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PUBLISHED BY ELSEVIER https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2017.11.025
Heart Failure Clyde W. Yancy, MD, MSC, MACC, Chair Mariell Jessup, MD, FACC
Pathway James L. Januzzi, JR, MD, FACC, Vice Chair JoAnn Lindenfeld, MD, FACC
Writing Thomas M. Maddox, MD, MSC, FACC
Committee Larry A. Allen, MD, MHS, FACC Frederick A. Masoudi, MD, MSPH, FACC
Javed Butler, MD, MBA, MPH, FACC Shweta R. Motiwala, MD
Leslie L. Davis, PHD, RN, ANP-BC J. Herbert Patterson, PHARMD
Gregg C. Fonarow, MD, FACC Mary Norine Walsh, MD, FACC
Nasrien E. Ibrahim, MD, FACC Alan Wasserman, MD, FACC
Task Force James L. Januzzi, JR, MD, FACC, Chair Joseph Edward Marine, MD, FACC
on Expert Pamela Bowe Morris, MD, FACC
Consensus Luis C. Afonso, MBBS, FACC Robert N. Piana, MD, FACC
Decision Brendan Everett, MD, FACC Karol E. Watson, MD, FACC
Pathways Adrian F. Hernandez, MD, MHS, FACC Dharam Kumbhani, MD, SM, FACC
William Hucker, MD, PHD Barbara S. Wiggins, PHARMD, FACC
Hani Jneid, MD, FACC
TABLE OF CONTENTS
This document was approved by the American College of Cardiology Clinical Policy Approval Committee in November 2017.
The American College of Cardiology Foundation requests that this document be cited as follows: Yancy CW, Januzzi JL Jr, Allen LA, Butler J, Davis LL,
Fonarow GC, Ibrahim NE, Jessup M, Lindenfeld J, Maddox TM, Masoudi FA, Motiwala SR, Patterson JH, Walsh MN, Wasserman A. 2017 ACC expert
consensus decision pathway for optimization of heart failure treatment: answers to 10 pivotal issues about heart failure with reduced ejection fraction:
a report of the American College of Cardiology Task Force on Clinical Expert Consensus Decision Pathways. J Am Coll Cardiol 2018;71:201-30.
Copies: This document is available on the web site of the American College of Cardiology (www.acc.org). For copies of this document, please contact
Elsevier Inc. Reprint Department via fax (212) 633-3820 or e-mail (reprints@elsevier.com).
Permissions: Multiple copies, modification, alteration, enhancement, and/or distribution of this document are not permitted without the express
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business/policies/copyright/permissions).
202 Yancy et al. JACC VOL. 71, NO. 2, 2018
2017 Pathways for Optimization of Heart Failure Treatment JANUARY 16, 2018:201–30
includes no fewer than 7 evidence-based medications, Failure (1) by addressing new medical therapies, preven-
3 evidence-based device strategies, and a number of tion, and comorbidities relevant to HFrEF for which
recommend processes of care. The opportunity to change data are available. Despite new guideline statements,
the natural history of HF with reduced EF has never been information voids exist, and a practical, consensus
better, but with more choices comes greater complexity. approach is needed for areas that have incomplete evi-
This necessitates careful guidance to clinicians, emphasis dence. To that end, we have identified 10 pivotal issues
on best principles for initiating and titrating guideline- that remain unresolved in the guidelines. This document
directed medical therapy for HF with reduced EF, attempts to address these issues.
and advice on managing the overall complexity of the
Ten Pivotal Issues in HFrEF
condition.
This ACC Expert Consensus Decision Pathway addresses 1. How to initiate, add, or switch therapy to new
steps to follow when introducing numerous evidence- evidence-based guideline-directed treatments for
based therapies, improving adherence, overcoming HFrEF.
treatment barriers, acknowledging contraindications and 2. How to achieve optimal therapy given multiple drugs
situations for which little data exist, affording expensive for HF including augmented clinical assessment that
therapies, treating special cohorts, and making the tran- may trigger additional changes in guideline-directed
sition to palliative care. Rather than focusing on expansive therapy (e.g., imaging data, biomarkers, and filling
text, the document provides practical tips, tables, and pressures).
figures to make clear the steps, tools, and provisos needed 3. When to refer to an HF specialist.
to successfully and expeditiously treat the patient with HF 4. How to address challenges of care coordination.
with reduced EF. Many of the pivotal issues addressed in 5. How to improve adherence.
this document are not the substance of clinical trials; 6. What is needed in specific patient cohorts: African
rather, they represent the challenge of clinical practice. Americans, the frail, and older adults.
Whenever possible, resources are included or hyperlinked. 7. How to manage your patients’ cost of care for HF.
The treatment of HF with reduced EF can feel over- 8. How to manage the increasing complexity of HF.
whelming, and many opportunities to improve patient 9. How to manage common comorbidities.
outcomes are being missed; hopefully, this Expert 10. How to integrate palliative care and transition to
Consensus Decision Pathway may streamline care to hospice care.
realize best possible patient outcomes in HF.
2. METHODS
1. INTRODUCTION
A structured format was created subsequent to the
The prevalence of HF is escalating rapidly. Compounding release of the 2016 ACC/AHA/HFSA Focused Update
this, HF is an illness that consumes significant health care on New Pharmacological Therapy for Heart Failure:
resources, inflicts significant morbidity and mortality, an Update of the 2013 ACCF/AHA Guideline for the
and greatly impacts quality of life. Important break- Management of Heart Failure, addressing new pharma-
throughs have redefined opportunities to change the cological therapies (3). Questions were developed to
natural history of the disease with a broad range of identify evidence gaps. A multidisciplinary panel of
medical therapies, devices, and care strategies, including stakeholders was configured and a literature review was
readmission reduction programs and ambulatory outpa- completed to aggregate relevant evidence addressing
tient disease management for those with more advanced contemporary HF care. The references were separately
disease. reviewed by the Chair and Vice-Chair, and an agreed-
HF exists in several phenotypes, in part reflected by upon compendium was developed. Print copies of the
differences in left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF). references were provided to each member of the panel
These include heart failure with reduced ejection fraction prior to a live roundtable meeting held on July 19, 2016,
(HFrEF), HF with preserved EF, as well as HF with at the ACC Heart House. Participants attending the HF
improved EF. Although the evidence base for the treat- roundtable meeting included cardiologists, internists,
ment of HFrEF has expanded substantially, much work emergency physicians, hospitalists, nurses, representa-
remains for the other forms of HF. New therapies for HF tives from patient advocacy groups, pharmacists,
with preserved EF are under exploration, and the evidence fellows-in-training, quality improvement experts, epi-
base addressing HF with improved EF is just emerging. demiologists, and biostatisticians.
The purpose of this document is to complement Structured discussions were held addressing new ther-
the 2017 ACC/AHA/HFSA Focused Update of the 2013 apies, unanswered questions, adherence, and imple-
ACC/AHA Guideline for the Management of Heart mentation strategies. Multidisciplinary panel discussions
204 Yancy et al. JACC VOL. 71, NO. 2, 2018
2017 Pathways for Optimization of Heart Failure Treatment JANUARY 16, 2018:201–30
were convened and archived for online distribution. 3. The expert consensus writing committee endorses
(Discussions can be found at http://www.acc.org/ the evidence-based approaches to HF therapy and
tools-and-practice-support/quality-programs/succeed-in- management enumerated in the 2013 ACC/AHA Guide-
managing-heart-failure-initiative/emerging-strategies- line for the Management of Heart Failure (2) and the
for-heart-failure-roundtable.) A writing group was 2016 and 2017 ACC/AHA/HFSA focused updates (1,3).
invited to participate, as representative of all stake- 4. These algorithms assume the clinician will seek input
holders. A review of outstanding questions was facilitated as needed from a pharmacist, cardiologist, HF
by a survey of constituent members of the stakeholder specialist and/or disease management program, and
groups, with editing of the questions carried out by the other relevant medical specialist (e.g., endocrinologist
writing panel. Subsequent writing assignments were or nephrologist) to guide clinical management, and will
configured according to areas of expertise. Teleconfer- consider patient preference in all clinical decision-
ences were used to edit contributed content. Conference making.
calls of the writing committee were confidential and were 5. These algorithms are based on best available data; all
attended only by committee members and ACC staff. clinical decisions should be governed by judgment and
When consensus within the writing committee was influenced by discussions with the patient about
deemed necessary by the Chair and Vice Chair, either a roll treatment preferences.
call vote or an e-mail–generated ballot was implemented. 6. At any point in time, these suggestions and algorithms
A simple majority prevailed; in the presence of a tie, chair may be superseded by new data.
prerogative reconciled the final decision.
The work of the writing committee was supported Definitions
exclusively by the ACC without commercial support. HFrEF: Clinical diagnosis of HF and LVEF #40%.
Writing committee members volunteered their time to New York Heart Association (NYHA) functional
this effort. All members of the writing committee, as classification:
well as those selected to serve as peer reviewers of this
n Class I: No limitation of physical activity. Ordinary
document, were required to disclose relationships with
physical activity does not cause symptoms of HF.
industry (RWI) and other entities (see Appendixes 1
n Class II: Slight limitation of physical activity.
and 2, respectively). The Chair was without any RWI
Comfortable at rest, but ordinary physical activity re-
and is responsible for the content of this document.
sults in symptoms of HF.
In keeping with ACC policy, the majority of the writing
n Class III: Marked limitation of physical activity.
committee were without relevant relationships with
Comfortable at rest, but less than ordinary activity
industry. The formal peer review process was
causes symptoms of HF.
completed consistent with ACC policy, and included a
n Class IV: Unable to perform any physical activity
public comment period to obtain further feedback.
without symptoms of HF, or symptoms of HF at rest.
Following reconciliation of all comments, this docu-
ment was approved for publication by the Clinical GDMT: Guideline-directed medical therapy.
Policy Approval Committee. Optimal therapy: Treatment provided at either the target
or the highest-tolerated dose for a given patient.
3. ASSUMPTIONS AND DEFINITIONS
Target dose: Doses targeted in clinical trials.
ACC/AHA Stages of HF:
To limit inconsistencies in interpretation, specific as-
sumptions (e.g., treatment effect in varied populations) n Stage A: At high risk for HF but without structural heart
were considered by the writing group in development of disease or symptoms of HF.
the decision pathway. References are supplied when n Stage B: Structural heart disease but without signs or
applicable or appropriate. symptoms of HF.
n Stage C: Structural heart disease with prior or current
General Clinical Assumptions symptoms of HF.
n Stage D: Refractory HF requiring specialized interventions.
1. Although many topics are generalizable to all
patients with HF, the focus of this effort, including
pathway recommendations, only applies to patients 4. PATHWAY SUMMARY GRAPHIC
with HFrEF.
2. Although some of the recommendations may be Figure 1 summarizes the 2017 ACC Expert Consensus
relevant to patients hospitalized with acute HF, this Decision Pathway for Optimization of Heart Failure
document mainly deals with the management of Treatment: Answers to 10 Pivotal Issues About Heart
patients with chronic ambulatory HFrEF. Failure With Reduced Ejection Fraction.
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ACCF ¼ American College of Cardiology Foundation; AHA ¼ American Heart Association; GDMT ¼ guideline-directed medical therapy; HF ¼ heart failure;
HFrEF ¼ HF with reduced ejection fraction.
5. DESCRIPTION AND RATIONALE: Understanding when and how to add, switch, and titrate
ANSWERS TO 10 PIVOTAL ISSUES IN HF all therapies to maximally tolerated doses and ideally
target doses (Figure 1, Table 1) is important.
1. How to Initiate, Add, or Switch to New Evidence-Based HF is a complex syndrome typically associated with
Guideline-Directed Therapy for HFrEF multiple comorbidities; most patients are on multiple
Established therapies for chronic HFrEF include medications. No clinical trials have specifically evaluated
angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs), the potential for greater benefit or excessive risk of indi-
angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs), beta blockers, loop cated therapies among patients with multimorbidity.
diuretics, aldosterone antagonists, and hydralazine/ To assess tolerability of medications and best assess the
isosorbide dinitrate (HYD/ISDN); with the exception of trajectory of HF, it is often necessary for patients to have
loop diuretics, all have been shown in randomized more frequent follow-up, especially after initiation or
2017 Pathways for Optimization of Heart Failure Treatment JANUARY 16, 2018:201–30
F I G U R E 2 Treatment Algorithm for Guideline-Directed Medical Therapy Including Novel Therapies (2,9)
Green diamonds indicate Class I guideline recommendations, while the yellow diamond indicates a Class II recommendation. ACEI ¼ angiotensin-converting
enzyme inhibitors; ARB ¼ angiotensin receptor blockers; ARNI ¼ angiotensin receptor-neprilysin inhibitor; eGFR ¼ estimated glomerular filtration rate;
HFrEF ¼ heart failure with reduced ejection fraction; HR ¼ heart rate; NYHA ¼ New York Heart Association.
Data from the randomized CIBIS (Cardiac Insufficiency Titration of ACEI/ARB and beta blockers is discussed
Bisoprolol) III trial suggest that either is safe (4). Initiation in Issue 2.
of ACEI or ARB (Table 1, Figures 2 and 3) is often better
tolerated when the patient is still congested (“wet”; when Angiotensin Receptor-Neprilysin Inhibition
renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system activation is less), Neprilysin, also known as neutral endopeptidase, is a
whereas beta blockers are better tolerated when the zinc-dependent metalloprotease that inactivates several
patient is less congested (“dry”) with adequate resting vasoactive peptides, including the natriuretic peptides,
heart rate. Only evidence-based beta blockers should be adrenomedullin, bradykinin, and substance P, each of
used in patients with HFrEF (Table 1, Figures 2 and 3). which has an important role in the pathogenesis and pro-
In selected patients with HFrEF, a clinician may choose gression of HF (5). Because angiotensin II is also a substrate
to start a low dose of a beta blocker and an ACEI/ARB; in for neprilysin, neprilysin inhibitors raise angiotensin
persistently symptomatic patients who tolerate an ACEI levels, which explains the rationale for coadministration
or ARB, switching to an ARNI would be recommended of ARB. Neprilysin inhibitors are not combined with ACEI
(Table 1, Figure 2). due to a higher risk of angioedema (6).
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F I G U R E 3 Guideline-Directed Medical Therapy Including Novel Therapies in the Expert Consensus Decision Pathway for Chronic Heart Failure
Green diamonds indicate Class I guideline recommendations, while the yellow diamond indicates a Class II recommendation. ACEI ¼ angiotensin converting
enzyme inhibitors; ARB ¼ angiotensin receptor blockers; ARNI ¼ angiotensin receptor-neprilysin inhibitor; bpm ¼ beats per minute; eGFR ¼ estimated
glomerular filtration rate.
Sacubitril/valsartan (7,8) was tested among patients valsartan and the comparator enalapril target doses. Of
with chronic HFrEF in a randomized controlled trial, the 10,513 candidates screened, 2,079 were not random-
PARADIGM HF (Prospective Comparison of ARNI with ized due to the inability to achieve target dose therapy on
ACEI to Determine Impact on Global Mortality and enalapril or sacubitril/valsartan. Most patients enrolled in
Morbidity in Heart Failure). The trial enrolled patients PARADIGM-HF had NYHA class II to III symptoms (<100
with NYHA class II to IV symptoms with an EF #40% patients with NYHA class IV symptoms).
(modified to #35% 1 year into the trial), stable on doses of PARADIGM-HF demonstrated a 20% reduction in the
ACEI/ARB, and on other background GDMT. Patients with primary outcome of cardiovascular death or HF hospitali-
a history of angioedema, estimated glomerular filtration zation (hazard ratio: 0.80; 95% confidence interval: 0.73 to
rate (eGFR) <30 mL/min/1.73 m 2, symptomatic hypoten- 0.87; p < 0.001) in patients treated with sacubitril/
sion, or current decompensated HF were excluded. The valsartan. The number needed to treat to prevent 1 primary
trial began with a sequential run-in period to ensure that endpoint over 27 months was 21. These differences in out-
every patient randomized could tolerate both sacubitril/ comes included a 20% reduction in sudden cardiac death.
208 Yancy et al. JACC VOL. 71, NO. 2, 2018
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F I G U R E 3 Continued
Symptomatic hypotension was more common with although also recommended to improve outcomes, is
sacubitril/valsartan but was not associated with a wors- not considered mandatory prior to changing a patient
ening of renal function. Angioedema was numerically to ARNI. Guidance for the transition from an ACEI or
higher but not statistically significantly different from ARB to ARNI are detailed in Figures 2 and 3 and in
enalapril in the sacubitril/valsartan group. It should be Tables 1 to 4.
noted that most patients likely to have angioedema were When making the transition from an ACEI to ARNI, a
excluded by the requirement to tolerate enalapril. 36-hour washout period should be strictly observed to
The most recent clinical HF guidelines (3) recommend avoid angioedema, a delay that is not required when
ARNI, ACEI, or ARB to reduce morbidity and mortality switching from an ARB to ARNI. In a recent study (9), a
in patients with chronic HFrEF and that patients condensed and conservative approach to initiation of
with NYHA class II to III symptoms who can tolerate an sacubitril/valsartan was explored; the investigators
ACEI or ARB should transition to an ARNI to further compared titration to a target dose between 3 and
reduce morbidity and mortality (Class I, Level of 6 weeks. Both approaches were tolerated similarly, but
Evidence: B-R) (1,2). Use of an aldosterone antagonist, the gradual titration approach maximized attainment
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F I G U R E 3 Continued
of the target dose of sacubitril/valsartan in patients within a framework of shared-decision making, accept the
previously receiving low doses of ACEI/ARB. uncertainty about effectiveness and safety as well as
potentially greater out-of-pocket costs, de novo initiation
Initiation of an ARNI de novo without prior exposure to of ARNI with close follow-up and serial assessments
ACEI or ARB (blood pressure, electrolytes, and renal function) might be
It is possible that a patient may be identified who meets considered. Any such usage should consider concerns
all criteria for initiation of ARNI, but the patient has not regarding risk of angioedema or hypotension (Figures 2
yet been treated with an ACEI or ARB. The committee is and 3, and Tables 1 to 4).
aware that clinicians may occasionally consider initiating
ARNI in patients who have not previously been treated Ivabradine
with ACEI or ARB. To be explicitly clear, no predicate data Heart rate independently predicts outcomes in HFrEF.
supports this approach. For well-informed patients who, Evidence from beta-blocker trials suggests that heart
210 Yancy et al. JACC VOL. 71, NO. 2, 2018
2017 Pathways for Optimization of Heart Failure Treatment JANUARY 16, 2018:201–30
Digoxin remains indicated for HFrEF, but there are no contemporary data to warrant
with a heart rate greater than 70 bpm at rest (Figures 2 and 3,
additional comment in this document. The reader is referred to already available Tables 1 and 5). The contraindications to ivabradine are
guideline statements (2). *Isosorbide mononitrate is not recommended by the ACC/
AHA/HFSA guideline. †The ACC/AHA/HFSA guideline considers either the fixed dose
enumerated in Table 4.
combination or the separate combination of isosorbide dinitrate and hydralazine as
appropriate guideline directed therapy for HF.
Consensus Pathway Algorithm for Initiation and
ACEI ¼ angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor; ARNI ¼ angiotensin receptor-
neprilysin inhibitor; ARB ¼ angiotensin receptor blocker; bpm ¼ beats per minute; Titration of HFrEF Therapies
HF ¼ heart failure; HFrEF ¼ heart failure with reduced ejection fraction.
A strategy for initiating and titrating evidence-based
rate lowering is directly related to improved outcomes therapies for patients with HFrEF is depicted in Figures 2
(10). A dose-response relationship for evidence-based and 3. As noted in the previous text, after a diagnosis of
beta blockers used in HFrEF has been demonstrated HF is made, GDMT should be initiated and therapies should
(i.e., the higher the dose, the better the outcome). Prior to be adjusted no more frequently than every 2 weeks to
initiating any other agent with heart-rate slowing effects, target doses (or maximally tolerated doses). Clinicians
the dose of an evidence-based beta blocker should be should aim to achieve this within 3 to 6 months of an initial
optimized. However, some apparently well-compensated diagnosis of HF (however, this rapid timeline may not be
patients on optimal beta blocker therapy continue to have logistically feasible for some patients). GDMT should
a persistent resting heart rate over 70 bpm. continue to be up-titrated to achieve maximally tolerated
Ivabradine is an adjunctive means to reduce heart rate in doses of these therapies. During follow-up, frequent reas-
patients with chronic HFrEF who are in sinus rhythm. sessment of the clinical status of the patient, blood
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2. How to Achieve Optimal Therapy Given Multiple Drugs for TABLE 5 Recommended Starting Dose of Ivabradine
HF Including Augmented Clinical Assessment That May Population Initial Dose
Trigger Additional Changes in GDMT (e.g., Imaging Data,
Maximally tolerated beta-blocker dose with 5 mg twice daily
Biomarkers, and Filling Pressures) persistent resting heart rate $70 bpm
2017 Pathways for Optimization of Heart Failure Treatment JANUARY 16, 2018:201–30
Strategies for titration are detailed in Figures 2 and 3. (3) can be added and titrated every 2 weeks to lower
Achieving target or maximally tolerated doses of GDMT is heart rate.
the goal. Beta-blocker doses should be adjusted every
2 weeks (19) in a patient with no evidence of decom- Barriers to Medication Titration
pensated HF and no contraindications to higher doses. In some instances, it may not be possible to titrate GDMT
Longer time periods may be needed for frail patients or to the target doses achieved in clinical trials. Patients in
those with marginal hemodynamics, whereas more rapid clinical practice may differ substantially from those
titration may be reasonable in clinically stable patients enrolled in the trials; such differences may limit
without hypotension. Following adjustment, patients the ability to titrate therapies. For example, patients in
should be cautioned that there may be a transient wors- clinical practice are typically older, may experience more
ening of HF symptoms such as dyspnea, fatigue, or side effects, and are likely to have more comorbidities
dizziness. that will limit titration.
ACEI and ARB may be titrated similarly to beta Abnormal renal function and/or hyperkalemia are
blockers with monitoring of renal function, potassium, common barriers to initiation and titration of GDMT.
and blood pressure; more rapid titration is also reason- For patients with established renal disease, caution may
able in clinically stable patients. In the absence of hy- be necessary when starting GDMT, though ACEI/ARB are
potension, electrolyte/renal instability, or angioedema generally considered safe in patients with creatinine
on an ACEI or ARB, it is reasonable to change to ARNI. <3.0 mg/dL. In patients with mild-moderate renal
For those taking ARNIs, doses can be increased every 2 impairment (eGFR $30 mL/min/1.73 m 2 and <60 mL/min/
to 4 weeks to allow time for adjustment to the vaso- 1.73 m2 ), no adjustment is needed when deciding the
dilatory effects of the combined angiotensin receptor starting dose of the ARNI sacubitril/valsartan. In those
and neprilysin inhibition while also monitoring renal with severe renal impairment (eGFR <30 mL/min/1.73 m 2),
function, potassium, and especially blood pressure. For the starting dose of sacubitril/valsartan should be reduced
optimal titration of ACEI, ARBs, or ARNI, lower loop to 24/26 mg twice daily (This population was not studied in
diuretic doses may be necessary to permit titration; in PARADIGM HF. The statement is consistent with FDA
this circumstance, careful attention to potassium con- approved labeling indications) (Table 4). Aldosterone an-
centrations is needed, as the kaliuretic effects of loop tagonists are contraindicated in patients with severe renal
diuretics may no longer be present, and restriction of impairment (eGFR <30 mL/min/1.73 m 2, or creatinine >2.5
supplemental and/or dietary potassium may be mg/dL in men or creatinine >2 mg/dL in women) or with
necessary. potassium >5.0 mEq/dL (Figure 1).
Aldosterone antagonists are added in patients with Renal function and potassium should be assessed
chronic HFrEF already receiving beta blockers and ACEI/ within 1 to 2 weeks of the initiation or dose increase
ARB/ARNI who do not have contraindications to this of ACEI/ARB/ARNI. In patients with preserved renal
therapy (2). It is not necessary to achieve target or function or mild to moderate renal impairment,
maximally tolerated doses of other drugs before renal function and potassium after initiation and titra-
adding aldosterone antagonists. The dose of aldosterone tion of aldosterone antagonists should be assessed
antagonists used in clinical trials, which is typically within 2 to 3 days and again at 7 days. The schedule for
below that which might influence blood pressure, is subsequent monitoring should be dictated by the clinical
sufficient for clinical efficacy. Adherence to the guide- stability of renal function and volume status but should
line recommendations for monitoring of renal function occur at least monthly for the first 3 months and every
and potassium is required. 3 months thereafter (2). After the initiation or titration
For a number of reasons, HYD/ISDN-indicated of loop diuretics, renal function should be assessed
therapy for HF is often neglected in eligible patients. within 2 to 3 days.
However, given the benefits of this combination During initiation and titration of agents that affect
(43% relative reduction in mortality and 33% relative renal function, a decrease in eGFR of >30% or the
reduction in HF hospitalization [20]), African-American development of hyperkalemia should alert the clinician
patients should receive these drugs once target or that a reduction in doses may be necessary, even though
maximally tolerated doses of beta blocker and ACEI/ short-term changes in eGFR during intense diuretic
ARB/ARNI are achieved (2). This is especially therapy or with the initiation of ACEI or ARB do not
important for those patients with NYHA class III to IV predict longer-term adverse outcomes (21). In patients
symptoms. with evidence of hypovolemia, the dose of diuretics
Finally, following assiduous titration of beta blockers, should be reduced. Doses of ARNI may also need to be
in patients whose heart rate remains $70 bpm on target reduced in the setting of renal insufficiency or hypoten-
or maximally tolerated doses of beta blockers, ivabradine sion. Hyperkalemia may also require changes in medical
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therapy. Clinical assessment and renal stability in each ivabradine therapy. In such cases, if all solutions are
patient dictates whether clinicians may need to monitor exhausted, optimizing care with the most financially
certain patients more closely than others. manageable program is recommended (see answer to
Social or economic barriers to care may also undermine Issue 7).
ability to achieve GDMT. For example, homebound pa-
tients or those with limited ability to travel may be unable Clinical Assessment
to have blood pressure, heart rate, or renal function Figure 4 details a reasonable strategy for patient evalua-
assessed in a timely fashion. Cost may also pose a tion and management following a diagnosis of HFrEF.
substantial barrier to care, particularly for ARNI and After GDMT is initiated and titrated with the goal of
BNP ¼ B-type natriuretic peptide; CBC ¼ complete blood count; CRT ¼ cardiac resynchronization therapy; EKG ¼ electrocardiogram; EP ¼ electrophysiology;
GDMT ¼ guideline-directed medical therapy; HbA1c ¼ hemoglobin A1c; HFrEF ¼ heart failure with reduced ejection fraction; ICD ¼ implantable cardioverter-
defibrillator; IV ¼ intravenous; MRI ¼ magnetic resonance imaging; NT-proBNP ¼ N-terminal pro–B-type natriuretic peptide; NYHA ¼ New York Heart
Association.
214 Yancy et al. JACC VOL. 71, NO. 2, 2018
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achieving clinical trial doses or maximally tolerated Triggers for HF Patient Referral to a
TABLE 6
doses, patients with chronic HFrEF should be evaluated Specialist/Program
on a regularly scheduled basis. For most patients, a 1. New onset HF (regardless of EF) for evaluation of etiology, guideline-directed
reasonable interval is every 3 to 6 months, although many evaluation and management of recommended therapies, and assistance in
disease management.
may require more frequent follow-up to monitor clinical
2. Chronic HF with high-risk features, such as development of 1 or more of the
stability and revisit opportunities for further GDMT
following risk factors:
titration. Cardiac rehabilitation is beneficial and remains n Need for chronic IV inotropes
n Persistent NYHA functional class III–IV symptoms of congestion or
underutilized.
profound fatigue
High-risk features (conveniently summarized in the n Systolic blood pressure #90 mm Hg or symptomatic hypotension
n Creatinine $1.8 mg/dL or BUN $43 mg/dL
acronym “I NEED HELP” in Figure 4 and Table 6) should n Onset of atrial fibrillation or ventricular arrhythmias or repetitive ICD
trigger consideration for referral for advanced HF shocks
n Two or more emergency department visits or hospitalizations for
consultation (22); features triggering referral to advanced
worsening HF in prior 12 months
HF care are also discussed in the answers to Issue 3 n Inability to tolerate optimally-dosed beta blockers and/or ACEI/ARB/
ARNI and/or aldosterone antagonists
and Table 6. n Clinical deterioration as indicated by worsening edema, rising
biomarkers (BNP, NT-proBNP, others), worsened exercise testing,
Imaging—When to Order an Echocardiogram decompensated hemodynamics, or evidence of progressive remodeling
on imaging
An echocardiogram is recommended in the evaluation of n High mortality risk using validated risk model for further assessment
and consideration of advanced therapies (http://www.onlinejacc.org/
the patient with incident HF to assess LVEF, diastolic content/62/16/e147/T10)
function, chamber size, ventricular wall thickness, 3. To assist with management of GDMT, including replacement of ACEI or ARB
valvular abnormalities, strain imaging when available, therapy with ARNI for eligible patients, or to address comorbid conditions
such as chronic renal disease or hyperkalemia, which may complicate
and hemodynamic parameters including estimated right treatment.
ventricular systolic pressure, central venous pressure,
4. Persistently reduced LVEF #35% despite GDMT for $3 months for
and LV filling pressures. Once optimal doses of GDMT consideration of device therapy in those patients without prior placement of
ICD or CRT, unless device therapy contraindicated.
have been achieved for 3 to 6 months, repeat imaging can
be useful in making decisions regarding device therapy 5. Second opinion regarding etiology of HF; for example:
n Evaluation for potential ischemic etiology
(implantable cardioverter-defibrillator and/or cardiac n Suspected myocarditis
n Established or suspected specific cardiomyopathies, e.g., hypertrophic
resynchronization therapy) or referral for advanced ther-
cardiomyopathy, arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia, Chagas
apies (ventricular assist device or transplant). Repeat disease, restrictive cardiomyopathy, cardiac sarcoidosis, amyloid,
imaging may also be considered at the time of clinically aortic stenosis.
n Valvular heart disease with or without HF symptoms
important changes in clinical status (2). Routine surveil-
6. Annual review for patients with established advanced HF in which patients/
lance echocardiograms (e.g., annually) in the absence of caregivers and clinicians discuss current and potential therapies for both
change in clinical status or some other signal of risk are anticipated and unanticipated events, possible HF disease trajectory and
prognosis, patient preferences, and advanced care planning.
unwarranted. If echocardiography does not provide an
7. Assess the possibility of participation in a clinical trial.
assessment of LVEF, guidelines recommend other mo-
dalities including radionuclide ventriculography or mag- ACEI ¼ angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors; ARB ¼ angiotensin receptor blockers;
ARNI ¼ angiotensin receptor-neprilysin inhibitor; BNP ¼ B-type natriuretic peptide;
netic resonance imaging (2). BUN ¼ blood urea nitrogen; CRT ¼ cardiac resynchronization therapy; EF ¼ ejection
When recovery of LVEF to >40% is noted in the setting fraction; GDMT ¼ guideline-directed medical therapy; HF ¼ heart failure; ICD ¼
implantable cardioverter-defibrillator; LVEF ¼ left ventricular ejection fraction; NT-
of prior HFrEF, it is likely that outcomes may improve as proBNP ¼ N-terminal pro–B-type natriuretic peptide; NYHA ¼ New York Heart
well. However, there are no data to guide what adjust- Association.
judgment with respect to prescription of GDMT, and to managed with data from implantable pulmonary artery
provide helpful objective data regarding decision-making pressure monitoring had more changes in GDMT and
for referral to advanced HF therapies (See Figure 4 and diuretic doses (28). Those managed with implantable
Table 6). Concentrations of BNP or NT-proBNP are sup- pulmonary artery pressure monitoring had a 37%
ported with a Class I guideline recommendation to relative reduction in HF hospitalization (p<0.001). Such
determine prognosis. In the setting of worsening symp- improvement was seen in patients with both HFrEF and
toms (24), the reassessment of BNP or NT-proBNP may be HF with preserved EF. This suggests that in well-selected
informative. However, serial assessment of BNP or NT- patients with recurrent congestion, this highly specialized
proBNP to guide aggressive titration of GDMT is not monitoring strategy may guide therapeutic decision
indicated and not warranted (25). Severe renal dysfunc- making. The impact on mortality is unknown. A team-
tion may interfere with the interpretation of natriuretic based approach may be necessary to best deploy this
peptide concentrations. monitoring strategy (see answers to Issue 8).
While rising natriuretic peptide concentrations are Patients on optimal GDMT who have either high-risk
correlated with adverse outcomes, this relationship can features (see Issue 3 and Table 6) or a poor response to
be confounded with the use of sacubitril/valsartan. Due to therapy should be considered for referral to an advanced
neprilysin inhibition, concentrations of BNP rise in pa- HF specialist, as discussed in the next section.
tients treated with sacubitril/valsartan and tend not to
return to baseline despite chronic therapy. In contrast, 3. When to Refer to an HF Specialist
NT-proBNP concentrations typically decrease, as NT- Appropriate and timely referral to an HF specialist and/or
proBNP is not a substrate for neprilysin (26). Therefore, HF program is essential in selected patients (Table 6) to
clinicians should interpret natriuretic peptides in the optimize therapies and evaluate advanced HF care
context of GDMT; BNP concentrations will increase (while options (2).
NT-proBNP will most often fall) with ARNI therapy, and Referrals are made for consultation and, if indicated,
thus it may be more prudent to check only NT-proBNP in for comanagement as well as consideration of advanced
patients on ARNI. Also, transient increases in natriuretic therapies (heart transplantation or mechanical circulatory
peptide levels have been documented in the initial phases support), recognition and management of specific or un-
of beta-blocker initiation; such changes should not pre- usual cardiomyopathies, or annual review (2,29–34).
clude up-titration of beta-blocker therapy, which should Clinical triggers for referral (Table 6) include persistent or
be guided by patient tolerance instead of asymptomatic worsening symptoms, adverse clinical events, or other
change in natriuretic peptide levels. features suggesting that the patient is at high risk for
disease progression or death (22,35–38).
Filling Pressure Assessment—
When and How to Measure Filling Pressures 4. How to Address Challenges of Care Coordination
Whereas routine pulmonary artery catheterization is not Delivering optimal HF care is complex. The range of
recommended to manage congestion, invasive hemody- treatments available, particularly those for patients with
namic and filling pressure assessment may occasionally HFrEF, include multiple medications, cardiac devices,
be useful to support decision making. For example, in surgery, and lifestyle adaptations, all of which require
patients who have refractory symptoms despite perceived education and monitoring. For example, patients with
adequate use of diuretics, those who develop worsening HFrEF frequently require consultative care delivered
renal function with attempts to increase doses of diuretic, by electrophysiology specialists to implant, monitor,
or those with repeated hospitalization for congestion, a and adjust devices such as implantable cardioverter-
better understanding of filling pressures and hemody- defibrillator or cardiac resynchronization therapy
namics might assist in pivotal changes in HF therapies. devices. This complexity is further exacerbated by the
Pulmonary artery catheterization results may also help frequent coexistence of both cardiac and noncardiac
select candidates for advanced therapies, including comorbidities found in patients with HF. Comorbidities
transplantation or mechanical circulatory support. are particularly common in the elderly. More than 50% of
Recent attention has focused on the use of implantable HF Medicare patients have 4 or more noncardiovascular
sensors to guide filling pressure assessment in ambula- comorbidities and more than 25% have 6 or more (39). The
tory patients with HF. In the CHAMPION (CardioMEMS care needs for comorbidities can complicate, and in some
Heart Sensor Allows Monitoring of Pressure to Improve cases prevent, the optimal use of HF therapies. Finally,
Outcomes in NYHA Class III Heart Failure Patients) study, the medical complexity inherent in most patients with HF
patients with NYHA class III HF symptoms were randomly generally requires the involvement of multiple clinicians
assigned to receive a wireless implantable pulmonary across many care settings (e.g., hospitals, rehabiliatation
artery pressure monitor versus usual care (27). Patients facilities, and ambulatory clinics). This raises the risks
216 Yancy et al. JACC VOL. 71, NO. 2, 2018
2017 Pathways for Optimization of Heart Failure Treatment JANUARY 16, 2018:201–30
Electronic health records Ease of access, interoperability with other Reduction in errors; decision support; accurate medication reconciliation to
electronic data repositories, data accuracy facilitate guideline adherence; if available, an effective patient portal to
facilitate patient/caregiver engagement
Patient monitoring devices: e.g., Accuracy; false alerts; cost effectiveness; Early warning and a reduction in morbidity
scales, implanted devices, infrastructure/resource needs, including
bioimpedance devices accurate data management and triage
Wearable activity monitors Accuracy Physical activity coaching/adherence, early detection of arrhythmias (e.g., AF)
Smartphones Need for more useful apps Activity tracking, diet records, weight management, communication with HF
team, prompts for medication adherence
Medication education Patient confusion about polypharmacy Pharmacist and other clinician-based education
Disease education Misunderstanding about HF and its management Support groups, one-on-one disease teaching
Improved integration Fragmented care due to multiple comorbidities Team-based care (see answers to Issues 4 and 8), involvement of a case manager.
of care Effective use of electronic health record and patient portal access
Self-management teaching Challenges in salt avoidance or fluid restriction Clinic and home-based nursing program.
Self-monitoring Difficulties in achieving optimal fluid and weight Home-based monitoring programs for select patients, biomarker and/or (for those
monitoring. with implantable devices) impedance monitoring in the office, in select
patients implantable pulmonary artery pressure monitoring.
218 Yancy et al. JACC VOL. 71, NO. 2, 2018
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African Self-identified GDMT ACEI, ARB, and ARNI: higher risk of Expected outcomes of ARNI and/or
Americans angioedema compared with ivabradine in those treated with
Caucasian patients HYD/ISDN
Uncertain risk of hypotension when
combining new drugs with HYD/
ISDN
Older adults $75 years Attempt to establish GDMT; however, Falls, worsening of renal function, Efficacy of lower-dose GDMT on
doses utilized might need to be polypharmacy, costs, comorbidity outcomes
lower. Device therapy should be
carefully considered due to
possibly higher risk for
complications in older patients
Frail Meets established GDMT as tolerated Uncertain response to GDMT, increase Ability to impact natural history in
frailty criteria (83) risk for adverse drug reactions the frail with HF
ACEI ¼ angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors; ARB ¼ angiotensin receptor blockers; ARNI ¼ angiotensin receptor-neprilysin inhibitor; GDMT ¼ guideline-directed medical therapy;
HF ¼ heart failure; HYD/ISDN ¼ hydralazine/isosorbide dinitrate.
present, exaggerates both morbidity and mortality. Stan- prescribed for HF continues to grow and presents a barrier
dard assessments of frailty are available (83). We do not to many patients. This barrier is compounded as most pa-
yet have evidence that any current therapies should be tients also have several comorbidities requiring additional
withheld or dose modified in the setting of frailty. medications. For example, diabetes is present in over 40%
of all patients with HF, and the polypharmacy for diabetes
7. How to Manage Your Patients’ Cost of Care for HF
treatment is also growing rapidly (87).
The economic burden of HF is substantial and is expected Whenever possible, generic equivalents for GDMT
to increase markedly in parallel with increases in HF should be considered, although this is not feasible for
prevalence. Between 2012 and 2030, total direct medical some therapies such as ARNI or ivabradine. Costs can still
costs for HF are projected to increase from $21 billion to be prohibitive even after following these cost-reduction
$53 billion, while total costs (including indirect outlay) are measures. Pricing for common generic HF drugs
estimated to increase from $31 billion to $70 billion (84). (digoxin, carvedilol, and lisinopril) varies widely, even in
After hospital costs, the cost of cardiovascular medica- a limited geographic area (88). This issue could have po-
tions is the second most important for patients with HF, tential negative implications on adherence while
accounting for 15.6% of direct costs (85). increasing time and travel costs, and encourages patients
Strategies to Reduce Costs. Several potential strategies to “shop around” for the best price, leading to obtaining
to reduce the cost of HF have been identified (Table 13) drugs at multiple pharmacies. Use of multiple pharmacies
(84). Implementing new therapies for the treatment of HF negates having a single pharmacist who can oversee all of
as well as improving utilization of existing therapies pro- a patient’s medications, identify potential drug in-
vide opportunities to reduce costs by slowing the pro- teractions, perform medication synchronization and
gression of disease, thus reducing hospitalizations and assess adherence, as well as provide disease management
death (86). Unfortunately, GDMT is still underutilized. programs and ensure that vaccinations are current. Pa-
Therefore, one significant challenge is how to effectively tients and clinicians should be encouraged to work with
disseminate information that supports evidence-based pharmacists to help identify copay assistance programs
therapies to healthcare professionals. Programs, such as and request “price matching” when possible, should
accountable care organizations, alternative payment medication be found at a lower cost at another pharmacy.
models, quality improvement initiatives as championed
by the AHA Get With The Guidelines, and practice
improvement as exemplified by the ACC Practice Innova- TABLE 13 Tactics for Managing Costs of HF
tion and Clinical Excellence (PINNACLE) and the AHA/ACC - Coordinate care (including laboratory results and imaging) among clinicians
accreditation programs, are designed to identify candi- - Consider limitations of medication coverage (insurance, Medicaid, and so on)
dates for evidence-based care, provide practitioners with when prescribing
useful reminders based on the guidelines, and continu- - Use generic equivalents for GDMT whenever possible
ously assess success achieved in providing GDMT (84). - Split tablets (without reducing dose) when appropriate
Care, including labs and imaging, should be coordinated - Work with a pharmacist to identify and navigate Patient Assistance Programs
among clinicians, preferably within 1 healthcare system. - Request “price matching” if a drug is found at a lower cost at another
pharmacy
Cost and Access to Medications. As mentioned previ-
ously, the cost and number of medications (polypharmacy) GDMT ¼ guideline-directed medical therapy; HF ¼ heart failure.
220 Yancy et al. JACC VOL. 71, NO. 2, 2018
2017 Pathways for Optimization of Heart Failure Treatment JANUARY 16, 2018:201–30
*Required information may vary depending on payer and state. Reduced aerobic capacity Exercise training/cardiac rehabilitation
HF ¼ heart failure; EF ¼ ejection fraction; HFpEF ¼ heart failure with preserved
ACEI ¼ angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors; ARB ¼angiotensin receptor blockers;
ejection fraction; HFrEF ¼ heart failure with reduced ejection fraction; LVEF ¼ left
ARNI ¼ angiotensin receptor-neprilysin inhibitor; HYD/ISDN ¼ hydralazine/isosorbide
ventricular ejection fraction; NYHA ¼ New York Heart Association.
dinitrate.
Having access to newer proven therapies can be even as increasing decision-making complexity for clinicians.
more daunting, as these drugs are typically associated As detailed in Table 15, modulation of 9 pathophysiolog-
with higher monthly costs and copays and frequently ical targets has been shown to improve symptoms and/or
require more time and effort to obtain them; obtaining outcomes for patients with HFrEF.
prior authorization from payers is a central aspect of this These targets are related to direct treatments for HF
process. Recently, the ACC and a coalition of 16 medical and do not include management of comorbidities, which
organizations called for reform of the prior authorization are discussed separately.
process and utilization management requirements that Several guiding principles can improve decision mak-
increase clinical workload and limit patient access to care ing and adherence with GDMT, which in turn, is likely to
(see: https://www.aacap.org/App_Themes/AACAP/docs/ improve patient outcomes. For the purpose of this sec-
homepage/2017/PA_Reform_Principles.pdf) (89). tion, the term target dose is used to denote doses targeted
Managing approvals for medications may be time in clinical trials and optimal therapy is used to denote
consuming; tips for managing such processes are outlined treatment provided at the highest dose tolerated by a
in Table 14. It is important to consider the cost effective- given patient up to the target dose. These principles apply
ness of any new therapy to justify out-of-pocket costs. for medication use in the absence of absolute
Cost effectiveness analyses of sacubitril-valsartan and contraindications.
ivabradine showed an incremental cost-effectiveness ra-
tio that compares favorably to other accepted cardiovas- Principle 1: Target doses are associated with best
cular therapies when they were first adopted or approved outcomes
(90–92). Pharmacists can help navigate insurance
coverage and patient assistance programs to make sure Action: Attempt to achieve target doses of all recom-
that patients have access to the appropriate medications. mended therapies, in the absence of contraindications
Supplementary Tables 1 and 2 provide product-specific and intolerance. Titration should occur even if the patient
information for assistance in payment for newer HF appears “stable”; change of ACEI or ARB to ARNI should
therapies and appropriate use criteria to assist in the prior not be reserved for onset of clinical decompensation.
authorization process.
8. How to Manage the Increasing Complexity of HF Principle 2: When facing clinical scenarios that limit the
ability to use target doses of all relevant therapies, a
Ten Pathways and Principles to Guide Optimal Therapy
top priority should be to address the factor(s) limiting
Therapeutic advances for the management of HFrEF have
GDMT.
led to both improvements in outcomes for patients as well
JACC VOL. 71, NO. 2, 2018 Yancy et al. 221
JANUARY 16, 2018:201–30 2017 Pathways for Optimization of Heart Failure Treatment
Scenario 1: Worsening renal function or hyperkalemia. Scenario: Persistent low EF after at least 3 to 6 months
Action: Use less than target doses of ACEI/ARB/ARNI of optimal doses of all medications.
and discontinue aldosterone antagonist if estimated Action: Evaluate or refer for candidacy for implantable
creatinine clearance <30 cc/min or serum K þ >5.5 mEq/dL. cardioverter-defibrillator and/or cardiac resynchroniza-
Available data support a survival benefit even with low- tion therapy.
dose ACEI, which may be the default choice in the setting
of renal insufficiency and marginal blood pressure. Principle 7: Symptomatic congestion should be treated
Scenario 2: Symptomatic hypotension. with diuretics irrespective of other therapies.
Hypotensive symptoms may be due to overdiuresis,
other vasoactive medication, autonomic dysfunction, or
Action: Use adequate (but avoid excessive) diuretic
taking multiple medications together. All of these should
therapy to relieve congestion. In select patients with a
be addressed prior to deciding to lower doses of evidence-
volume status that is challenging to assess based on
based therapies.
bedside clinical parameters, pulmonary artery catheteri-
Action: After excluding other causes of hypotension,
zation and/or implanted pulmonary artery monitoring
use best-tolerated doses of GDMT, accepting that less data
may be useful. Continuous hemodynamic monitoring
exist for the impact of lower doses in HF management.
with implantable devices may improve outcomes, but the
infrastructure to support use and the optimal patient
Principle 3: Optimal SNS modulation with target doses of population for implantation must be addressed prior to
beta blocker appears to have the best effect on HFrEF widespread deployment.
outcomes (cardiovascular mortality, pump failure mor-
tality, and sudden cardiac death). Principle 8: Optimize team-based care.
Scenario: Patient is able to tolerate target doses of one Action: Employ multidisciplinary teams that include
and less than target doses of the other therapeutic agent. advanced practice nurses, clinical nurses, and pharma-
Action: Use target doses of beta blocker and, as cists to help titrate GDMT. Team management also facil-
necessary and if needed, lower doses of RAAS blockade. itates serial assessment and longitudinal care, including
management of comorbidities.
Scenario: Patients in sinus rhythm with a heart rate Action: Start at low doses and up-titrate based on
>70 bpm. tolerability. Patient education and frequent contact will
Action: Optimize beta-blocker doses, then consider shorten the time to achieve optimal therapy.
ivabradine. Important caveat: Frequent visits may include tele-
Important caveat: Persistent tachycardia may be a phone contact or virtual visits.
manifestation of severe cardiac dysfunction or non-
cardiovascular disease, such as thyroid dysfunction.
Principle 10: Focus on both the patients’ symptoms and
functional capacity as well as improving cardiac function.
Principle 5: African-American patients experience further
benefit from the use of HYD/ISDN therapy.
Action: Reassess functional status and health state and
refer appropriate patients when stable after recent hos-
Scenario: African-American patients on optimal doses of
pitalization for HF for a formal supervised cardiac reha-
all other therapies with persistent NYHA class III symptoms.
bilitation program.
Action: Add HYD/ISDN therapy.
Optimizing therapy not only involves addressing each
of these 10 principles, but also involves dose titration,
Principle 6: Primary prevention device therapy and car- monitoring of response, interactions (e.g., hypotension,
diac resynchronization therapy should only be considered renal function), and side effects. This occurs over a min-
after consistent use of optimal doses of all medications imum of months. Furthermore, multiple clinicians are
for 3 to 6 months. often required (e.g., HF and electrophysiology experts,
physicians, nurses, pharmacists, and other clinicians).
222 Yancy et al. JACC VOL. 71, NO. 2, 2018
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TABLE 16 Common Cardiac and Noncardiac Comorbidities Encountered in Patients With HFrEF
Association With
Heart Failure Clinical Trial Evidence for
Comorbidity Outcomes Modulating Comorbidity Suggested Action
Cardiovascular
Coronary Artery Disease Strong Strong Evaluate and revascularize in appropriate patients
Atrial Fibrillation/Flutter Strong Intermediate Treat according to current ACC/AHA/HRS Guideline for the
Management of Patients with Atrial Fibrillation (94)
Mitral Regurgitation Strong Intermediate Refer to structural heart disease expert & treat according to current AHA/ACC
Guideline for the Management of Patients with Valvular Heart Disease (95)
Aortic Stenosis Strong Strong Refer to structural heart disease expert & treat according to current AHA/ACC
Guideline for the Management of Patients with Valvular Heart Disease (95)
Hypertension Uncertain Strong for prevention Treat according to current ACC/AHA hypertension guidelines
Dyslipidemia Uncertain Strong for prevention Treat according to ACC/AHA Guideline on the Treatment of Blood Cholesterol to
Reduce Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Risk in Adults (96). Also see the
nonstatin treatment of dyslipidemia clinical pathways (97)
Peripheral Vascular Moderate None Treat according to current AHA/ACC vascular guidelines (98)
Disease
Cerebrovascular Disease Moderate Weak Treat according to current AHA stroke guidelines (99)
Noncardiovascular
Chronic Lung Disease Strong Weak Optimize therapy, consider pulmonary consultation
Diabetes Mellitus Strong Intermediate Optimize therapy, consider SGLT2 inhibitors, consider endocrine consult and
follow current American Diabetes Association Standards of Medical Care in
Diabetes (100)
Chronic Renal Disease Strong Weak Optimize RAASi therapy, consider nephrology consult
Anemia Moderate Weak Evaluate secondary causes, consider transfusing in severe cases
Iron Deficiency Strong Intermediate Consider intravenous iron replacement for symptom improvement
Sleep Disordered Strong Intermediate Consider sleep study and treat severe obstructive sleep apnea to improve sleep
Breathing quality, consider referring to sleep specialist
ACC ¼ American College of Cardiology; AHA ¼ American Heart Association; HRS ¼ Heart Rhythm Society; RAASi ¼ renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitor; SGLT2 ¼ sodium-
glucose co-transporter 2.
A team-based approach is an ideal strategy to attain associated with worsening symptoms and progression.
optimal therapy for HF. Being on high alert for and appropriately evaluating these
comorbidities is necessary, as their symptoms may over-
9. How to Manage Common Comorbidities lap with those of HF. Appropriate referral to clinicians
There is a bidirectional relationship between HF and with relevant experience treating the various comorbid-
comorbidities whereby, ities is an important aspect of management. Table 16
classifies comorbidities into cardiac and noncardiac
1. The presence of one increases the risk of incident
comorbidities, and provides guidance on appropriate
development of the other,
management options.
AND
10. How to Integrate Palliative Care and
2. Prognosis for the patient is worse if both are present Transition to Hospice Care
simultaneously.
Advances in care have delayed the progression of disease
Targeting comorbidities does not uniformly improve but rarely lead to a cure, such that the palliative care
HF outcomes, although encouraging data are emerging needs of patients, caregivers, and healthcare systems are
with the new antidiabetic class of sodium-glucose as great as ever. Most palliative care is provided by non-
cotransporter-2 inhibitors (93). Nevertheless, comorbid- palliative care specialists. Accordingly, such clinicians
ities should be evaluated and treated to improve overall shoulder the primary responsibility for coordinating an
patient outcomes, as these are the cause of a large pro- end-of-life plan consistent with values and goals
portion of hospitalizations in patients with HF and are expressed by patient and family. The following are
JACC VOL. 71, NO. 2, 2018 Yancy et al. 223
JANUARY 16, 2018:201–30 2017 Pathways for Optimization of Heart Failure Treatment
important points to consider regarding palliative care and (healthcare proxies) (2). Resources to assist patients in
transition to hospice. these difficult discussions may be useful (e.g., the
Advanced Care Training module from HFSA: http://www.
hfsa.org/module-9/). Similar preparedness-planning dis-
Principle 1: Palliative care strives to reduce suffering cussions should occur at the time of major procedural
through the relief of pain and other distressing symptoms interventions (e.g., LV assist device implantation, heart
while integrating psychological and spiritual aspects
transplantation).
of care.
2017 Pathways for Optimization of Heart Failure Treatment JANUARY 16, 2018:201–30
manage these occasionally fragile patients. HF is a major ACC PRESIDENTS AND STAFF
public health concern, one in which broader clinician
experience in GDMT would be expected to significantly Mary Norine Walsh, MD, FACC, President
benefit affected patients. With recent changes in avail- Shalom Jacobovitz, Chief Executive Officer
able diagnostics and therapeutics for HFrEF along with William J. Oetgen, MD, MBA, FACC, Executive Vice
evolution in recommended management strategies for President, Science, Education, Quality, and Publications
affected patients, many questions have emerged
Joseph M. Allen, MA, Team Leader, Clinical Policy and
regarding optimal deployment of these newer ap-
Pathways
proaches to patient care. Additionally, clinical practice
Lea G. Binder, MA, Team Leader, Physician Clinical
guidelines continue to evolve. In this context, we have
Pathways
highlighted important literature citations explaining the
Severa Chavez, Associate, Clinical Policy and Pathways
rationale for this changing picture in HFrEF care,
candidate best practices, and, where evidence or best Amanda Ladden-Stirling, MPP, Associate, Clinical Policy
practices are lacking, templates for clinical decision and Pathways
making to rationally manage patients. As more evidence Shira Klapper, Publications Manager, Science, Education,
emerges, many topics will be clarified. Quality, and Publications
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JANUARY 16, 2018:201–30 2017 Pathways for Optimization of Heart Failure Treatment
APPENDIX 1: AUTHOR RELATIONSHIPS WITH INDUSTRY AND OTHER ENTITIES (RELEVANT)—2017 ACC
EXPERT CONSENSUS DECISION PATHWAY FOR OPTIMIZATION OF HEART FAILURE TREATMENT
To avoid actual, potential, or perceived conflicts of members with no relevant relationships with industry
interest that may arise as a result of industry relation- (RWI), led by a chair with no relevant RWI. RWI is
ships or personal interests among the writing commit- reviewed on all conference calls and updated as changes
tee, all members of the writing committee, as well as occur. Author RWI pertinent to this document is
peer reviewers of the document, are asked to disclose disclosed in the following table, and peer reviewer
all current healthcare-related relationships, including information is disclosed in Appendix B. Additionally, to
those existing 12 months before initiation of the ensure complete transparency, authors’ comprehensive
writing effort. The ACC Task Force on Clinical Expert disclosure information—including RWI not pertinent
Consensus Decision Pathways reviews these disclosures to this document—is available online (See Online
to determine what companies make products (on market Appendix). Disclosure information for the ACC Task
or in development) that pertain to the document Force on Clinical Expert Consensus Decision Pathways is
under development. Based on this information, a also available Online, as is the ACC disclosure policy for
writing committee is formed to include a majority of document development.
Institutional,
Ownership/ Organizational, or
Committee Speakers Partnership/ Personal Other Financial Expert
Member Employment Consultant Bureau Principal Research Benefit Witness
Clyde W. Yancy Northwestern University, None None None None None None
(Chair) Feinberg School of
Medicine—Vice Dean, Diversity
& Inclusion; Magerstadt
Professor of Medicine; Chief,
Division of Cardiology
James L. Januzzi Jr. Massachusetts General n Critical None None n Amgen (DSMB)* None None
(Vice Chair) Hospital—Professor of Diagnostics* n Boehringer
Medicine, Harvard n Novartis* Ingelheim (CEC)*
Medical School n Philips* n Janssen Phar-
n Roche maceuticals
Diagnostics* (CEC)*
n Singulex†
n Roche
Diagnostics†
n Cleveland Heart
Labs†
Larry A. Allen University of Colorado School n Amgen None None None n Circulation None
of Medicine—Associate n Janssen Sci- Heart Failure
Professor of Medicine entific Affairs
n Novartis†
n St. Jude
n ZS Pharma
Javed Butler Stony Brook University School n Bayer† n Novartis† None n Amgen (DSMB)† n JACC None
of Medicine—Professor n Boehringer n Bristol-Myers n JACC Heart
of Medicine Ingelheim† Squibb (DSMB) Failure
n CardioCell† n Circulation
n CVRx
n Gilead
n Janssen
n Medtronic
n Merck†
n Novartis†
n Relypsa†
n ZS Pharma
Leslie L. Davis University of North Carolina, None None None None None None
Greensboro—Associate
Professor of Nursing
Gregg C. Fonarow David Geffen School of n Amgen None None n Medtronic None None
Medicine, UCLA Division of n Janssen n Novartis†
Cardiology—Professor n Medtronic
of Medicine n Novartis†
n St. Jude
n ZS Pharma
2017 Pathways for Optimization of Heart Failure Treatment JANUARY 16, 2018:201–30
APPENDIX 1. CONTINUED
Institutional,
Ownership/ Organizational, or
Committee Speakers Partnership/ Personal Other Financial Expert
Member Employment Consultant Bureau Principal Research Benefit Witness
Nasrien E. Ibrahim Massachusetts General n Novartis† None None None None None
Hospital—Clinical
Research Fellow
Mariell Jessup Fondation Leducq—Chief None None None None None None
Scientific Officer
JoAnn Lindenfeld Vanderbilt University— n Abbott None None n AstraZeneca* n AstraZeneca None
Director, Heart Failure and n Boston n Novartis† n St. Jude†
Transplantation Program Scientific
n Cardiomems†
n CVRx
n Janssen
n Novartis
n Relypsa†
n RESMED†
Thomas M. Maddox BJC Healthcare/Washington None None None None None None
University School of
Medicine–Director, Health
Systems Innovation Lab;
Professor of Medicine
(Cardiology)
Frederick A. Masoudi University of Colorado None None None None None None
Anschutz Medical Campus—
Professor of Medicine
Shweta R. Motiwala Beth Israel Deaconess Medical None None None None None None
Center—Instructor of
Medicine, Harvard Medical
School
J. Herbert Patterson UNC Eshelman School of n Novartis† None None n Amgen* None None
Pharmacy—Professor of n Novartis*
Pharmacy and Research; n Otsuka America*
Professor of Medicine
Mary Norine Walsh St. Vincent Heart Center— None None None None None None
Medical Director, Heart
Failure and Cardiac
Transplantation
Alan Wasserman The George Washington None None None None None None
University School of Medicine
and Health Sciences—Eugene
Meyer Professor of Medicine;
Chairman, Department of
Medicine
This table represents the relationships of committee members with industry and other entities that were determined to be relevant to this document. These relationships were
reviewed and updated in conjunction with all meetings and/or conference calls of the writing committee during the document development process. The table does not necessarily
reflect relationships with industry at the time of publication. A person is deemed to have a significant interest in a business if the interest represents ownership of $5% of the voting
stock or share of the business entity, or ownership of $$5,000 of the fair market value of the business entity; or if funds received by the person from the business entity exceed 5% of
the person’s gross income for the previous year. Relationships that exist with no financial benefit are also included for the purpose of transparency. Relationships in this table are
modest unless otherwise noted. According to the ACC, a person has a relevant relationship IF: a) the relationship or interest relates to the same or similar subject matter, intellectual
property or asset, topic, or issue addressed in the document; b) the company/entity (with whom the relationship exists) makes a drug, drug class, or device addressed in the document or
makes a competing drug or device addressed in the document; or c) the person or a member of the person’s household, has a reasonable potential for financial, professional or other
personal gain or loss as a result of the issues/content addressed in the document.
*Significant relationship.
†No financial benefit.
CEC ¼ Clinical Events Committee; DSMB ¼ Data Safety Monitoring Board; JACC ¼ Journal of the American College of Cardiology.
JACC VOL. 71, NO. 2, 2018 Yancy et al. 229
JANUARY 16, 2018:201–30 2017 Pathways for Optimization of Heart Failure Treatment
APPENDIX 2: PEER REVIEWER INFORMATION—2017 ACC EXPERT CONSENSUS DECISION PATHWAY FOR
OPTIMIZATION OF HEART FAILURE TREATMENT
This table represents the individuals, organizations, and corresponding comprehensive healthcare-related disclo-
groups that peer reviewed this document. A list of sures for each reviewer is available as Online Appendix 2.
Adrian F. Hernandez Official Reviewer—Task Force on Duke Clinical Research Institute—Director, Health Services Outcomes Research
Expert Consensus Decision
Pathways
Theodore P. Abraham Organizational Reviewer—ASE University of California at San Francisco—Meyer Friedman Distinguished Professor of Medicine
Chad Darling Organizational Reviewer—SAEM University of Massachusetts Medical School—Associate Professor, Department of
Emergency Medicine
Barbara A. Hutchinson Organizational Reviewer—ABC Chesapeake Cardiac Care—President; Association of Black Cardiologists—President
Phillip David Levy Organizational Reviewer—ACEP Wayne State University—Assistant Vice President; Associate Professor of Emergency Medicine;
Associate Director of Clinical Research, Department of Emergency Medicine
Robert Oberfield Organizational Reviewer—Mended Mended Hearts—Director, Cardiovascular CT; Registered Pharmacist
Hearts
Flora Sam Organizational Reviewer—AHA Boston University School of Medicine—Professor of Medicine, Whitaker Cardiovascular Institute
Luis C. Afonso Content Reviewer—ACC Task Force Wayne State University School of Medicine—Professor; Program Director, Adult Cardiovascular
on Expert Consensus Decision Fellowship; Harper University Hospital—Director, Echocardiography Laboratory; Detroit Medical
Pathways Center—Physician, Division of Cardiology
Akshay Desai Content Reviewer—Individual Brigham and Women’s Hospital—Associate Director, Brigham Cardiovascular Consultants; Harvard
Medical School—Associate Professor
Mark H. Drazner Content Reviewer—ACC/AHA University of Texas Southwestern—Clinical Chief of Cardiology; Medical Director of the Heart Failure,
Heart Failure Guideline LVAD, and Cardiac Transplantation Program
Writing Committee
Michael M. Givertz Content Reviewer—ACC/AHA Harvard Medical School—Medical Director, Heart Transplant and Mechanical Circulatory Support;
Heart Failure Guideline Professor, Internal Medicine
Writing Committee
Tyler J. Gluckman Content Reviewer—Individual Providence Heart and Vascular Institute—Medical Director
Lee R. Goldberg Content Reviewer—Individual University of Pennsylvania—Medical Director, Heart Failure and Transplantation Program; Hospital
of the University of Pennsylvania—Associate Professor
William J. Hucker Content Reviewer—ACC Task Force Massachusetts General Hospital—Fellow in Cardiovascular Medicine
on Expert Consensus Decision
Pathways
Joseph E. Marine Content Reviewer—ACC Task Force Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine—Associate Professor of Medicine
on Expert Consensus Decision
Pathways
Patrick Edward McBride Content Reviewer—ACC/AHA University of Wisconsin School of Medicine—Professor of Medicine; Family Medicine Associate; Dean
Heart Failure Guideline for Students; Associate Director, Preventive Cardiology Program
Writing Committee
2017 Pathways for Optimization of Heart Failure Treatment JANUARY 16, 2018:201–30
APPENDIX 2. CONTINUED
Pamela B. Morris Content Reviewer—ACC Task Force Medical University of South Carolina—Director, Seinsheimer Cardiovascular Health Program;
on Expert Consensus Decision Co-Director, Women’s Heart Care
Pathways
Gurusher S. Panjrath Content Reviewer—ACC Heart George Washington University—Assistant Professor of Medicine; Director, Heart Failure and
Failure Council Mechanical Support Program
Tina P. Shah Content Reviewer—ACC Heart Baylor College of Medicine Michael E. DeBakey VA Medical Center—Assistant Professor of Medicine
Failure Council
Lynne Warner Stevenson Content Reviewer—ACC/AHA Brigham and Women’s Hospital—Professor of Medicine
Heart Failure Guideline
Writing Committee
Karol E. Watson Content Reviewer—ACC Task UCLA Medical School—Co-Director, UCLA Program in Preventive Cardiology
Force on Expert Consensus
Decision Pathways
Barbara Wiggins Content Reviewer—ACC Task Medical University of South Carolina—Clinical Pharmacy Specialist Cardiology, Department of
Force on Expert Consensus Pharmacy Services
Decision Pathways
This table represents all relationships of peer reviewers with industry and other entities that were reported by authors, including those not deemed to be relevant to this document, at
the time this document was under development. The table does not necessarily reflect relationships with industry at the time of publication. A person is deemed to have a significant
interest in a business if the interest represents ownership of $5% of the voting stock or share of the business entity, or ownership of $$5,000 of the fair market value of the business
entity; or if funds received by the person from the business entity exceed 5% of the person’s gross income for the previous year. Relationships that exist with no financial benefit are
also included for the purpose of transparency. Relationships in this table are modest unless otherwise noted. Please refer to http://www.acc.org/guidelines/about-guidelines-and-
clinical-documents/relationships-with-industry-policy for definitions of disclosure categories or additional information about the ACC Disclosure Policy for Writing Committees.
AAHFN ¼ American Association of Heart Failure Nurses; ABC ¼ Association of Black Cardiologists; ACC ¼ American College of Cardiology; ACEP ¼ American College of Emergency
Physicians; AHA ¼ American Heart Association; APhA ¼ American Pharmacists Association; ASE ¼ American Society of Echocardiography; BOG ¼ Board of Governors; LVAD ¼ left
ventricular assist device; PCNA ¼ Preventive Cardiovascular Nurses Association; SAEM ¼ Society for Academic Emergency Medicine.
APPENDIX 3: ABBREVIATIONS