
PASCAL, FORTRAN, C, C++.
• Package Software: Package software is a generalized set of programs that allows the computer to perform
specific data processing job for the users. These programs are user friendly and designed to work on more than
one environment. Example: Word processing, Spreadsheet software, Database software, Graphics Software,
Entertainment software.
Utility software:
 Utility software is a collection of those programs that helps the programmer in performing some specific tasks to
reduce the overall programming effort of the programmer.
 It also provides a useful service to the user of the computer by providing facilities for performing common tasks
such as data transfer, search and merge of files, data and file recovery, diskette management, disk cleaner, disk
defragmenter, system restore, antivirus etc.

*********************************************************************************************
Operating system
Operating System is an organized collection of software program which manages overall operations of computer the
computer system. Operating system is a resource manager which allocates and manages various resources like
processor, main memory, input system, output system devices and information on secondary storage devices.
Operating system creates link between Hardware and Software and user of the computer. ISome system software or
operating systems are Window95/98/2000/XP/Vista, Novell Netware, UNIX, Linux etc.

Why is Operating system important?

• OS is important because it sets the environment between Computer Hardware, Computer Software and User.
• OS is important because it sets the working limits of the computer Hardware.
• OS is important because it controls the various application programs such as word processor, Spread Sheets
,Database Managers, Graphical packages etc.
• OS is important because it provides house-keeping and file management utilities that performs useful tasks
such as disk operations, file operations etc.

Classification of Operating System:

SN OS Type Examples
1. Single User Operating System :MS-DOS, Windows 98,Windows XP
2. Multi User Operating System :Windows NT,UNIX, Novell
Netware
3. Multiprocessing Operating System :Windows, UNIX, OS/2
4. Multitasking Operating System :Windows , Apple Mac OS

i) Multiuser OS:
 FUNDAMENTAL OF COMPTER IN HOTEL

In a multiuser OS, more than one user can use the same system at a same time through the multi I/O
terminal or through the network.
For example: windows, Linux, Mac, etc.
A multiuser OS uses timesharing to support multiple users.

ii) Multiprocessing OS:

A multiprocessing OS can support the execution of multiple processes at the same time. It uses
multiple number of CPU. It is expensive in cost however, the processing speed will be faster. It is
complex in its execution. Operating system like Unix, 64 bit edition of windows, server edition of
windows, etc. are multiprocessing.

iii) Multiprogramming OS:

In a multiprogramming OS more than one programs can be used at the same time. It may or may not be
multiprocessing. In a single CPU system , multiple program are executed one after another by dividing
the CPU into small time slice.
example: Windows, Mac, Linux,etc.

iv) Multitasking OS:

In a multitasking system more than one task can be performed at the same time but they are executed
one after another through a single CPU by time sharing. For example: Windows, Linux, Mac, Unix,etc.
Multitasking OS are of two types:
a) Pre-empetive multitasking
b) Co-operative multitasking
In the pre-empetive multitasking, the OS allows CPU times slice to each program. After each time
slice, CPU executes another task. Example: Windows XP
In co-operative multitasking a task can control CPU as long as it requires . However, it will free CPU
to execute another program if it doesn’t require CPU. Exaample: windows 3.x, multifinder,etc.

v) Multithreading:
A program in execution is known as process. A process can be further divided into multiple sub-
processers. These sub-processers are known as threads. A multi-threading OS can divide process into
threads and execute those threads. This increases operating speed but also increases the complexity.
For example: Unix, Server edition of Linux and windows.

vi) Batch Processing:

A batch processing is a group of processing system in which all the required input of all the processing
task is provided initially. The result of all the task is provided after the completion of all the processing.
Its main functions are:
Multiple task are processed
User cannot provide input in between the processing
It is appropriate only when all the inputs are known in advance
It requires large memory
CPU ideal time is less
Printer is the appropriate output device
It is old processing technique and rarely used at present

vii) Online Processing:

It is an individual processing system in which the task is processed on individual basis as soon as they
are provided by the user. It has features like:
Individual task is processed at a time
User can provide input in between processing
It is appropriate when all inputs ate not known in advance
It doesn’t require large memory
CPU ideal time is more
Monitor is appropriate output device
It is modern processing technique and mostly used in present
***********************************************************************************************
 FUNDAMENTAL OF COMPTER IN HOTEL

Main Functions of Operating System:

• Memory Management: Takes care of allocation and de-allocation of memory space to the programs in need of
the resources.
• File Management: Takes care of file related activities such as organization, storage, retrieval, naming, sharing
and protecting of files.
• I/O Management: Keeps track of I/O devices .There which device is in use and by which job that device is using.
The OS decides and allocates the devices to the job and de-allocates device after the completion of the job.
• Process Management: Takes care of creation and deletion of processes, scheduling of system resources to
different process requesting them and providing mechanism for communication between the processes.
• Security Management: Protects the resources and information of a computer against destructions and
unauthorized access.
************************************************************************************************
Some operating system software:
1. Microsoft Disk Operating System:
MS-DOS is a system software or operating system used to make control over the machine which was developed by
Microsoft, USA in 1981. It is a popular operating system for microcomputers. Especially it is designed for IBM PC and
other computers. MS-DOS performs the operations of input output management, memory management disk checking
and formatting, controls the flow of data from one part of the computer to other parts .It responsible for controlling
peripheral devices such as monitor, keyboard, printers, modems etc. It recognizes any input to the computer by input
device, processes and provides output through suitable output devices.

S Advantages Disadvantages
N
It is a Single Use and Single One User only can Work at a time.
tasking OS software.
It Supports Various Languages. One application can run at a time.

It manages easy filing environment. It does not support Graphics.

It supports Hard disk and Floppy disk also. It does not support Networking.

2. Windows Operating System:

“Windows is an operating system which is a Graphical User Interface based organized collection of software programs
that manages overall operations of the computer system.”
The main Features of Windows Operating System:
• Windows is easier to learn and use.
• Using Windows allows the user to work on a number of applications simultaneously.
• Windows has features of communication with other computers.
• Windows has many built in programs.
• Windows has very fast processing capacity.
• Windows helps to run the multiple applications at a time.
• Windows is Graphical User Interface based software. It’s every item is in graphical form.
• Windows contains Icons, desktop, system Icon tray, Taskbar, and other parts which makes easy to handle the
system.

Sr. GUI Operating System CUI Operating System

1. It based on Graphical user interface mode and
instructions are given using graphical
components like menu bar , tools bar etc.
2. It is graphical and user friendly and easy to
learn and operate.
It based on command user interface mode and
instructions are given using characters.
It is more textual and less user friendly and
difficult to operate and learn. The user should
memories the
 FUNDAMENTAL OF COMPTER IN HOTEL

3. It is very common and we can preview the It is less common and impossible to preview the
contents before print contents like GUI
4. It uses keyboard, mouse, and other advance It only uses keyboard and not compatible with
devices other devices.
5. It consists of different components such as text Use Commands to operate the system.
box ,icon, desktop, pointing devices etc.
6. It supports multi-user and multiprocessing It supports Single-user and Single processing
system and it executes multiple programs system and it executes multiple programs
simultaneously. simultaneously.
7. Example: Windows XP, Windows Vista, Example: Ms-DOS, PC DOS
Windows 8

***********************************************************************************************
Firmware:
In electronic systems and computing, firmware is a term often used to denote the fixed, usually rather small,
programs and/or data structures that internally control various electronic devices. Typical examples of devices
containing firmware range from end-user products such as remote controls or calculators, through computer parts
and devices like hard disks, keyboards, memory cards, all the way to scientific instrumentation and industrial robotics.
Also more complex consumer devices, such as mobile phones, digital cameras, synthesizers, etc., contain firmware to
enable the device's basic operation as well as implementing higher-level functions.
Firmware refers to a sequence of instructions such as software substituted for hardware. This type of software is
stored in a read only memory (ROM) chip of the computer, and is executed or used whenever computer has to
perform any operation which demanded or commanded by the user. The increased use of firmware has today made it
possible to produce to smart machines of all types. The programs stored in ROMs, PROMs, EPROMs or Flash Memory
is known as firmware.
***********************************************************************
2.3 CONCEPT OF PROGRMMING LANGUAGE:
2.3.1 PROGRAM:
A computer requires instructions to do any task on the data which provided by the user. The set of instructions given
to a computer to perform some tasks is known as program. The program defines the instructions that a computer is
to carry out. A program tells a computer what to do and how to process and execute data.
Difference between Program and software:
SN PROGRAM SOFTWARE
1. A program is what a computer runs. Software is a program or set of programs that
reside in main memory.
2. Program is a set of instructions written to Software is a set of programs.
solve any problems.
3. Program is written for ourselves. Software is developed for a third party.
4. Program consists of coding. It consists of not only coding but also it
includes program, documentation and
manuals.
5. Programs can be a file. Software typically consists of files.

2.3.2 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE:

A language is a system of communication. A computer language is also used for the communication with the
computer to perform any task. A computer programming language consists of all the symbols, characters, and usage
rules that permit people to communicate with computers.A programming language is a computer understandable set
of instructions that is used to write a program to perform any task to solve particular problem

Features of a good Programming Language:

1.Simplicity 2. Ease of Use 3. Ease of change 4. Well documented
5. Portable and platform independence 6. Written and executed efficiency 7. Maintainability
8. Reusability
 FUNDAMENTAL OF COMPTER IN HOTEL

2.3.3 TYPES OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES:

The Computer Programming Language can be broadly classified into two groups according to their usages.These types are
pointed below:
1. Low Level Languages (LLL)
2. High Level Languages (HLL)

LOW-LEVEL LANGUAGE:
Low Level Languages(LLL) are machine dependent and machine oriented language where each instruction
corresponds to a machine instruction. These machine instructions or codes are directly used by the
computer.There are two types of machine codes or instructions or languages:
1. Machine Languages
2. Assembly Languages

HIGH-LEVEL LANGUAGE:
A high-level programming language is human understandable English like programming language which is used to
write a program to solve any problem by using computer. It is easier to use, read, write, learn, understand and more
portable across platforms than Low Level Languages. These languages are basically symbolic languages that use
English keywords, characters and mathematical symbols. High Level Languages are machine independent this allows
a programmer to concentrate on the problem to be solved. High Level Language instructions must be converted into
its equivalent machine language codes before it can be executed on the computer. This translation is done with the
help of a translator program which called Compiler or Interpreter. Examples of High Level Languages are
BASIC,PASCAL, FORTRAN,C,C++,ADA, RPG, LISP etc.

2.3.4 LANGUAGE PROCESSORS:

There are three types of language processors or translators which pointed below:-
1. Assembler
2. Compiler
3. Interpreter
Assembler is a translator program or Language Processor that translates the written assembly language
instructions into machine codes or instructions. This is an assembly instruction that enables the compiler to
convert the assembly language of the program and process according to the requirement.

Assembly language also called a source program. The translator program is called assembler that translates the
source program into machine language or object program.
COMPILER:
A compiler is a translating program that translates the program written in a High Level Language (source program)
into its equivalent machine language program(Object program).The first compiler was written by Grace Hopper, in
1952, for the A-0 programming language. The FORTRAN team led by John Backus at IBM is generally credited as
having introduced the first complete compiler in 1957.The compiler translates whole program instructions at once.
A compiler can translate only those programs that have been written in the high level language for which the
compiler is meant. For example, FORTRAN compiler can only translate source programs written in FORTRAN.

INTERPRETER:
 FUNDAMENTAL OF COMPTER IN HOTEL

It is another type of translating program used for translating High Level Language instructions into its equivalent
machine code. It translates one statement of a program at a time. An Interpreter takes one statement of HLL to
convert into a machine language program and then immediately it executes the resulting machine language
instructions before taking the next statement for translation. No object program is generated by interpreter.
SN. COMPILER SN. INTERPRETER
1. Translates the entire program at a time. 1. Translates the program line by line or statement by
statement at a time.
2. Requires more main memory. 2. Requires less main memory.
3. Converts the entire program into machine 3. Each time the program is executed; every line/
code, when all the syntax error are removed, statement is checked for syntax error and then
and executes the object code directly. translated to equivalent machine code.
4. Slow for debugging and testing page. 4. Good for fast debugging and at testing stage.
5. Execution time is less. i.e. it is faster than 5. Execution time is more.
interpreter.
6. It saves the object file separately after the 6. It does not save the object file separately after the
conversion process. conversion process.
7. C Compiler, Java Compiler, C++ Compiler, 7. QBASIC Interpreter, Visual Basic Interpreter etc.
COBOL Compiler etc.

*********************************************************************************************
2.3.5 GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER LANGUAGES:
Development of the computer programming language also continued with the development of the computer
technology. The programming concept for the devices is conceptualized by the Lady Augusta Ada Lovelace (the
first programmer). The first level of programming was launched in 1940s. The generation of computer
programming is categorized according to the usage of the languages for the computing devices and their
feasibility, portability, complexity and simplicity. The generations of computer programming languages are
written below:

1. 1st Generation Language:

 Machine Level language can be understood directly by a computer’s central processing unit (CPU).
 Machine code consists of sequences of binary numbers, or bits.
 These are usually represented by 1s and 0s.
 Used to form the basic instructions that guide the operation of a computer.
 Examples: Machine code for the Motorola 68000 microprocessor, Intel Pentium microprocessor.
Advantages of MLL :
 Programs written in MLL execute faster.
 No Requirement of Language Processor.
 Machine directly understand the instructions.
 Instructions can be written in binary form as 0s &1s.
Disadvantages of MLL :
 Machine dependent.
 Difficult to code.
 Difficult to Modify.
 Detail knowledge of hardware is required.
 Requires high level of programming skill.
 Difficult to handle errors.

2. 2nd Generation Language:

 It is developed to overcome problems of Machine level language.
 FUNDAMENTAL OF COMPTER IN HOTEL

 American mathematician Grace Murray Hopper developed assembly language in 1952.

 Assembly Language instructions are mnemonic codes used for computers, microprocessors,
microcontrollers and others integrated circuits.
 It implements a symbolic representations of the binary machine codes and other constants needed to
program a given by the CPU architecture.
 In Assembly Language each statement corresponds directly to a single machine instruction.
 Programs written in assembly language usually run faster than those generated.
Advantages of AL:
 Easier to understand and use.
 Easier to handle the errors.
 Easier to Modify.
 No worry about the storage addresses.
Disadvantages of AL:
 Machine dependent.
 Detail knowledge of hardware is required.
 Requires to translate the program.
 It takes time to code the instructions.
 Takes more time to execute than MLL.
1. 3rd Generation Language:
A third-generation programming language (3GL) is a refinement of a second-generation programming
language.
Third Generation languages are High Level languages that are human oriented.
Third generational languages are procedural programming languages that uses procedures to operate on
data structures.
The term “Procedure “ means a series of actions conducted in a certain order or manner.
Procedural language fallows top Down approach , that means flow starts from main and goes through
functions /Function calls.
Procedural programming can sometimes be used as a synonym for imperative programming (specifying
the steps the program must take to reach the desired state).
Examples: BSAIC, QBASIC, QWBASIC, FORTRAN, PASCAL, COBOL, C, C+ etc.
Features of Third Generation(3GL) Languages:
 Invented for use by professional programmers.
 Languages are file oriented.
 Languages are Procedure oriented languages.
 Programming Languages are machine independent.
 Require less time to write.
 Easy to understand/ learn.
Disadvantages:
 Takes more time to execute the program.
 Program takes more memory.
 Programmer should have depth knowledge of the programming language.

4. 4th Generation Language:

 Fourth Generation Languages are advanced high level languages.
 4GLs are Database Query Languages.
 4GLs are Problem-Oriented Languages or Object Oriented Programs (OOPs).
 These languages do not consist detailed description and procedure.
 These languages are easier to write, modify and debug.
 4GLs are also required translator programs (Compiler /Interpreter) to convert them into equivalent
machine codes.
 Languages developed for the online users also.
Features of 4TH Generation Languages:
 Interactive Coding
 Increased productivity
 Increased Memory requirements
 Limited training required
 Faster to program
 Non-procedural language etc.
 FUNDAMENTAL OF COMPTER IN HOTEL

5. 5th Generation Language:

 Natural Programming languages also available for the special programming purpose.
 Natural Programming Language specially used in the Artificial Intelligence and Expert systems
(Robotic system.)
 Natural Programming Languages are still in development.
 In the 1990s information scientists developed an AI computer program that allows non-experts to use
their own natural language to retrieve information from databases.
 Natural programming languages are using for programming the devices now a days.

Features:

 Natural Programming languages also available for the special programming purpose like: LISP ,
PROLOG.
 Natural language specially used in the Artificial Intelligence and Expert systems (Robotic system.).
 Natural languages are still in development.

*******************************************************************************************************************
2.3.6 PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT:
To complete any programming task we have to complete the step-by-step process. The Program development
is the step-by step process of designing and developing a program by using available resources, tools and
techniques. Therefore, Program development cycle can be divided into several stages. The program
development cycle (PDLF) consists of the following steps:-
1. Problem Identification
2. Requirement Analysis
3. Designing the Solution
4. Program Coding
5. Debugging and Testing
6. Implementation and Documentation
*************************************************************************************************************