ULTRASONIC TEST PRINCIPLES

Basic Methods of Ultrasonic Inspection

TRANSMISSION AND REFLECTION TECHNIQUES. Ultrasonic inspection is
usually performed by one of two basic methods. A beam of ultrasonic energy is directed
into the specimen and (1) the energy transmitted through it is indicated or (2) the energy
reflected from areas within it is indicated. Inspection is accomplished because the
ultrasonic beam travels with little loss through homogeneous material except when it is
intercepted and reflected by discontinuities in the elastic continuum. Fig. 1 illustrates
two basic techniques applied to internal flaw detection. ID Fig. l(a), the flaw is detected
by the decrease of transmitted energy at the receiver; in Fig. I(b) it is detected by energy
reflected to the receiver.
ULTRASONIC TEST SYSTEMS. A complete ultrasonic inspection system consists of
the basic components shown in Fig. 1, including:
1. Electrical signal generator, G. 2. Transmitting transducer,
or "search unit."
3. Couplant to transfer acoustic energy to specimen.
4. Test specimen.
5. Couplant to transfer acoustic energy to receiver.
6. Receiving transducer, or "search unit."
7. Electrical indicator, I.
Component design and arrangement will depend primarily upon which specific
characteristics of ultrasonic wave propagation are utilized for detection and
measurement of specimen properties. The phenomena involved may include:
1. Velocity of wave propagation.
2. Beam geometry (focusing field pattern or dual-transducer systems).
1 3. Energy transfer (reflection, refraction, or mode conversion).
4. Energy losses (scattering, absorption).
Ultrasonic Frequency Ranges. Ultrasonic inspection utilizes high-frequency
mechanical vibrations for nondestructive testing of materials. Most commercial
ultrasonic testing is done at frequencies between 1 and 25 megacycles per second (Me.).
However, applications exist for frequencies as low as 25 kilocycles per second (kc.) and
as high as 200 Me. Various ultrasonic inspection techniques and instruments have been
developed to beam ultrasonic energy directly through test objects. Low-frequency
resonance methods (see section on Natural Frequency Vibration Tests), in which the
entire specimen is caused to vibrate at sonic frequency, should not be confused with
ultrasonic methods whose probing beam is usually restricted to a small fraction of the
specimen.
Ultrasonic Stress Ranges. All mechanical testing methods involve similar phenomena
described by the fundamental laws of mechanics and acoustics. The
43-1
43-2 ULTRASONIC TEST PRINCIPLES
various methods differ" primarily in the frequency and magnitude of the stresses developed
in the test material. Sonic and ultrasonic nondestructive tests employ low-amplitude stresses
which do not permanently affect the specimen. Destructive mechanical tests, such as static
physical tests and forced-vibration fatigue testing, usually involve high-amplitude stresses.
These may cause heating, nonlinear effects, permanent deformation, and eventual rupture of
(he sample.

Applications of Ultrasonic Techniques. Because ultrasonic techniques are basically

mechanical phenomena, they are particularly adaptable to the determination of structural
integrity of engineering materials. Their principal applications consist of:
1. Flaw detection.
2. Thickness measurement.
3. Determination of elastic moduli.
4. Study of metallurgical structure. 6. Evaluation of the influence of processing
variables on the Bpecimen.
Advantages of Ultrasonic Tests. The desirable features of ultrasonic tests include:
1. High sensitivity, permitting detection of minute defects.
2. Great penetrating power, allowing examination of extremely thick sections.
3. Accuracy in the measurement of flaw position and estimation of flaw site.
4. Fast response, permitting rapid and automated inspection. 6. Need for access to only
one surface of the S|>ecimcn.
Limitations of Ultrasonic Tests. Test conditions which may limit the application of
ultrasonic methods usually relate to one of the following factors:
1. Unfavorable sample geometry; for example, sixe, contour, complexity, and
defect orientation.
' 2. Undesirable internal structure; for example, grain si*e, structure porosity, inclusion
content, or fine, dispersed precipitates.
 Recent Improvements. Recent developments relate primarily to one or more of
the following:
1. High speed, automated inspection systems.
2. Improved instrumentation for greater resolution of flaw indications.
3. Better data presentation.
4. Simpler interpretation.
5. Studies of fine changes in metallurgical condition. .. 6. More detailed
analyses of the acoustic phenomena involved.
During the same period those concerned directly with application of ultrasonic
inspection techniques made contributions toward its utilization and to the estab-
lishment of procedures and standards, particularly in the aircraft, electrical, anc.
nuclear energy fields.
 ULTRASONIC TEST PRINCIPLES
43-4

Generation of Ultrasonic Vibrations

ULTRASONIC SOURCES. Mechanical vibrations for measurement, analysis, or
test purposes are generated by electromechanical transducers, i.e., elements having
the ability to transform electrical into mechanical energy, and vice versa. For
ultrasonic inspection at frequencies above 200 kc.,. piezoelectric transducers are
used. These employ materials wliich generate electric charges when mechanically
stressed, and conversely, become stressed when electrically excited. Transducer
elements suitably mounted for inspection work are commonly called search units,
crystals, or probes. (See section on Ultrasonic Transducers for details of transducer
materials, construction, and characteristics.)
ULTRASONIC TRANSDUCER TYPES. Transducer materials having the best
characteristics for search units are (1) natural quartz crystals, (2) lithium-sulfate
monohydrate crystals, and (3) polarized polycrystalline ceramics such as fired barium
titanate. Transducer elements which operate as thickness expanders are widely used.
These produce motion similar to that of an oscillating piston and generate
compressional waves in the specimen. For special studies requiring transverse waves,
crystal cuts can be used which produce shear motion. If maximum sensitivity is
required, the element is electrically driven at its fundamental
resonant frequency.
TYPICAL TRANSDUCER CHARACTERISTICS. The properties of typical 1-
Mc. transducer elements are given in Fig. 2. Values for other frequencies, f, or areas,
A, can be found by using the relationship:
Thickness:, t = t1/f (1) Capacitance:
c = C1 X f X A (2)
where t= thickness, in.
t1 = 1-Mc. thickness, in. f = frequency, Mc. c =
capacitance, uuf
c1 = unit capacitance, uuf/in.2
A = area, in.2.
Material Wave Thicknes Capacitan Activity
s, t1 (f = ce, C1 Constants*
Sr Sn
X-cut 1 Mc.)
Longitud 0.11 in. (Area9u = 1 1 1
quartz Y- inal 26 in. uf -- -
cut quartz Transvers 0.08 in. 14uuf 8 -
* Determined experimentally for typical search unit assemblies.
Fig. 2. Properties of thickness-mode transducer elements
Activity Constant. Activity constants indicate approximate sensitivities of elements
as acoustic transmitters, St, and receivers, Sr as compared with X-cut quartz. The
absolute magnitudes are dependent upon the mechanical loading on front and back
faces of the transducer, the nature of the applied electric signal, and the effective
electrical impedances involved.
 GENERATION OF ULTRASONIC VIBRATIONS 43.5
Resolving Power and Sensitivity. The resolving power of a search unit is directly
proportional to its band width (Af), which is primarily a function of the damping
produced by the mechanical loading on its faces. Conversely, the number of cycles
required for crystal vibration to reach full amplitude when driven by constant a.-c.
supply voltage is given by its mechanical Q (the reciprocal of band width expressed
in percentage). Typical measured values of Af and Q determined experimentally for
1-Mc. ultrasonic immersion .search units (i.e., with a water load on front face) arc
given in the accompanying table.27'30 .

Transducer Backing Air Af(Mc.) 0.06 Q

Quartz 17
Quartz Phenolic 0.16 6
Quartz Loaded epoxy 0.25 4
Barium Phenolic 0.1 10
Barium Loaded epoxy 026 4
Lithium sulfate Loaded epoxy >0.3 <3
Since the senstivity of a given system increases directly with the Q of ite com-
ponents (search unit , pulser , and electrical amplifier), a compromise to achieve the
optimum senstivity - resolution product is desirable. System Q's of 3 to 10 are typical
in commercial pulsed-wave-train flaw detectors. For a given Q, resolution increases
directly with system frequency.
Additional Design Requirements. In the design of practical search units for various
applications, additional requirements to be considered include:
1. Mechanical: contact area, wear resistance, waterproofing, and connectors.
2. Electrical: voltages, wave shapes, capacity, and grounding.
3. Acoustic: noise level, beam divergence, and face plates.
Construction of four principal types of search unit assemblies is shown in Fig. 3.
Straight-Beam Contact Units. Straight-beam contact search unite, whose
construction is shown in Fig. 3(a), have one face of the crystal exposed to contact the
work. These units are widely used in the 0.5- to 10-Mc. frequency range and can
generally be used on any reasonably flat surface which is electrically conductive.
Typical variations in construction include spring mounting and curved crystals.
Straight-Beam Faced Units. Fig. 3(b) shows the construction of straight-beam
faced units. These employ thin wear plates to prevent crystal breakage and to protect
the front electrode which provides internal grounding. Facings of quartz, metal,
plastic, and rubber have been used. Applications include testing of rough surfaces
and electrical nonconductors. For rapid testing of large plate, a special unit
employing a moving plastic belt between the crystal and specimen has been
developed.
Angle-Beam Contact Units. Angle-beam search units, which direct the beam away
from normal incidence toward selected areas within a specimen, use a wedge between
the crystal and sample [Fig. 3(c)1. Various wedge materials have been used, the most
successful being methacrylate resin.'1 Particularly useful units are available which
utilize shear or surface waves produced by refraction and mode conversion.' 2 Most of
the commercial angle-beam units operate in the 1- to 5-Mc.
GENERATION OF ULTRASONIC VIBRATIONS 43.7
range. Special types include curved shoes for pipe inspection M and variable-angle units
for axle testing.34
Immersion Units. Search units used in immersion testing are separated from the test
object by a couplant of considerable thickness [Fig. 3(d)]. (See section on Ultrasonic
Immersion Tests for details of ultrasonic immersion techniques.) The crystal mounting
must be thoroughly waterproofed and a grounding electrode must be provided on the front
face. Search units are available for all standard test frequencies within the range from 200
kc. to 25 Me.
Contoured or Focused Units with Acoustic Lenses. The addition of acoustic lens
elements to the front face of immersion search units makes possible the focusing of
ultrasonic beams. Cylindrical curvatures permit focusing the sound energy to enter
cylindrical surfaces normally or along a line focus. Spherical lens curvatures focus the
sound at a point. (See section on Ultrasonic Transducers for further characteristics and
applications of acoustic lens systems.)
Standard Ratings. The frequencies and sizes of search units most commonly employed
for industrial inspection are shown in Fig. 4. Off-frequency operation is sometimes used,
particularly at very high frequencies where thick crystals are frequently driven at multiple
odd harmonica.

SPECIAL UNITS. For applications requiring nonstandard units, various special styles,
sizes, and frequencies have been developed, including:
1. Dual crystals, common bolder.
2. Large crystals, 1 X (in. and larger.
3. Mosaics, three or more crystals.
4. Small crystals, 1/8-in. diam. and less.
6. High frequency, up to 50 Mc. (fundamental).
6. Alternate crystal materials: lithium sulfate, fired titanate ceramics.
7. Sandwich and "tandem" arrangements.
8. Y-cut crystals for shear wave generation.
ULTRASONIC WAVE PROPAGATION 43-9

Ultrasonic Wave Propagation Characteristics

ASSUMPTIONS. The major effects encountered in practical ultrasonic inspection can
be predicted with reasonable accuracy by making the following simplifying assumptions:
1. The ultrasonic beam consists of plane wave fronts.
2. Elastic moduli are independent of stress amplitude, frequency, and direction.
3. When frequency is a parameter, particle motion is continuous and sinusoidal.
These conditions are generally valid for ultrasonic materials inspection unless extremely
short or very large amplitude pulses are employed.
WAVELENGTH. Wavelength, lamda, a parameter useful for describing certain
characteristics of transducers, beam geometries, and modes of propagation, is related to
oscillation frequency and velocity of propagation as follows:
λ = v/f (3)
where λ = wavelength, cm. (in., ft., etc.).
v = velocity, cm./sec. (in./sec, ft./sec., etc.). / = frequency,
c.p.s
Values of 31 in several common materials at 1 Mc. are given in Fig. 5 for the longitudinal
mode.
VELOCITY. Several possible modes of vibration can propagate in solids. In general,
pulse-time techniques indicate the wave packet or "group" velocity. This velocity is
independent of sample geometry when the cross-section is very large compared with
beam area and wavelength. The principal wave velocities encountered in. solids at
ultrasonic frequencies are given in Fig. 6.

Longitudinal waves are dilational or nondistortional, while shear waves involve only
distortion and are polarized. Vl is sometimes called the compressional, plate, or bulk
wave velocity (not to be confused with plate waves in thin sheets or bulk waves in
fluids). By definition, Vl Vt, and VR are independent of frequency. In objects where one
or more dimensions approach a wavelength, various phasing effects can occur. In thin
sheet and small tubing, for example, various Lamb or "plate" waves are encountered
which have intermediate values of Vr^, varying with the test conditions.12
43-10 ULTRASONIC TEST PRINCIPLES
Calculation of Acoustic Velocities. To calculate absolute values, a consistent set of units must
be used. For example, in c.g.s. units: moduli (Y,\a}, dynes/ cm.2; density p, gram/cm.'; velocity
V, cm./sec. Formulas for computing these velocities from the density and appropriate elastic
"constants," as well as their interrelationships, are given in Fig. 7. Like elastic moduli,
velocities can be interrelated as functions of Poisson's ratio (o) only. Their ratios are shown in
convenient form in Fig. 8.