Quantum Mechanics

Control of quantum
two-level systems
10.3 Control of quantum two-level systems
….. General concept
How to control a qubit?

R. Gross , A. Marx & F. Deppe, © Walther-Meißner-Institut (2001 - 2013)
Does the answer depend on specific realization?  No, only its implementation
Qubit is pseudo spin

 General concept exists
 Independent of qubit realization
 Methods from nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
Nuclear magnetic resonance

 Method to explore the magnetism of nuclear spins
 Important application  Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in medicine
 MRI exploits the different nuclear magnetic signatures of different tissues
AS-Chap. 10 - 2
….. General concept
Brief MRI history

early suggestions  H. Carr (1950) and V. Ivanov (1960)
1972  MRI imaging machine proposed by R. Damadian (SUNY)
1973  1st MRI image by P. Lauterbur (Urbana-Champaign)
Late 1970ies  Fast scanning technique proposed by P. Mansfield

(Nottingham)
2003 Nobel Prize in Medicine  for P. Lauterbur and P. Mansfield
AS-Chap. 10 - 3
….. NMR techniques
Overview: Important NMR techniques

Basic idea  Rotate spins by static or oscillating magnetic fields
Static fields parallel to quantization axis

 free precession
 changes 𝜑 on Bloch sphere
Oscillating fields perpendicular to quantization axis
 change population
 changes 𝜃 on Bloch sphere
Important protocols
 Rabi  population oscillations
 Relaxation measurement  𝑇1
 Ramsey fringes  𝑇2⋆
 Spin echo (Hanh echo)  𝑇2⋆ corrected for reversible dephasing
AS-Chap. 10 - 4
10.3. Control of quantum two-level systems
….. Quantum two-level system
Hamiltonian of a quantum two-level system (TLS)

1 𝐻11 𝐻12
Arbitrary TLS  𝐻= is Hermitian matrix
2 𝐻21 𝐻22
⋆
 𝐻11 , 𝐻22 ∈ ℝ and 𝐻21 = 𝐻12
 we choose 𝐻11 > 𝐻22
𝐻11 +𝐻22
Symmetrize  Subtract global energy offset 4
× 1
𝐻 =2
1 𝜖 Δ − 𝑖Δ = 𝜖 𝜎 + Δ 𝜎 + Δ 𝜎
Δ + 𝑖Δ −𝜖 2 𝑧 2 𝑦 2 𝑥
𝐻11 − 𝐻22
𝜖≡ >0 Δ, Δ ∈ ℝ
2
Natural or physical basis 𝜑+ , |𝜑− 〉

1 𝜖 0 𝜖
 𝐻0 = 2 = 2 𝜎𝑧
0 −𝜖
𝜖
 𝐻 𝜑± = ±
2
AS-Chap. 10 - 5
𝐻=2
1 𝜖 Δ − 𝑖Δ
Diagonalization of 𝑯 Δ + 𝑖Δ −𝜖
𝜖 − 2𝐸± Δ − 𝑖Δ
Eigenvalues  det =0 transition
Δ + 𝑖Δ −𝜖 − 2𝐸±
energy
 𝜖 − 2𝐸± −𝜖 − 2𝐸± − Δ − 𝑖Δ Δ + 𝑖Δ = 0 conveniently
1 1 expressed in
 𝐸± = ± 2 𝜖 2 + Δ2 + Δ2 ≡ ± 2 ℏ𝜔q frequency
units
Eigenvectors  |Ψ+ 〉 = +𝑒 −𝑖𝜑 2 cos 𝜃 𝜑+ + 𝑒 +𝑖𝜑 2 sin 𝜃 |𝜑 〉
2 2 −
𝜃 𝜃
 |Ψ− 〉 = −𝑒 −𝑖𝜑 2 sin 2 𝜑+ + 𝑒 +𝑖𝜑 2 cos 2 |𝜑− 〉
 𝐻 Ψ± = E± |Ψ± 〉
Δ2 +Δ2
tan 𝜃 ≡ with 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋
𝜖
Δ
tan 𝜑 ≡ with 0 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 2𝜋
Δ
C. Cohen-Tannoudji, B. Diu, and F. Laloë, Quantum Mechanics Volume One, Wiley-VCH
Basis Ψ+ , |Ψ− 〉  energy eigenbasis (because 𝐻 has energy units)

AS-Chap. 10 - 6
Visualization on Bloch sphere

2 cos 𝜃 2 sin 𝜃 |𝜑 〉
𝒛 |𝛹+ 〉 = +𝑒 −𝑖𝜑 2
𝜑+ + 𝑒 𝑖𝜑 2 −
|𝝋+ 〉
|𝛹− 〉 = −𝑒 −𝑖𝜑 2 sin 𝜃 𝜑+ + 𝑒 𝑖𝜑 2 cos 𝜃 |𝜑 〉
2 2 −
|𝜳+ 〉 Δ2 +Δ2
tan 𝜃 ≡ with 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋
𝜽 𝜖
Δ
tan 𝜑 ≡ with 0 ≤ 𝜑 ≤ 2𝜋
Δ
𝝋 𝒚
Basis rotation on Bloch sphere!
|𝜳− 〉
𝒙 Vectors |𝛹− 〉 and |𝛹+ 〉 define new quantization axis

|𝝋− 〉 𝐻 =
𝜖2 +Δ2 +Δ2
𝜎𝑧 in basis 𝛹− , |𝛹+ 〉
2
 |𝛹− 〉 and |𝛹+ 〉 become new poles
AS-Chap. 10 - 7
….. Qubit Control: Fictitious spin ½
Analogy to spin ½ in static magnetic field

Fictitious spin ½ in fictitious magnetic field 𝑩

𝛾ℏ 𝐵𝑧 𝐵𝑥 − 𝑖𝐵𝑦
 𝐻↑ = −𝛾ℏ 𝑩 ⋅ 𝑺 = − 2
𝐵𝑥 + 𝑖𝐵𝑦 −𝐵𝑧
 𝛾 is the gyromagnetic ratio
𝑇
 𝐵 = 𝐵𝑥 , 𝐵𝑦 , 𝐵𝑧 is the magnetic field vector Any quantum
TLS has a “built-
Fictitous spin in fictitious 𝑩-field  quantum TLS in” static
↑  𝜑+ magnetic field
↓  𝜑− ↓
NMR situation!
↑𝒖  Ψ+
↓𝒖  Ψ−
(𝒖 denotes the quantization axis along which 𝐻↑ is diagonal)
ℏ𝛾 𝑩  E+ − E− = ℏ𝜔𝑞
Polar angles of 𝑩  𝜃, 𝜑
−𝛾ℏ𝐵𝑧  𝜖 Orientation with respect
to the quantization axis
−𝛾ℏ𝐵𝑥  Δ
depends on 𝜖, Δ, Δ
−𝛾ℏ𝐵𝑦  Δ
AS-Chap. 10 - 8
….. Qubit Control: Free precession
𝜃 𝑖𝜑
𝜃
Free precession 𝛹 = cos e +𝑒 sin g
2 2
In the energy eigenbasis g , |e〉 , the qubit state vector |𝛹0 〉 is

 parallel to built-in field for 𝛹0 = |g〉
 antiparallel to the built-in field for 𝛹0 = |e〉
 Built-in field points along 𝑧-axis on Bloch sphere
𝒛
|𝐞〉
When qubit state vector |𝛹0 〉 is not 𝝋(𝒕)

parallel or antiparallel to built-in field
|𝜳𝟎 〉
 free evolution corresponds to free 𝜽𝟎
precession about the 𝒛-axis |𝜳(𝒕)〉
 Also called Larmor precession 𝝋𝟎 𝒚
 In absence of decoherence, only

𝝋 𝒕 evolves linearly with time 𝑡
𝒙
|𝐠〉
AS-Chap. 10 - 9
….. Qubit Control: Free precession
𝜃 𝑖𝜑
𝜃
Larmor precession – formal calcualtion 𝛹 = cos e +𝑒 sin g
2 2
ℏ𝜔𝑞
Energy eigenbasis  𝐻 = 2
𝜎𝑧  fictitious field aligned along quantization axis
Time-independent problem  Develop into stationary states 𝒛

|𝐞〉
𝛹 𝑡 = e 𝛹0 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔q 𝑡/2 |e〉 + g 𝛹0 𝑒 𝑖𝜔q 𝑡/2 |g〉
𝝋(𝒕)
|𝜳𝟎 〉
𝜃0 𝜃0
𝛹0 = cos e + 𝑒 𝑖𝜑0 sin g 𝜽𝟎
2 2 |𝜳(𝒕)〉
𝜃0 𝜃0 𝝋𝟎 𝒚
𝛹 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔q 𝑡/2 cos|e〉 + 𝑒 𝑖𝜑0 𝑒 𝑖𝜔q 𝑡/2 sin |g〉
2 2
𝜃0 𝑖(𝜑0 +𝜔q 𝑡)
𝜃0
= cos |e〉 + 𝑒 sin |g〉
2 2
𝒙
𝝋(𝒕) |𝐠〉
AS-Chap. 10 - 10
….. Qubit Control: Rabi Oscillations
𝛾ℏ 𝐵𝑧 𝐵𝑥 − 𝑖𝐵𝑦
𝐻↑ = −
Rotating drive field 2 𝐵𝑥 + 𝑖𝐵𝑦 −𝐵𝑧
Consider the qubit state vector |𝛹〉 expressed in energy eigenbasis g , |e〉
Apply a drive field with amplitude ℏ𝜔d rotating about the 𝒛-axis at frequency 𝜔
𝑩𝒛 = ℏ𝝎𝐪 ℏ 𝜔q 𝜔d 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝒛  𝐻 𝑡 = 2 𝜔d 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 −𝜔q
𝝎𝒕 𝑩𝒙 𝑩𝒚
0 𝜔d 0
𝜋 4 𝜔d 2 𝜔d 2
𝜋 2 0 𝜔d
3𝜋 4 −𝜔d 2 𝜔d 2
𝒚
𝜋 −𝜔d 0
5𝜋 4 −𝜔d 2 −𝜔d 2
3𝜋 2 0 −𝜔d
𝒙 7𝜋 4 𝜔d 2 −𝜔d 2
AS-Chap. 10 - 11
Driven quantum TLS

ℏ 𝜔q 𝜔d 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 ℏ𝜔q ℏ𝜔d

𝐻 𝑡 = = 𝜎𝑧 + 𝜎+ 𝑒 +𝑖𝜔𝑡 + 𝜎− 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡
2 𝜔d 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 −𝜔q 2 2
≡ 𝐻0 ≡ 𝐻d
Operators 𝜎− ≡ e g and 𝜎+ ≡ e g create or annihilate an excitation in the TLS
 Here, our physics convention is not very intuitive, but consistent!
0 0 0 1
Matrix representation  𝜎+ = and 𝜎− =
1 0 0 0
Drive rotating about arbitrary equatorial axis on the Bloch sphere

ℏ𝜔d
 𝐻d = 𝜎+ 𝑒 +𝑖 𝜔𝑡+𝜑
+ 𝜎− 𝑒 −𝑖 𝜔𝑡+𝜑
2
 without loss of generality we choose 𝜑 = 0
AS-Chap. 10 - 12
ℏ 𝜔q 𝜔d 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝐻 𝑡 =
Time evolution of driven quantum TLS 2 𝜔d 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 −𝜔q
Qubit state 𝛹 𝑡 = 𝑎e 𝑡 e + 𝑎g 𝑡 g d
obeys Schrödinger equation 𝑖ℏ 𝛹 𝑡 =𝐻𝛹 𝑡
d𝑡
d 𝜔q 𝜔d −𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝑖 𝑎e 𝑡 = 𝑎e (𝑡) + 𝑒 𝑎g (𝑡)
d𝑡 2 2
d 𝜔d 𝑖𝜔𝑡 𝜔q
𝑖 𝑎g 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑎e (𝑡) − 𝑎 (𝑡)
d𝑡 2 2 g
Time-dependent  Difficult to solve  Move to rotating frame!
𝑏e 𝑡 ≡ 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 2 𝑎e 𝑡
𝑏g 𝑡 ≡ 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 2 𝑎g 𝑡
 Schrödinger equation looses explicit time dependence

d 𝜔q − 𝜔 𝜔d
𝑖 𝑏e 𝑡 = 𝑏e (𝑡) + 𝑏 (𝑡)
d𝑡 2 2 g
d 𝜔d 𝜔q − 𝜔
𝑖 𝑏g 𝑡 = 𝑏 (𝑡) − 𝑏g (𝑡)
d𝑡 2 e 2
AS-Chap. 10 - 13
ℏ 𝜔q 𝜔d 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝐻 𝑡 =
Interpretation of the rotating frame 2 𝜔d 𝑒 𝑖𝜔𝑡 −𝜔q
d 𝜔q − 𝜔 𝜔d
𝑖 𝑏e 𝑡 = 𝑏e (𝑡) + 𝑏 (𝑡)
d𝑡 2 2 g
d 𝜔d 𝜔q − 𝜔
𝑖 𝑏g 𝑡 = 𝑏 (𝑡) − 𝑏g (𝑡)
d𝑡 2 e 2
The frame rotates at the angular speed 𝝎 of the drive

 Driving field appears at rest
 Drive can be in resonance with Larmor precession frequency 𝜔q
 Away from resonance |𝜔 − 𝜔q | ≫ 0
 red terms dominate  no 𝐠 ↔ |𝐞〉 transitions induced by drive
 Near resonance 𝜔 ≈ 𝜔q
 blue terms dominate  𝐠 ↔ |𝐞〉 transitions induced by drive
Formal treatment  Effective Hamiltonian 𝐻 describing the same dynamics as 𝐻 (𝑡)

ℏ −Δ𝜔 𝜔d d
H= 𝑖ℏ 𝛹 𝑡 =𝐻𝛹 𝑡
2 𝜔d Δ𝜔 d𝑡
with Δ𝜔 ≡ 𝜔 − 𝜔q 𝛹 𝑡 ≡ 𝑏e 𝑡 e + 𝑏g 𝑡 g
AS-Chap. 10 - 14
𝜃 𝜃
Dynamics of the effective Hamiltonian |Ψ+ 〉 = +𝑒 −𝑖𝜑 2
cos 𝜑+ + 𝑒 +𝑖𝜑 2
sin |𝜑− 〉
2 2
𝜃 𝜃
ℏ −Δ𝜔 𝜔d |Ψ− 〉 = −𝑒 −𝑖𝜑 2 sin 𝜑+ + 𝑒 +𝑖𝜑 2 cos |𝜑− 〉
2 2
H=
2 𝜔d Δ𝜔
Δ𝜔 ≡ 𝜔 − 𝜔q
−ℏ Δ𝜔 2 + 𝜔d2
 Diagonalize  H= 𝜎𝑧
2
𝜔 𝜃 𝜃
tan 𝜃 = − Δ𝜔d |𝛹+ 〉 = + cos 2 e + sin 2 |g〉
 New eigenstates  𝜃 𝜃
tan 𝜑 = 0 |𝛹− 〉 = − sin 2 e + cos 2 |g〉
Expand into stationary states

𝑖𝑡 2 𝑖𝑡 2
+ 2 Δ𝜔2 +𝜔d − 2 Δ𝜔2 +𝜔d
𝛹 𝑡 = 𝛹− 𝛹0 𝑒 𝛹− + 𝛹+ 𝛹0 𝑒 𝛹+
Initial state 𝜳𝟎 = 𝐠 (energy ground state)

𝜃 +𝑖𝑡 2
Δ𝜔2 +𝜔d 𝜃 −𝑖𝑡 2
Δ𝜔2 +𝜔d
𝛹 𝑡 = cos 𝑒 2 𝛹− + sin 𝑒 2 𝛹+
2 2
AS-Chap. 10 - 15
𝜃 +𝑖𝑡2 2
Δ𝜔2 +𝜔d 𝜃 −𝑖𝑡2 2
Δ𝜔2 +𝜔d
Probability 𝑷𝐞 to find TLS in |𝐞〉 𝛹 𝑡 = cos 𝑒
2
𝛹− + sin 𝑒
2
𝛹+
𝜃 𝜃
|𝛹+ 〉 = + cos e + sin |g〉
2 2
2 2
𝑃e ≡ e 𝛹 𝑡 = e𝛹 𝑡 = |𝛹− 〉 = − sin
𝜃
e +
𝜃
cos |g〉
2 2
2
𝜃 𝜃 𝑖𝑡 2 𝑖𝑡 2 Δ𝜔 ≡ 𝜔 − 𝜔q
− 2 Δ𝜔2 +𝜔d + 2 Δ𝜔2 +𝜔d
= sin cos 𝑒 − 𝑒
2 2 𝜔d
tan 𝜃 = −
Δ𝜔
2
𝑡 Δ𝜔 2 + 𝜔d2
= sin 𝜃 sin
2
Driven Rabi oscillations

𝜔d2 𝑡 Δ𝜔 2 + 𝜔d2
TLS population oscillates
𝑃e = sin2
Δ𝜔 2 + 𝜔d2 2 under transversal drive
AS-Chap. 10 - 16
𝜃 +𝑖𝑡2 2
Δ𝜔2 +𝜔d 𝜃 −𝑖𝑡2 2
Δ𝜔2 +𝜔d
Rabi Oscillations on the Bloch sphere 𝛹 𝑡 = cos 𝑒 𝛹− + sin 𝑒 𝛹+
2 2
On resonance 𝝎 = 𝝎𝐪 Δ𝜔 ≡ 𝜔 − 𝜔q
 Rotating frame cancels Larmor precession tan 𝜃 = −
𝜔d
Δ𝜔
 State vector 𝛹 𝑡 has no 𝜑-evolution
𝜔 𝑡 𝜔 𝑡
𝒛
 𝛹 𝑡 = cos 2d g + 𝑖 sin 2d e
 Rotation about 𝑥-axis
|𝜳(𝒕)〉
Finite detuning 𝚫𝝎 > 𝟎
 Additional precession at 𝛥𝜔
 Population oscillates faster
 Reduced oscillation amplitude
𝝎𝐝 𝒕
𝒚
𝜔d2 𝑡 Δ𝜔 2 + 𝜔d2
𝑃e = sin2
Δ𝜔 2 + 𝜔d2 2 𝒙
𝜳𝟎 = |𝐠〉
AS-Chap. 10 - 17
Rabi Oscillations – Graphical representation 𝜔d2 𝑡 Δ𝜔 2 + 𝜔d2

2
𝑃e = 2 sin
𝑷𝐞 2
Δ𝜔 + 𝜔d 2
On resonance 𝝎 = 𝝎𝐪
𝑷𝐞 𝒕
𝟏
Detuning 𝚫𝝎 = 𝟑𝝎𝐝
𝟎. 𝟏
𝒕
First experimental demonstration with superconducting qubit

Y. Nakamura et al., Nature 398, 786 (1999)
AS-Chap. 10 - 18
Oscillating vs. rotating drive – Microwave pulses 𝜔d2 𝑡 Δ𝜔 2 + 𝜔d2

2
2𝜋/𝜔 𝑃e = 2 sin
2
Δ𝜔 + 𝜔d 2
2𝜔d
Oscillating drive 2ℏ𝜔d cos 𝜔𝑡 = ℏ𝜔d 𝑒 +i𝜔𝑡 + 𝑒 −i𝜔𝑡

 in frame rotating with +𝜔 the 𝑒 −i𝜔𝑡 -component rotates fast with −2𝜔
 For 𝜔d ≪ 𝜔 this fast contribtion averages out on the timescale
of the slowly rotating component  Rotating wave approximation
𝑷𝐞
On resonance (𝝎 = 𝝎𝐪 )
𝟏
𝒕
AS-Chap. 10 - 19
Important drive pulses on the Bloch sphere 2𝜋/𝜔

2ℏ𝜔d
𝒛 𝒛
𝐞
Δ𝑡
𝒆 −𝒊 𝒈 𝒆 +𝒊 𝒈
𝟐 𝟐
𝒚 𝒚
𝒙 𝒙
𝐠 |𝐠〉
𝝅-pulse (𝜔d Δ𝑡 = 𝜋) 𝝅/𝟐-pulse (𝜔d Δ𝑡 = 𝜋/2)
g ↔ |e〉 flips, refocus phase evolution Rotates into equatorial plane and back
AS-Chap. 10 - 20
Rabi Oscillations in presence of decoherence 𝜔d2 𝑡 Δ𝜔 2 + 𝜔d2

2
𝑃e = 2 sin
2
Δ𝜔 + 𝜔d 2
Effect of decoherence (qualitative approach)

 Loss of coherent properties to environment at a constant rate Γdec = 2𝜋/𝑇dec
 “Change of coherence” (time derivative) proportional to “amount of coherence”
𝚪 𝒕 𝒕
− 𝐝𝐞𝐜 −
 Exponential decay of coherent property with factor 𝒆 𝟐𝝅 = 𝒆 𝑻𝐝𝐞𝐜
 Argument holds well for population decay (energy relaxation, 𝑇1 )

 Loss of phase coherence more diverse depending on environment
(exponential, Gaussian, or power law) Decay
 Experimental timescales range from few ns to 100 μs envelope
𝑷𝐞 𝚫𝝎 =0
𝟏
𝟎. 𝟓 𝟏 + 𝒆−𝟏
𝟎. 𝟓
𝒕
𝑻𝐝𝐞𝐜
AS-Chap. 10 - 21
Rabi decay time 𝜔d2 𝑡 Δ𝜔 2 + 𝜔d2

2
𝑃e = 2 sin
2
Δ𝜔 + 𝜔d 2
Complicated interplay between 𝑇1 , 𝑇2∗ , and the drive

 At long times, small oscillations persist
 Nevertheless useful order-of-magnitude check for 𝑇dec
 Important tool for single-qubit gates
 To determine 𝑇1 , 𝑇2∗ , 𝑇2 correctly, more sophisticated protocols are required

 energy relaxation measurements, Ramsey fringes, spin echo
𝑷𝐞 𝚫𝝎 =0
𝟏
𝟎. 𝟓 𝟏 + 𝒆−𝟏
𝟎. 𝟓
𝒕
𝑻𝐝𝐞𝐜
AS-Chap. 10 - 22
Energy relaxation on the Bloch sphere

Environment induces energy loss
𝒛  State vector collapses to g

 Implies also loss of phase information
 Intrinsically irreversible
2𝜋
 𝑇1 -time  rate Γ1 = 𝑇
1
𝜳 𝜽, 𝝋
Golden Rule argument
𝜽
 Γ1 ∝ 𝑆 𝜔q
 𝑆 𝜔 is noise spectral density
𝝋 𝒚  High frequency noise
 Intuition: Noise induces transitions
Quantum jumps
 Single-shot, quantum nondemotiton
𝒙 measurement yields a discrete jump to g
|𝐠〉 at a random time
 Probability is equal for each point of time
𝑡
−𝑇
 Exponential decay with 𝑒 1
AS-Chap. 10 - 23
Dephasing on the Bloch sphere Environment induces random phase changes

2𝜋
 Γ2 ∝ 𝑆 𝜔 → 0 , 𝑇2 = Γ
𝒛  Low-frequency noise is detuned

 No energy transfer
|𝐞〉 1
|𝜳(𝒕)〉  1/𝑓-noise  𝑆 𝜔 ∝ 𝜔
 Example: Two-level fluctuator bath
𝜳 𝜽𝟎 , 𝝋𝟎  To some extent reversible
𝑡 𝑡 2
𝜽𝟎 −𝑇 − 𝑇 𝑡 𝛽
 Decay laws 𝑒 2, 𝑒 2 ,
𝑇2
Visualization
𝝋𝟎 𝒚  Phase 𝜑 becomes 𝒚
more and more
unknown with time
 Classical probility, no
𝒙 superposition!
𝒙
|𝐠〉  Phase coherence lost
when arrows are
distributed over whole
equatorial plane
AS-Chap. 10 - 24
….. Qubit Control: Energy Relaxation
Qubit dynamics – Relaxation

𝝅
Init Measurement
𝚫𝒕
0 0 0 0 0
x x x x x
y y y y y
1 1 1 1 1
Rotating frame & no detuning (Δ𝜔 = 𝜔 − 𝜔q = 0) → no 𝑥𝑦-evolution
𝑷𝐞
𝟏
𝒆−𝟏
𝑻𝟏 𝚫𝒕
AS-Chap. 10 - 25
….. Qubit Control: Ramsey fringes
Qubit dynamics – Ramsey fringes (𝑻⋆𝟐 )
free evolution time

𝝅/𝟐 𝝅/𝟐
Init Measurement
𝚫𝒕𝒙𝒚
0 0 0
x x x x x
y y y 1
1 1 y y
𝚫𝝎 > 𝟎 𝑷𝐞 Beating
𝚫𝝎 = 𝟎 𝟏 Δ𝑇 = 2𝜋/Δ𝜔 𝑻⋆𝟐 −𝟏 = 𝟐𝑻𝟏 −𝟏 + 𝑻−𝟏 𝟐
Energy decay always present!
𝟎. 𝟓 𝟏 + 𝒆−𝟏
𝟎. 𝟓
𝚫𝒕𝒙𝒚
𝑻⋆𝟐 AS-Chap. 10 - 26
….. Qubit Control: Spin echo
Qubit dynamics – Spin echo (𝑻⋆𝟐𝑬 )

free evolution Refocussing
time time
𝝅/𝟐 𝝅 𝝅/𝟐
Init 𝚫𝒕𝒙𝒚 /𝟐 𝚫𝒕𝒙𝒚 /𝟐
Measurement
0 0
x x x
x
y y y y
1 x x
y y
1 1
Refocussing pulse reverses low-frequency
𝑷𝐞 phase dynamics  𝑻⋆𝟐𝑬 > 𝑻⋆𝟐
𝚫𝝎 = 𝟎
𝟎. 𝟓
𝟎. 𝟓 𝟏 − 𝒆−𝟏
𝚫𝒕𝒙𝒚
𝑻⋆𝟐𝑬 AS-Chap. 10 - 27
….. Qubit Control: Ramsey vs. Spin echo sequence
Ramsey vs. spin echo sequence

Spin echo cancels the effect of low-frequency noise in the environment
 Pulse sequences act as filters!

 Environment described by noise spectral density 𝑆(𝜔)
+∞ 𝜔𝑡
−𝑡 2 −∞ S 𝜔 𝐹R,E 2 𝑑𝜔 1
Decay envelope ∝ 𝑒 Ramsey filter FR
spin echo filter FE
𝜔𝑡 0.8
sin2
𝑭𝐑 𝜔𝑡 = 2
𝜔𝑡 2
F(ωt/2)
0.6
2
𝜔𝑡
sin4 4 0.4
𝑭𝐄 𝜔𝑡 =
𝜔𝑡 2 0.2
4
Sequence length 𝑡 is important! 0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Spin echo sequence ωt/2

 Filters low-frequency noise for 𝜔𝑡 → 0
 𝜔𝑡 ≈ 2  Noise field fluctuates synchronously with 𝜋-pulse  No effect
AS-Chap. 10 - 28

Quantum Mechanics

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Quantum Mechanics

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Control of quantum

How to control a qubit?

Qubit is pseudo spin

Nuclear magnetic resonance

Brief MRI history

early suggestions  H. Carr (1950) and V. Ivanov (1960)

1972  MRI imaging machine proposed by R. Damadian (SUNY)

1973  1st MRI image by P. Lauterbur (Urbana-Champaign)

Late 1970ies  Fast scanning technique proposed by P. Mansfield

2003 Nobel Prize in Medicine  for P. Lauterbur and P. Mansfield

Overview: Important NMR techniques

Basic idea  Rotate spins by static or oscillating magnetic fields

Static fields parallel to quantization axis

Hamiltonian of a quantum two-level system (TLS)

Natural or physical basis 𝜑+ , |𝜑− 〉

Basis Ψ+ , |Ψ− 〉  energy eigenbasis (because 𝐻 has energy units)

Visualization on Bloch sphere

𝒙 Vectors |𝛹− 〉 and |𝛹+ 〉 define new quantization axis

Analogy to spin ½ in static magnetic field

Fictitious spin ½ in fictitious magnetic field 𝑩

In the energy eigenbasis g , |e〉 , the qubit state vector |𝛹0 〉 is

When qubit state vector |𝛹0 〉 is not 𝝋(𝒕)

 Also called Larmor precession 𝝋𝟎 𝒚

 In absence of decoherence, only

Time-independent problem  Develop into stationary states 𝒛

Driven quantum TLS

ℏ 𝜔q 𝜔d 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 ℏ𝜔q ℏ𝜔d

Drive rotating about arbitrary equatorial axis on the Bloch sphere

 Schrödinger equation looses explicit time dependence

The frame rotates at the angular speed 𝝎 of the drive

Formal treatment  Effective Hamiltonian 𝐻 describing the same dynamics as 𝐻 (𝑡)

Expand into stationary states

Initial state 𝜳𝟎 = 𝐠 (energy ground state)

Driven Rabi oscillations

Rabi Oscillations – Graphical representation 𝜔d2 𝑡 Δ𝜔 2 + 𝜔d2

First experimental demonstration with superconducting qubit

Oscillating vs. rotating drive – Microwave pulses 𝜔d2 𝑡 Δ𝜔 2 + 𝜔d2

Oscillating drive 2ℏ𝜔d cos 𝜔𝑡 = ℏ𝜔d 𝑒 +i𝜔𝑡 + 𝑒 −i𝜔𝑡

Important drive pulses on the Bloch sphere 2𝜋/𝜔

Rabi Oscillations in presence of decoherence 𝜔d2 𝑡 Δ𝜔 2 + 𝜔d2

Effect of decoherence (qualitative approach)

 Argument holds well for population decay (energy relaxation, 𝑇1 )

Rabi decay time 𝜔d2 𝑡 Δ𝜔 2 + 𝜔d2

Complicated interplay between 𝑇1 , 𝑇2∗ , and the drive

 To determine 𝑇1 , 𝑇2∗ , 𝑇2 correctly, more sophisticated protocols are required

Energy relaxation on the Bloch sphere

𝒛  State vector collapses to g

Dephasing on the Bloch sphere Environment induces random phase changes

𝒛  Low-frequency noise is detuned

Qubit dynamics – Relaxation

Qubit dynamics – Ramsey fringes (𝑻⋆𝟐 )

free evolution time

Qubit dynamics – Spin echo (𝑻⋆𝟐𝑬 )

Ramsey vs. spin echo sequence

 Pulse sequences act as filters!

Spin echo sequence ωt/2

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