INSTRUMENT AND

MEASUREMNET

ASSIGNMENT

Q1.Explain the difference between systematic and random

errors. What are the typical sources of these two types of
errors?

(a). Systematic errors

Systematic errors describe errors in the output readings of a measurement
system that are consistently on one side of the correct reading, that is,
either all the errors are positive or they are all negative.

Sources of Systematic Error

The main sources of systematic error in the output of measuring
instruments can be summarized as follows:
1. Effect of environmental disturbances, often called modifying inputs
2. Disturbance of the measured system by the act of measurement
3. Changes in characteristics due to wear in instrument components over a
period of time
4. Resistance of connecting leads

(b). Random error

Random error which are also called as precision errors in some books, are
perturbations of the measurement either side of the true value caused by
random a unpredictable effects, such that positive errors and negative
errors occur in approximately equal numbers for a series of measurements
made of the same quantity. Such perturbations are mainly small, but large
perturbations occur from time to time, again unpredictably.

Sources of Random Errors

Random errors in measurements are caused by unpredictable variations in
the measurement system. In some books, they are known by the alternative
name precision errors. Typical sources of random error are as follows:
1. Measurements are taken by human observation of an analog meter,
especially where this involves interpolation between scale points.
2. Electrical noise.
3. Random environmental changes, for example, sudden draft of air.

Q2. In what ways can the act of measurement cause a

disturbance in the system being measured?

Disturbance of the measured system by the act of measurement is a

common source of systematic error.

1. If we were to start with a beaker of hot water and wished to measure its
temperature with a mercury-in-glass thermometer, then we would take
the thermometer, which would initially be at room temperature, and
plunge it into the water. In so doing, we would be introducing a
relatively cold mass (the thermometer) into the hot water and a heat
transfer would take place between the water and the thermometer. This
heat transfer would lower the temperature of the water.

2. A particularly important example of this occurs with the orifice plate.

This is placed into a fluid-carrying pipe to measure the flow rate, which
is a function of the pressure that is measured either side of the orifice
plate. This measurement procedure causes a permanent pressure loss in
the flowing fluid. The disturbance of the measured system can often be
very significant.
3. In case of electric circuit, use of voltmeter can produce loading effect in
the circuit which causes disturbance in measurement

Q3. In the circuit shown in Figure the resistor values are

given by R1 =1000 U; R2 =1000 U; V=20 V. The voltage across
AB (i.e., across R2) is measured by a voltmeter, whose internal
resistance is given by Rm = 9500 U.

(i)What will be the reading on the voltmeter?

Applying Thevenin theorem to find the resultant resistance
 1 1 1
= +
Rab R1 R2

R1 x R2
Rab =
R1 + R2

1000 x 1000
Rab =
1000 + 1000

1000000
Rab =
2000

Rab = 500

Then,
V x R1
Eo =
R2 + R1

20 x 1000
Eo =
1000 + 1000

Eo = 10
To find voltmeter reading

Rm x Eo
Em =
Rm + Rab

9500 x 10
Em =
9500 + 500

Em = 9.5

(ii)What would the voltage across AB be if the voltmeter was

not loading the circuit (i.e., if Rm = infinity)?
ANS
 V x Rab
Eo =
Rab + Rm

20 x 1000
Eo =
1000 + 1000

Eo = 10

(iii)What is the measurement error due to the loading effect

of the voltmeter?

Em
Error = (1 − ) x 100
Eo

9.5
Error = (1 − ) x 100
10

Error = 5%

Graph
Q4. Suppose that the components in the circuit shown in
Figure 3.1(a) have the following values: R1 = 330 Ω, R2 =
1000 ,R3 = 1200 Ω ,R4 220 Ω ,R5 = 270 Ω : If the instrument
measuring the output voltage across AB has a resistance of
5000 Ω, what is the measurement error caused by the loading
effect of this instrument?

By Applying Thevenin theorem to find the resultant resistance on the

following circuit
 (R1 + R2) x R3
( + R4) x R5
(R1 + R2 + R3)
𝑅𝑎𝑏 =
(R1 + R2) x R3
+ R4 + R5
(R1 + R2 + R3)

(330 + 1000) x 1200

( + 220) x 270
(330 + 1000 + 1200)
Rab =
(330 + 1000) x 1200
+ 220 + 270
(330 + 1000 + 1200)

Rab = 204.95

To find error

Em Rm
=
Eo Rm + Rab

Em 5000
=
Eo 5000 + 204.95

Em
= 0.9606
Eo

Now
Em
Error = (1 − ) x 100
Eo

Error = (1 − 0.9606)x 100

Error = 3.93%

GRAPH
Q5..(a)Why does a fully calibrated voltmeter never give the
correct value when measuring the voltage in an electrical
circuit (assume that it is used at the same temperature that it
was calibrated at?

A voltmeter may have an input impedance that is low enough to affect the
voltage in the circuit being measured. The act of measuring can drag down
the voltage in the circuit if the circuit itself has high impedance compared
to the meter. For a reading accurate to 1%, the impedance of the meter
needs to be at least 100 times greater than the circuit. Which is hard to
achieve that’s why a fully calibrated voltmeter never give the correct value
when measuring the voltage in an electrical circuit.

(b) What steps can be taken to reduce the measurement

error?

1. Double check all measurements for accuracy. For example, double-

enter all inputs on two worksheets and compare them.
2. Double check your formulas are correct.
3. Make sure observers and measurement takers are well trained.
 4. Make the measurement with the instrument that has the highest
precision.
5. Take the measurements under controlled conditions.
6. Pilot test your measuring instruments.
7. Use multiple measures for the same construct.

(c) In the circuit shown in Figure 3.9, the resistor values are
given by R1 = 500 Ω; R2 = 500 Ω; V=12 V. The voltage across
AB (i.e., across R2) is measured by a voltmeter whose internal
resistance is given by Rm =7500 U.
(i) What will be the reading on the voltmeter?

Applying Thevenin theorem to find the resultant resistance

 1 1 1
= +
Rab R1 R2

R1 x R2
Rab =
R1 + R2

500 x 500
Rab =
500 + 500

250000
Rab =
1000

Rab = 250

Then,
V x R1
Eo =
R1 + R2

12 x 500
Eo =
500 + 500
 Eo = 6

To find voltmeter reading

Rm x Eo
Em =
Rm + Rab

7500 x 6
Em =
7500 + 250

Em = 5.8

(ii) What would the voltage across AB be if the voltmeter was

not loading the circuit (i.e., if Rm =infinity)?
V x R1
Eo =
R1 + R2

12 x 500
Eo =
500 + 500

Eo = 6
(iii) What is the measurement error due to the loading effect
of the voltmeter?
Em
Error = (1 − ) x 100
Eo

5.8
Error = (1 − ) x 100
6

Error = 3.33%

GRAPH