Mod2 Good

Wolkite University College of Computing and Informatics Department of IT
Chapter Two
Data Communication
The exchange of data between two devices through a transmission medium is called Data
Communication. The data is exchanged in the form of 0's and 1's. The transmission medium
used is wire or wireless. For data communication to occur, the communication device must be a
part of a communication system.
Communication means the exchange of information or messages. When we talk with each other,
we are exchanging information. Data communication can be defined as: “By using the
transmission media, data or information is transmitted from one location to another is called data
communication”. For data communication, computers, telephones, and wireless devices that are
linked in a network are used. Physical transfer of data over a point to point (communication
connection between two nodes or end points) or point to multi-point (communication which is
accomplished via distinct type of one to many connection) channel is called data transmission.
Data Communication has two types - Local and Remote which are discussed below:
Local: Local communication takes place when the communicating devices are in the same
geographical area, same building, or face-to-face etc.
Remote: Remote communication takes place over a distance i.e. the devices are farther.
The effectiveness of a data communication system depends on three fundamental characteristics:
 Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination.

 Accuracy: The system must deliver data accurately.
 Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner.
1
DC&CN Chapter 2 Lecture Note Prepared by Abraham A.
Components of Data Communication
1. Message: It is the information to be delivered.

2. Sender: Sender is the person who is sending the message.
3. Receiver: Receiver is the person to whom the message is being sent to.
4. Medium: It is the medium through which the message is sent. For example: A Modem.
5. Protocol: These are some set of rules which govern data communication.
 A protocol performs the following functions:
Data sequencing. It refers to breaking a long message into smaller packets of fixed size. Data
sequencing rules define the method of numbering packets to detect loss or duplication of packets,
and to correctly identify packets, which belong to same message.
Data routing. Data routing defines the most efficient path between the source and destination.
Data formatting. Data formatting rules define which group of bits or characters within packet
constitute data, control, addressing, or other information.
Flow control. A communication protocol also prevents a fast sender from overwhelming a slow
receiver. It ensures resource sharing and protection against traffic congestion by regulating the
flow of data on communication lines.
Error control. These rules are designed to detect errors in messages and to ensure transmission
of correct messages. The most common method is to retransmit erroneous message block. In
such a case, a block having error is discarded by the receiver and is retransmitted by the sender.
Precedence and order of transmission. These rules ensure that all the nodes get a chance to use
the communication lines and other resources of the network based on the priorities assigned to
them.
Connection establishment and termination. These rules define how connections are
established, maintained and terminated when two nodes of a network want to communicate with
each other.
Data security. Providing data security and privacy is also built into most communication
software packages. It prevents access of data by unauthorized users.
2
Log information. Several communication software is designed to develop log information,

which consists of all jobs and data communications tasks that have taken place. Such information
may be used for charging the users of the network based on their usage of the network resources.
Basic Communication Model
A Communication model is used to exchange data between two parties. For example:
communication between a computer, server and telephone (through modem).
Source: Data to be transmitted is generated by this device, example: telephones, personal

computers etc. Data used in communication system may be consisting of text, numbers, images,
audio and video.
Transmitter: The data generated by the source system is not directly transmitted in the form its
generated. The transmitter transforms and encodes the data in such a form to produce
electromagnetic waves or signals.
Transmission System: A transmission system can be a single transmission line or a complex

network connecting source and destination.
Receiver: It accepts the signal from the transmission system and converts it into a form which is
easily managed by the destination device.
Destination: It receives the incoming data from the receiver.
3
Data Transmission
Data transmission is the process of sending digital or analog data over a communication medium
to one or more computing, network, communication or electronic devices. It enables the transfer
and communication of devices in a point-to-point, point-to-multipoint and multipoint-to-
multipoint environment.
Data transmission is also known as digital transmission or digital communications.
How does data transmission work between digital devices?
Data is transferred in the form of bits between two or more digital devices.
There are two methods used to transmit data between digital devices: Serial transmission and
Parallel transmission.
Serial Transmission
 Serial data transmission sends data bits one after another over a single channel.
 In serial data transmission, bits are sent sequentially (one after the other) down the same
wire (channel).
 Using a single wire reduces costs but slows down the speed of transmission.
 Sending data sequentially is perfect for transmitting over longer distances as there are no
synchronization issues.
In Serial Transmission, data is sent bit by bit from one computer to another in bi-direction. Each
bit has its clock pulse rate. Eight bits are transferred at a time having a start and stop bit (usually
known as a Parity bit) i.e. 0 and 1 respectively. For transmitting data to a longer distance, data
cables are used. It consists of D-shaped 9 pin cable that connects the data in series.
When data is sent or received using serial data transmission, the data bits are organized in a
specific order, since they can only be sent one after another. The order of the data bits is
important as it dictates how the transmission is organized when it is received. It is viewed as a
reliable data transmission method because a data bit is only sent if the previous data bit has
already been received.
4
or
Typical applications
 Transmission to another computer or to external devices

 Medium to long distances
 Universal Serial Bus (USB)
Serial transmission has two classifications: Synchronous and Asynchronous.
Synchronous Serial Transmission
 In synchronous transmission, no extra bit is added rather the data transferred in the form
of frames which contains multiple bytes. i.e. data flows in a full duplex mode in the form
of blocks or frames
 Data bits are transmitted as a continuous stream in time with a master clock. The data
transmitter and receiver both operate using a synchronized clock frequency; therefore,
start bits, stop bits, and gaps are not used. This means that data moves faster and timing
errors are less frequent because the transmitter and receiver time is synced. However,
data accuracy is highly dependent on timing being synced correctly between devices. In
comparison with asynchronous serial transmission, this method is usually more
expensive.
 Synchronous Transmission is efficient, reliable and is used for transferring a large
amount of data. It provides real-time communication between connected devices.
Example:Chat Rooms, Video Conferencing, telephonic conversations, as well as face to

face interactions etc.
5
Asynchronous Serial Transmission
 In Asynchronous Transmission data flows in a half-duplex mode, 1 byte or a character at

a time. It transmits the data in a continuous stream of bytes. In general, the size of a
character sent is 8 bits to which a parity bit is added i.e. a start and a stop bit that gives
the total of 10 bits. It does not require a clock for synchronization; rather it uses the parity
bits to tell the receiver how to interpret the data.
 In this methodan extra bit is added to each byte so that the receiver is alert about the
arrival of new data. Usually, 0 is a start bit, and 1 is the stop bit.
 Data bits can be sent at any point in time. Stop bits and start bits are used between data
bytes to synchronize the transmitter and receiverto ensure that the data is transmitted
correctly. The time between sending and receiving data bits is not constant, so gaps are
used to provide time between transmissions.
o Advantage of using the asynchronous method is that no synchronization is required

between the transmitter and receiver devices. It is also a more cost-effective method.
o Disadvantage: data transmission can be slower, but this is not always the case.
It is simple, fast, economical and does not require a 2-way communication.
Examples: Letters, emails, forums, televisions and radios etc.
Comparison Chart
Basis for Comparison Synchronous Transmission Asynchronous Transmission

Sends data in the form of
Meaning Sends 1 byte or character at a time
blocks or frames
transmission Speed Fast Slow
Cost Expensive Economical
Time Interval Constant Random
Gap between the data Absent Present
6
Chat Rooms, Video

Conferencing, telephonic
conversations, as well as face Letters, emails, forums, televisions
Examples
to face interactions etc. and radios, etc.
Key Differences Between Synchronous and Asynchronous Transmission
1. In Synchronous Transmission data is transferred in the form of frames on the other hand
in Asynchronous Transmission data is transmitted 1 byte at a time.
2. Synchronous Transmission requires a clock signal between the sender and receiver so as
to inform the receiver about the new byte. Whereas, in Asynchronous Transmission
sender and receiver does not require a clock signal as the data sent here has a parity bit
attached to it which indicates the start of the new byte.
3. Data transfer rate of Asynchronous Transmission is slower than that of Synchronous
Transmission.
4. Asynchronous Transmission is simple and economic whereas, Synchronous Transmission
is complex and expensive.
5. Synchronous Transmission is efficient and has lower overhead as compared to the
Asynchronous Transmission.
When is serial transmission used to send data?
Serial transmission is normally used for long-distance data transfer. It is also used in cases where
the amount of data being sent is relatively small. It ensures that data integrity is maintained as it
transmits the data bits in a specific order, one after another. In this way, data bits are received in-
sync with one another.
Parallel Data transmission
 When data is sent using parallel data transmission, multiple data bits are transmitted over
multiple channels at the same time. This means that data can be sent much faster than
using serial transmission methods.
 Data is synchronized by a clock; however, this becomes problematic over longer
distances where synchronization errors may start to occur.
 Using parallel wires is more expensive but transmission is faster.
7
Parallel Transmission uses a 25-pin port having 17 signal lines and 8 ground lines. The 17 signal
lines are further divided as
 4 lines that initiates handshaking,

 5 status lines used to communicate and notify errors and
 8 to transfer data.
Given that multiple bits are sent over multiple channels at the same time, the order in which a bit
string is received can depend on various conditions, such as proximity to the data source, user
location, and bandwidth availability. Two examples of parallel interfaces can be seen below. In
the first parallel interface, the data is sent and received in the correct order. In the second parallel
interface, the data is sent in the correct order, but some bits were received faster than others.
Example of Parallel Transmission – Data Received Correctly
Example of Parallel Transmission – Data Received Incorrectly
8
Advantages
 It is easier to program; and
 Data is sent faster.
Disadvantages
 It requires more transmission channels than serial transmission. This means that data bits
can be out of sync, depending on transfer distance and how fast each bit loads. A simple
of example of where this can be seen is with a voice over IP (VOIP) call when distortion
or interference is noticeable.
 There is skipping or interference on a video stream.
When is parallel transmission used to send data?
 A large amount of data is being sent;

 The data being sent is time-sensitive;
 And the data needs to be sent quickly.
Typical applications
 Fast transmission within a computer system

 Short distances
 Integrated Circuits (IC), Busses
Basis for Comparison Serial Transmission Parallel Transmission

Data flows in bi-direction, bit Multiple lines are used to send
Meaning
by bit data i.e. 8 bits or 1 byte at a time
Cost Economical Expensive
Bits transferred at 1 clock
1 bit 8 bits or 1 byte
pulse
Speed Slow Fast
Used for long distance
Short distance. Eg, computer to
Applications communication. Eg,
printer
Computer to computer
9
Key Differences Between Serial and Parallel Transmission
Serial Transmission Parallel Transmission
It requires a single line to communicate and transfer It requires multiple lines

data
It used for long distance communication It used for shorter distance
Error and noise are least in serial (one bit follows) Multiple bits are sent together
Data flows through a single wire Faster as the data is transmitted using
multiples lines
Full duplex as the sender can send as well as receive half duplex since the data is either sent or
the data received
Cables are thinner, longer and economical Cables are short and less economical
Reliable and Straightforward Unreliable and complicated
Assignment 1
 Explain the Concepts and Terminology of Data Communication.

 Explain Analog and Digital Data Transmission with diagram and show their difference by
tabular form.
Transmission Modes (flow of information)
Transmission mode refers to the mechanism of transferring of data between two devices
connected over a network. It is also called Communication Mode. These modes direct the
direction of flow of information. There are three types of transmission modes. These are:
Simplex Mode
In this type of transmission mode, data can be sent only in one direction i.e. communication is
unidirectional. We cannot send a message back to the sender. Unidirectional communication is
10
done in Simplex Systems where we just need to send a command/signal, and do not expect any
response back.
Examples of simplex Mode are loudspeakers, television broadcasting, television and remote,
keyboard and monitor etc.
Half Duplex Mode
Half-duplex data transmission means that data can be transmitted in both directions on a signal
carrier, but not at the same time.
Example of half-duplex is a walkie- talkie (police radio),CB (citizens band) radioin which
message is sent one at a time but messages are sent in both the directions.
Full Duplex Mode
In full duplex system we can send data in both the directions as it is bidirectional at the same
time in other words, data can be sent in both directions simultaneously. i.e. system there can be
two lines one for sending the data and the other for receiving data.
Example of Full Duplex is a Telephone Network in which there is communication between two
persons by a telephone line, using which both can talk and listen at the same time.
11
Transmission Impairment
With any communications system, the signal that is received may differ from the signal that is
transmitted, due to various transmission impairments.
Consequences:
— For analog signals: degradation of signal quality

— For digital signals: bit errors
 Attenuation: Signal strength falls off with distance.
Depends on medium
 For guided media, the attenuation is generally exponential and thus is typically
expressed as a constant number of decibels per unit distance.
 For unguided media, attenuation is a more complex function of distance and the
makeup of the atmosphere.
For the receiver to interpret the data accurately, the signal must be sufficiently strong. When the
signal passes through the medium, it tends to get weaker. As it covers distance, it loses strength.
 Dispersion
As signal travels through the media, it tends to spread and overlaps. The amount of
dispersion depends upon the frequency used.
 Delay distortion
 Delay distortion occurs because the velocity of propagation of a signal through a

guided medium varies with frequency.
 Various frequency components of a signal will arrive at the receiver at different
times, resulting in phase shifts between the different frequencies.
 Delay distortion is particularly critical for digital data
Some of the signal components of one-bit position will spill over into other bit positions, causing
intersymbol interference, which is a major limitation to maximum bit rate over a transmission
channel.Signals are sent over media with pre-defined speed and frequency. If the signal speed
and frequency do not match, there are possibilities that signal reaches destination in arbitrary
fashion.
In digital media, this is very critical that some bits reach earlier than the previously sent ones.
12
 Noise
 For any data transmission event, the received signal will consist of the transmitted
signal, modified by the various distortions imposed by the transmission system, plus
additional unwanted signals that are inserted somewhere between transmission and
reception.
 The undesired signals are referred to as noise, which is the major limiting factor in
communications system performance.
 Random disturbance or fluctuation in analog or digital signal is said to be Noise in
signal, which may distort the actual information being carried.
Four categories of noise:
 Thermal noise (white noise)  Crosstalk

 Intermodulation noise  Impulse noise
 Thermal noise (or white noise)
 Heat agitates the electronic conductors of a medium which may introduce

noise in the media. Up to a certain level, thermal noise is unavoidable.
 Intermodulation
 Signals at a frequency that is the sum or difference of original frequencies

or multiples of those frequencies will be produced.
 Crosstalk
 It is an unwanted coupling between signal paths. It can occur by electrical

coupling between nearby twisted pairs.
 This sort of noise happens when a foreign signal enters into the
media.This is because signal in one medium affects the signal of second
medium.
 Impulse
 Impulse noise is non-continuous, consisting of irregular pulses or noise

spikes of short duration and of relatively high amplitude.
 It is generated from a variety of cause, e.g., external electromagnetic
disturbances such as lightning.
 This noise is introduced because of irregular disturbances such as
lightening, electricity, short-circuit, or faulty components. Digital data is
mostly affected by this sort of noise.
13
Transmission Mediums in Computer Networks
 Transmission medium is the means through which we send our data from one place to
another. The first layer (physical layer) of Communication Networks OSI Seven-layer
model is dedicated to the transmission media, we will study the OSI Model later.
 Data is represented by computers and other telecommunication devices using
signals.Signals are transmitted in the form of electromagnetic energy from one device to
another. Electromagnetic signals travel through vacuum, air or other transmission
mediums to move from one point to another (from sender to receiver).
 Electromagnetic energy (includes electrical and magnetic fields) consists of power, voice,
visible light, radio waves, ultraviolet light, gamma rays etc.
Factors to be considered while selecting a Transmission Medium
1. Transmission Rate
2. Cost and Ease of Installation
3. Resistance to Environmental Conditions
4. Distances
14
Bounded or Guided Transmission Media
Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another, include
Twisted-Pair Cable, Coaxial Cable, and Fiber-Optic Cable.
A signal travelling along any of these media is directed and contained by the physical limits of
the medium. Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept and
transport signals in the form of electric current. Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and
transports signals in the form of light.
Twisted Pair Cable
This cable is the most commonly used and is cheaper than others. It is lightweight, cheap, can be
installed easily, and they support many different types of network.
Some important pointstwisted pair cable
 Its frequency range is 0 to 3.5 kHz.

 Typical attenuation is 0.2 dB/Km @ 1kHz.
 Typical delay is 50 µs/km.
 Repeater spacing is 2km.
A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its own plastic insulation,
twisted together. One of these wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used
only as ground reference. The receiver uses the difference between the two. In addition to the
signal sent by the sender on one of the wires, interference(noise) and crosstalk may affect both
wires and create unwanted signals. If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted
signals is not the same in both wires because they are at different locations relative to the noise
or crosstalk sources. This results in a difference at the receiver.
Twisted Pair has two types:
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable
It consists of two insulating copper wires (1mm thick). The wires are twisted together in a helical
form to reduce electrical interference from similar pair. It is the most common type of
telecommunication when compared with Shielded Twisted Pair Cable which consists of two
conductors usually copper, each with its own color plastic insulator. Identification is the reason
15
behind colored plastic insulation.UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable. Cable with 2
pair use RJ-11 connector and 4 pair cable use RJ-45 connector.
Advantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable
 Installation is easy  100-meter limit

 Flexible  Higher grades of UTP are used in
 Cheap LAN technologies like Ethernet.
 It has high speed capacity,
Disadvantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable
 Bandwidth is low when compared with Coaxial Cable

 Provides less protection from interference.
Shielded Twisted Pair Cable
This cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering which encases each pair of insulated
conductors. Electromagnetic noise penetration is prevented by metal casing. Shielding also
eliminates crosstalk (explained in KEY TERMS Chapter).
It has same attenuation as unshielded twisted pair. It is faster the unshielded and coaxial cable. It
is more expensive than coaxial and unshielded twisted pair.
16
Performance of Shielded Twisted Pair Cable
One way to measure the performance of twisted-pair cable is to compare attenuation versus
frequency and distance. As shown in the below figure, a twisted-pair cable can pass a wide range
of frequencies. However, with increasing frequency, the attenuation, measured in decibels per
kilometer (dB/km), sharply increases with frequencies above 100kHz. Note that gauge is a
measure of the thickness of the wire.
Advantages of Shielded Twisted Pair Cable
 Easy to install  Increases the signaling rate

 Performance is adequate  Higher capacity than unshielded
 Can be used for Analog or Digital twisted pair
transmission  Eliminates crosstalk
Disadvantages of Shielded Twisted Pair Cable
 Difficult to manufacture
 Heavy
Applications of Shielded Twisted Pair Cable
 In telephone lines to provide voice and data channels. The DSL lines that are used by the
telephone companies to provide high-data-rate connections also use the high-bandwidth
capability of unshielded twisted-pair cables.
 Local Area Network, such as 10Base-T and 100Base-T, also use twisted-pair cables.
17
Coaxial Cable (Oliver Heaviside invented coaxial cable in 1880)
RG-59 flexible coaxial cable composed of:
 Outer plastic sheath

 Woven copper shield
 Inner dielectric insulator
 Copper core
18
Coaxial is called by this name because it contains two conductors that are parallel to each other.
Copper is used in this as center conductor which can be a solid wire or a standard one. It is
surrounded by PVC installation, a sheath which is encased in an outer conductor of metal foil,
braided or both.
Outer metallic wrapping is used as a shield against noise and as the second conductor which
completes the circuit. The outer conductor is also encased in an insulating sheath. The outermost
part is the plastic cover which protects the whole cable.
Coaxial Cable Standards
Coaxial cables are categorized by their Radio Government (RG) ratings. Each RG number
denotes a unique set of physical specifications, including the wire gauge of the inner conductor,
the thickness and the type of the inner insulator, the construction of the shield, and the size and
type of the outer casing. Each cable defined by an RG rating is adapted for a specialized
function, as shown in the table below:
Here the most common coaxial standards.
 50-Ohm RG-7 or RG-11: used with thick Ethernet.

 50-Ohm RG-58: used with thin Ethernet
 75-Ohm RG-59: used with cable television
 93-Ohm RG-62: used with ARCNET.
Coaxial Cable Connectors
To connect coaxial cable to devices, we need coaxial connectors. The most common type of
connector used today is the Bayonet Neill-Councilman (BNC) connector. The below figure
shows 3 popular types of these connectors: the BNC Connector, the BNC T connector and the
BNC terminator.
19
The BNC connector is used to connect the end of the cable to the device, such as a TV set. The
BNC T connector is used in Ethernet networks to branch out to a connection to a computer or
other device. The BNC terminator is used at the end of the cable to prevent the reflection of the
signal. There are two types of Coaxial cables:
 Baseband
 Broadband
Baseband: This is a 50 ohm (Ω) coaxial cable which is used for digital transmission. It is mostly
used for LAN's. Baseband transmits a single signal at a time with very high speed. The major
drawback is that it needs amplification after every 1000 feet.
Broadband: This uses analogy transmission on standard cable television cabling. It transmits
several simultaneous signals using different frequencies. It covers large area when compared
with Baseband Coaxial Cable.
Performance of Coaxial Cable
We can measure the performance of a coaxial cable in same way as that of Twisted Pair Cables.
From the below figure, it can be seen that the attenuation is much higher in coaxial cable than in
twisted-pair cable. In other words, although coaxial cable has a much higher bandwidth, the
signal weakens rapidly and requires the frequent use of repeaters.
20
Advantages of Coaxial Cable
 Bandwidth is high
 Used in long distance telephone lines.
 Transmits digital signals at a very high rate of 10Mbps.
 Much higher noise immunity
 Data transmission without distortion.
 The can span to longer distance at higher speeds as they have better shielding when
compared to twisted pair cable
Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable
 Single cable failure can fail the entire network.

 Difficult to install and expensive when compared with twisted pair.
 If the shield is imperfect, it can lead to grounded loop.
Applications of Coaxial Cable
o Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks, where a single coaxial
network could carry 10,000 voice signals.
o Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables. In the traditional cable TV network, the
entire network used coaxial cable. Cable TV uses RG-59 coaxial cable.
o In traditional Ethernet LANs. Because of its high bandwidth, and consequence high data
rate, coaxial cable was chosen for digital transmission in early Ethernet LANs.
o The 10Base-2, or Thin Ethernet, uses RG-58 coaxial cable with BNC connectors to
transmit data at 10Mbps with a range of 185 m.
Fiber Optic Cable
 Optical fiber consists of thin glass fibers or plastic that can carry information at
frequencies in the visible light spectrum and beyond. The typical optical fiber consists of
a very narrow strand of glass called the core. Around the core is a concentric layer of
glass called the cladding.
 Fast data transmission rate is an advantage to using fiber optics data transmission.
 A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.
The below figure shows how a ray of light changes direction when going from a denser to a
less dense substance.
21
Bending of a light ray
As the figure shows:
 If the angle of incidence I(the angle the ray makes with the line perpendicular to the
interface between the two substances) is less than the critical angle, the ray refracts and
moves closer to the surface.
 If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, the ray reflects (makes a turn)
and travels again in the denser substance.
 If the angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle, the ray refracts and moves parallel
to the surface as shown.
An optical transmission system has three basic components

 Light source
 Transmission medium (fiber optics)
 Detector
Light source: In such a system a pulse of light indicates bit 1 and the absence of light indicates
bit 0. Light source can be an LED or a laser beam.
Transmission medium: Transmission medium is the ultra-thin fiber of glass.
Detector: A detector generates an electrical pulse when the light falls on it,
22
 A typical core diameter is 62.5 microns.

 Typically cladding has a diameter of 125 microns.
 100 microwatts power (roughly) a light emitting diode can couple into an optical fiber.
 Coating the cladding is a protective coating consisting of plastic, it is called the Jacket.
The loss in signal power as light travels down the fiber is called attenuation. An important
characteristic of fiber optics is refraction. Refraction is the characteristic of a material to either
pass or reflect light. When light passes through a medium, its “bends” as it passes from one
medium to the other.
Fig.Internal view of an Optical fiber
Characteristics of Optical Fiber Cables:

 Fiber optic cabling can provide extremely high bandwidths in the range from 100 Mbps
to 2 gigabits because light has a much higher frequency than electricity.
 The number of nodes which a fiber optic can support does not depend on its length but on
the hub or hubs that connect cables together.
 Fiber optic cable has much lower attenuation and can carry signal to longer distances
without using amplifiers and repeaters in between.
 Fiber optic cable is not affected by EMI effects and can be used in areas where high
voltages are passing by.
 The cost of fiber optic cable is more compared to twisted pair and co-axial.
 The installation of fiber optic cables is difficult and tedious.
Modes ofFiber Optic Cable
Current technology supports two modes (Multimode and Single mode) for propagating light
along optical channels, each requiring fiber with different physical characteristics. Multimode
can be implemented in two forms: Step-index and Graded-index.
23
Single Mode Fiber
Single mode uses step-index fiber and a highly focused source of light that limits beams to a
small range of angles, all close to the horizontal. The single-mode fiber itself is manufactured
with a much smaller diameter than that of multimode fiber, and with substantially lower density.
The decrease in density results in a critical angle that is close enough to 90 degree to make the
propagation of beams almost horizontal.
The various characteristics of Single mode fiber are: -

o The diameter of glass core in single mode fiber is very small ranging from 8 to 10
microns.
o In this mode, light can propagate only in a straight line, without bouncing.
o Fiber glass has lower density (index of refraction) that creates a critical angle close
enough to 90° such that the beam propagates in a straight line.
o In this case, propagation of different beams is almost identical and delays are negligible.
The beams arrive at destination together and can be recombined with little distortion to
the signal.
o Single mode fibers are more expensive and are widely used for long distance
communication.
o These types of fibers can transmit data at 50 Gbps for 100 kilometers without
amplification.
Multimode Fiber
 In multimode fiber, multiple beams travel in the core in different paths.
 In multimode fiber, the diameter of core is about 50 microns.
Multimode fibers are categorized into Step index fibers and Graded index fibers.
a) Step Index Fiber

 Density of core remains constant from the center to the edges.
 A beam of light moves in a straight line in this medium until it reaches the interface of
core and the cladding.
24
 The term step-index refers to the suddenness of this change, which contributes to the
distortion of the signal as it passes through the fiber.
 At this interface, the angle of ray is changed due to the change in density.
 In this mode, some beams travel in a straight line through the core and reaches
destination without reflection or refraction.
 The beams that strike the interface of core and cladding at an angle smaller than critical
angle penetrate the cladding and are lost.
 The beams striking at angle greater than critical angle are reflected back in core and form
total internal reflection.
 In this fiber, a ray with smaller angle of incidence requires more bounces thus will take
more time to reach the destination whereas the ray with high angle of incidence will
require a smaller number of bounces and will reach the destination in lesser time.
b) Graded Index Fiber

 A graded index fiber has different densities at the core and at the edges. Density is
highest at the center of the core and decreases gradually to its lowest at the edge.
 Because of this difference in densities, different beams refract at different angles into a
curve
 Only the horizontal beams move in a straight line due to constant density at the centre.
25
Fiber Sizes for Faber Optic Cable
Optical fibers are defined by the ratio of the diameter or their core to the diameter of their
cladding, both expressed in micrometers. The common sizes are shown in the figure below:
Fiber Optic Cable Connectors
There are three types of connectors for fiber-optic cables, as shown in the figure below.
 Subscriber Channel (SC) connector is used for cable TV. It uses push/pull locking
system.
 Straight-Tip (ST) connector is used for connecting cable to the networking devices.
 MT-RJ is a connector that is the same size as RJ45.
Performance of Fiber Optic Cable
26
 Attenuation is flatter than in the case of twisted-pair cable and coaxial cable. The
performance is such that we need fewer (actually one tenth as many) repeaters when we
use the fiber-optic cable.
Advantages of Fiber Optic Cable
 Higher bandwidth
 Less signal attenuation
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference
 Resistance to corrosive materials
 Light weight
 Fibers do not leak light and are quite difficult to tap
 There is no cross-talk problem in optical fibers
 Highly suitable for environments where speed is needed with full accuracy
 Optical fibers cost lower than the cables with metallic conductors
 Attenuation (loss of signal) is very low
 Greater immunity to tapping
 Is not affected by electrical and magnetic interference
Disadvantages of Fiber Optic Cable
 It require skilled people to administer,installation and maintenance.

 Optical fibers are unidirectional for two-way communication; two fibers are required.
 High Cost/expensive
 Fiber optics cables are fragile i.e. more easily broken than wires.
Applications of Fiber Optic Cable
 Often found in backbone networks because its wide bandwidth is cost-effective.

 Some cable TV companies use a combination of optical fiber and coaxial cable thus
creating a hybrid network.
 Optical fibers are now used in the telephone systems.
 In the Local Area Networks (LANs).
Unbounded or Unguided Transmission Media
Unguided medium transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor. This
type of communication is often referred to as wireless communication. Signals are normally
27
broadcast through free space and thus are available to anyone who has a device capable of
receiving them.
The below figure shows the part of the electromagnetic spectrum, ranging from 3 kHz to 900
THz, used for wireless communication.
Unguided signals can travel from the source to the destination in several ways:
 Ground propagation,
 Sky propagation and
 Line-of-sight propagation as shown in below figure.
Propagation Modes
 Ground Propagation: In this, radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the
atmosphere, hugging the Earth. These low-frequency signals emanate in all directions
from the transmitting antenna and follow the curvature of the planet.
 Sky Propagation: In this, higher-frequency radio waves radiate upward into the
ionosphere where they are reflected back to Earth. This type of transmission allows for
greater distances with lower output power.
28
 Line-of-sight Propagation: in this type, very high-frequency signals are transmitted in

straight lines directly from antenna to antenna.
We can divide wireless transmission into three broad groups:
1. Radio waves
2. Micro waves
3. Infrared wave
Radio Waves:
 Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 KHz and 1 GHz are normally
called radio waves.
 Radio waves are omnidirectional. When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are
propagated in all directions. This means that the sending and receiving antennas do not
have to be aligned. A sending antenna send waves that can be received by any receiving
antenna. The omnidirectional property has disadvantage, too. The radio waves
transmitted by one antenna are susceptible to interference by another antenna that may
send signal suing the same frequency or band. Radio waves, particularly with those of
low and medium frequencies, can penetrate walls.
 This characteristic can be both an advantage and a disadvantage. It is an advantage
because, an AM radio can receive signals inside a building. It is a disadvantage because
we cannot isolate a communication to just inside or outside a building.
Omnidirectional Antenna for Radio Waves
Radio waves use omnidirectional antennas that send out signals in all directions.
29
Applications of Radio Waves
 The omnidirectional characteristics of radio waves make them useful for multicasting in
which there is one sender but many receivers.
 AM (Amplitude Modulation)) and FM (Frequency Modulation) radio, television,
maritime radio, cordless phones, and paging are examples of multicasting.
Micro Waves
Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called micro waves.
Micro waves are unidirectional. When an antenna transmits microwaves, they can be narrowly
focused. This means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned. The
unidirectional property has an obvious advantage. A pair of antennas can be aligned without
interfering with another pair of aligned antennas.
The following describes some characteristics of microwaves propagation:
o Microwave propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with the mounted antennas need
to be in direct sight of each other, towers that are far apart need to be very tall.
o Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This characteristic can be a
disadvantage if receivers are inside the buildings.
o The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz. Therefore, wider sub-bands can
be assigned and a high date rate is possible.
o Use of certain portions of the band requires permission from authorities.
Unidirectional Antenna for Micro Waves
Microwaves need unidirectional antennas that send out signals in one direction. Two types of
antennas are used for microwave communications: Parabolic Dish and Horn.
There are two types of antennas used for microwave communication:
A parabolic antenna works as a funnel, catching a wide range of waves and directing them to a
common point. In this way, more of the signal is recovered than would be possible with a single-
point receiver.
A horn antenna looks like a gigantic scoop. Outgoing transmissions are broadcast up a stem and
deflected outward in a series of narrow parallel beams by the curved head. Received
transmissions are collected by the scooped shape of the horn, in a manner similar to the parabolic
dish, and are deflected down into the stem.
30
Applications of Micro Waves
Microwaves, due to their unidirectional properties, are very useful when unicast(one-to-one)
communication is needed between the sender and the receiver. They are used in cellular phones,
satellite networks and wireless LANs.
Advantages of Microwave Transmission
 Used for long distance telephone communication

 Carries 1000's of voice channels at the same time
Disadvantages of Microwave Transmission
 It is very costly
There are 2 types of Microwave Transmission:
1. Terrestrial Microwave
2. Satellite Microwave
Terrestrial Microwave
For increasing the distance served by terrestrial microwave, repeaters can be installed with each
antenna. The signal received by an antenna can be converted into transmittable form and relayed
to next antenna as shown in below figure. It is an example of telephone systems all over the
world
31
Satellite Microwave
This is a microwave relay station which is placed in outer space. The satellites are launched
either by rockets or space shuttles carry them.
These are positioned 36000 Km above the equator with an orbit speed that exactly matches the
rotation speed of the earth. As the satellite is positioned in a geo-synchronous orbit, it is
stationery relative to earth and always stays over the same point on the ground. This is usually
done to allow ground stations to aim antenna at a fixed point in the sky.
Features of Satellite Microwave
 Bandwidth capacity depends on the frequency used.

 Satellite microwave deployment for orbiting satellite is difficult.
Advantages of Satellite Microwave
 Transmitting station can receive back its own transmission and check whether the
satellite has transmitted information correctly.
 A single microwave relay station which is visible from any point.
32
Disadvantages of Satellite Microwave
 Satellite manufacturing cost is very high

 Cost of launching satellite is very expensive
 Transmission highly depends on whether conditions, it can go down in bad weather
Infrared Waves
 Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz, can be used for short-range
communication. Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls. This
advantageous characteristic prevents interference between one system and another, a
short-range communication system in on room cannot be affected by another system in
the next room.
 When we use infrared remote control, we do not interfere with the use of the remote by
our neighbors. However, this same characteristic makes infrared signals useless for long-
range communication. In addition, we cannot use infrared waves outside a building
because the sun's rays contain infrared waves that can interfere with the communication.
Applications of Infrared Waves
 The infrared band, almost 400 THz, has an excellent potential for data transmission. Such
a wide bandwidth can be used to transmit digital data with a very high data rate.
 The Infrared Data Association (IrDA), an association for sponsoring the use of infrared
waves, has established standards for using these signals for communication between
devices such as keyboards, mouse, PCs and printers.
 Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed area using line-of-
sight propagation.
33

Mod2 Good

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Mod2 Good

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Wolkite University College of Computing and Informatics Department of IT

The effectiveness of a data communication system depends on three fundamental characteristics:

 Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct destination.

Components of Data Communication

1. Message: It is the information to be delivered.

 A protocol performs the following functions:

Log information. Several communication software is designed to develop log information,

Basic Communication Model

Source: Data to be transmitted is generated by this device, example: telephones, personal

Transmission System: A transmission system can be a single transmission line or a complex

Destination: It receives the incoming data from the receiver.

Data transmission is also known as digital transmission or digital communications.

How does data transmission work between digital devices?

 Transmission to another computer or to external devices

Serial transmission has two classifications: Synchronous and Asynchronous.

Synchronous Serial Transmission

Example:Chat Rooms, Video Conferencing, telephonic conversations, as well as face to

Asynchronous Serial Transmission

 In Asynchronous Transmission data flows in a half-duplex mode, 1 byte or a character at

o Advantage of using the asynchronous method is that no synchronization is required

It is simple, fast, economical and does not require a 2-way communication.

Examples: Letters, emails, forums, televisions and radios etc.

Basis for Comparison Synchronous Transmission Asynchronous Transmission

Chat Rooms, Video

Key Differences Between Synchronous and Asynchronous Transmission

When is serial transmission used to send data?

Parallel Data transmission

 4 lines that initiates handshaking,

Example of Parallel Transmission – Data Received Correctly

Example of Parallel Transmission – Data Received Incorrectly

When is parallel transmission used to send data?

 A large amount of data is being sent;

 Fast transmission within a computer system

Basis for Comparison Serial Transmission Parallel Transmission

Key Differences Between Serial and Parallel Transmission

Serial Transmission Parallel Transmission

It requires a single line to communicate and transfer It requires multiple lines

 Explain the Concepts and Terminology of Data Communication.

Transmission Modes (flow of information)

Half Duplex Mode

Full Duplex Mode

— For analog signals: degradation of signal quality

 Attenuation: Signal strength falls off with distance.

 Delay distortion occurs because the velocity of propagation of a signal through a

Four categories of noise:

 Thermal noise (white noise)  Crosstalk

 Heat agitates the electronic conductors of a medium which may introduce

 Signals at a frequency that is the sum or difference of original frequencies

 It is an unwanted coupling between signal paths. It can occur by electrical

 Impulse noise is non-continuous, consisting of irregular pulses or noise

Transmission Mediums in Computer Networks

Factors to be considered while selecting a Transmission Medium

Bounded or Guided Transmission Media

Twisted Pair Cable

Some important pointstwisted pair cable

 Its frequency range is 0 to 3.5 kHz.

Twisted Pair has two types:

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)

Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable

Advantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable

 Installation is easy  100-meter limit

 Bandwidth is low when compared with Coaxial Cable

Shielded Twisted Pair Cable