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An Annotated Reproduction of 

NAVFAC DM 7.1 
 

PLEASE NOTE 

This extraordinary document, published in 1982, is now considerably out‐of‐date and, except as UFC 
30220‐10N, is no longer a sanctioned publication of the US Government.  It is provided here as a 
reference because of the incredible density of highly practical geotechnical design guidance it contains.  
It is also of significant historical interest, and when combined with DM 7.2, it represents perhaps THE 
principle compendium of geotechnical knowledge used by designers between 1982 and around the turn 
of the century.  It is a testament to the strength of the document that some of the design methods 
presented are still in use today.  The importance of the Federal labs (particularly FHWA, Bureau of 
Reclamation, Army and Navy labs) in pushing the practice of geotechnical engineering forward between 
1930 and around the time of the publication of this manual cannot be overstated, and this manual is a 
testament to that heritage.  Thus, you are holding in your hands (or in your computer memory) a great 
reference for preliminary design guidance and a knowledge artifact that will be recognized by nearly 
every senior practicing geotechnical engineer. 

This copy of NAVFAC DM 7.1 (1982) has been updated with the replacement of pages 125 and 126 to 
comply in spirit with NAVFAC DM 7.01 (1986).  DM 7.01 was actually a very minor update of DM 7.1 
made principally to correct some out‐of‐date numbers that referenced other Federal publications, and 
some notes are appended herein calling attention to pages which were rendered out‐of‐date with the 
publication of the 1986 version.  This reproduction has considerable advantages over the widely‐
distributed and much‐appreciated PDF version that has been floating around the net.  That version was 
hosted at Vulcan Hammer’s site (many thanks!) for years and reproduced on the internet with a new 
cover but the same printing errors and no significant updates as UFC 30220‐10N in 2005.  The asterisks 
and parentheses that were the artifact of an early PDF conversion have been replaced in this version 
with the lines originally intended.  Further, Greek symbols and the size of the figures are as per the 
original paper publication of 1982 rather than the shrunken versions.  The resulting file size is much 
bigger, of course, but I believe the improved quality is worth it. 

 Enjoy this historic document, but please use it with caution. 

J Ledlie Klosky 

 
This Page Intentionally Left Blank This Page Intentionally Left Blank
 FOREWORD
1
J*
T h i s d e s i g n manual f o r S o i l Mechanics i s one of a s e r i e s t h a t h a s been
developed from an e x t e n s i v e r e - e v a l u a t i o n of t h e r e l e v a n t p o r t i o n s of S o i l
Mechanics, F o u n d a t i o n s , and E a r t h S t r u c t u r e s , NAVFAC DM-7 of March 1971, from
s u r v e y s of a v a i l a b l e new m a t e r i a l s and c o n s t r u c t i o n methods, and from s e l e c -
t i o n of t h e b e s t d e s i g n p r a c t i c e s of t h e Naval F a c i l i t i e s E n g i n e e r i n g Command,
o t h e r Government a g e n c i e s , and p r i v a t e i n d u s t r i e s . T h i s manual i n c l u d e s a
m o d e r n i z a t i o n of t h e former c r i t e r i a and t h e maximum u s e of n a t i o n a l p r o f e s -
s i o n a l s o c i e t y , a s s o c i a t i o n and i n s t i t u t e codes. D e v i a t i o n s from t h e s e c r i -
t e r i a should n o t be made without t h e p r i o r a p p r o v a l of t h e Naval F a c i l i t i e s
~ n ~ i n e e r ' iCommand
n~ Headquarters (NAVFAC HQ) .
1 Design cannot remain s t a t i c any more than can t h e n a v a l f u n c t i o n s i t s e r v e s ,
o r t h e t e c h n o l o g i e s i t uses. A c c o r d i n g l y , t h i s d e s i g n manual, S o i l ~ e c h a n i c s ,
NAVFAC DM-7.1, a l o n g w i t h t h e companion manuals, Foundations and E a r t h S t r u c -
2
t u r e s , NAVFAC- D W ~ . and S o i l ~ ~ n H r n i c sDeep , s t a b i l i z a t i o n , and S p e c i a l Geo-
t e c h n i c a l C o n s t r u c t i o n , NAVFAC DM-7.3, c a n c e l and s u p e r s e d e S o i l Mechanics,
F o u n d a t i o n s , and E a r t h S t r u c t u r e s , NAVFAC DM-7 of March 1 9 7 1 i n i t s e n t i r e t y ,
and a l l changes i s s u e d .

' C , U. S. Navy
Commander \
Naval F a c i l i t i e s E n g i n e e r i n g Command

Out of Date
This Page Intentionally Left Blank This Page Intentionally Left Blank
 PREFACE

T h i s manual of s o i l mechanics c o v e r s t h e b a s i c e n g i n e e r i n g p r i n c i p l e s of s o i l
mechanics n e c e s s a r y t o d e s i g n a l l f o u n d a t i o n s and e a r t h s t r u c t u r e s f o r n a v a l
shore f a c i l i t i e s . Companion manuals (NAVFAC DM-7.2 and DM-7.3) d i s c u s s t h e
s p e c i f i c a p p l i c a t i o n of s o i l mechanics t o t h e d e s i g n of f o u n d a t i o n s and e a r t h
s t r u c t u r e s a l o n g w i t h s p e c i a l a s p e c t s of g e o t e c h n i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g . These
c r i t e r i a , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e d e f i n i t i v e d e s i g n s and g u i d e l i n e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s
of t h e Naval F a c i l i t i e s E n g i n e e r i n g Command, c o n s t i t u t e t h e Command's d e s i g n
g u i d a n c e . These s t a n d a r d s a r e based on f u n c t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s , e n g i n e e r i n g
judgment, knowledge of m a t e r i a l s and equipment, and t h e e x p e r i e n c e g a i n e d by
t h e Naval F a c i l i t i e s Engineering Command and o t h e r commands and b u r e a u s of
t h e Navy i n t h e d e s i g n , c o n s t r u c t i o n , o p e r a t i o n , and maintenance of n a v a l
shore f a c i l i t i e s .

The d e s i g n manual s e r i e s p r e s e n t s c r i t e r i a t h a t s h a l l be used i n t h e d e s i g n

of f a c i l i t i e s under t h e cognizance of t h e Naval F a c i l i t i e s E n g i n e e r i n g
Command. The d i r e c t i o n and s t a n d a r d s f o r p r o c e d u r e s , methods, d i m e n s i o n s ,
m a t e r i a l s , l o a d s and s t r e s s e s w i l l be i n c l u d e d . Design manuals a r e n o t t e x t -
books, b u t a r e f o r t h e use of e x p e r i e n c e d a r c h i t e c t s and e n g i n e e r s . Many
c r i t e r i a and s t a n d a r d s a p p e a r i n g i n t e c h n i c a l t e x t s i s s u e d by Government
a g e n c i e s , p r o f e s s i o n a l a r c h i t e c t u r a l and e n g i n e e r i n g g r o u p s , and t r a d e and
i n d u s t r y groups a r e s u i t a b l e f o r , and have been made i n t e g r a l p a r t s o f , t h i s
series. The l a t e s t e d i t i o n of e a c h p u b l i c a t i o n s o u r c e s h a l l be used.

B i b l i o g r a p h i e s of p u b l i c a t i o n s c o n t a i n i n g background i n f o r i n a t i o n and a d d i -
t i o n a l r e a d i n g on t h e v a r i o u s s u b j e c t s a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h e manuals. This
i m a t e r i a l , however, i s n o t a p a r t of t h e c r i t e r i a , n o r i s a r e a d i n g of t h e s e
s o u r c e s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e use of t h e c r i t e r i a p r e s e n t e d i n t h e manuals.

To avoid d u p l i c a t i o n and t o f a c i l i t a t e f u t u r e r e v i s i o n s , c r i t e r i a a r e pre-

s e n t e d o n l y once i n t h i s s e r i e s a s f a r a s p o s s i b l e . C r i t e r i a having g e n e r a l
a p p l i c a t i o n s a p p e a r i n t h e b a s i c manuals numbered DM-1 t h r o u g h DM-1 0 (numbers
DM-11 t h r o u g h DM-20 were unassigned i n t h e o r i g i n a l i s s u e s ) . Manuals number-
ed DM-21 and above c o n t a i n c r i t e r i a t h a t u s u a l l y a r e a p p l i c a b l e o n l y t o t h e
s p e c i f i c f a c i l i t y c l a s s covered by e a c h manual. When c r i t e r i a f o r one
f a c i l i t y a l s o have an a p p l i c a t i o n i n a n o t h e r f a c i l i t y c l a s s , t h e b a s i c r u l e
h a s been t o p r e s e n t such c r i t e r i a i n t h e b a s i c , o r l o w e s t numbered, manual
and c i t e i t by r e f e r e n c e where r e q u i r e d i n l a t e r manuals.

The s p e c i f i c d e s i g n manuals (DM-21 and a b o v e ) , with b u t t h r e e e x c e p t i o n s ,

l i s t d e s i g n c r i t e r i a f o r s p e c i f i c f a c i l i t i e s i n t h e o r d e r of t h e c a t e g o r y
codes. The e x c e p t i o n s a r e :

( 1 ) Drydocking F a c i l i t i e s , NAVFAC DM-29, which i n c l u d e s b o t h C a t e g o r y

Codes 213 and 223.

( 2 ) C r i t e r i a f o r f a c i l i t y c l a s s 800, U t i l i t i e s and Ground Improvements,

which have been i n c l u d e d i n t h e b a s i c manuals on mechanical, elec-
t r i c a l , and c i v i l e n g i n e e r i n g .
 (3) Weight Handling Equipment and S e r v i c e C r a f t , NAVFAC DM-38, which
i n c l u d e s t h e d e s i g- n c r i t e r i a f o r t h e s e f a c i l i t i e s under t h e 1:

c o g n i z a n c e of t h e Naval F a c i l i t i e s E n g i n e e r i n g Command t h a t a r e n o t
c l a s s i f i e d a s r e a l property. These i n c l u d e weight and l i n e
f
h a n d l i n g equipment, d r e d g e s , y a r d c r a f t , and p i l e d r i v i n g equipment.

F o r t h e e f f e c t i v e use of t h e s e c r i t e r i a , t h e d e s i g n e r must have a c c e s s t o :

( 1 ) The b a s i c and s p e c i f i c d e s i g n manuals a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e p r o j e c t .

See l i s t on page 7.1-ix.

( 2 ) Published c r i t e r i a sources.

( 3 ) A p p l i c a b l e d e f i n i t i v e d e s i g n s , D e f i n i t i v e Designs f o r Naval Shore

F a c i l i t i e s , NAVFAC P-272.

( 4 ) Command g u i d e l i n e s p e c i f i c a t i o n s .
 L I S T OF DESIGN MANUALS

BAS I C MANUALS

Title Number

Architecture ...................a........am...........e.....e..
NAVFAC DM-1
C i v i l Engineering ............................................. NAVFAC DM-5
...................................... NAVFAC DM-9
Cold Regions E n g i n e e r i n g
........................... NAVFAC DM-10
Cost Data f o r M i l i t a r y C o n s t r u c t i o n
................................... NAVFAC DM-6
Drawings and S p e c i f i c a t i o n s
........................................
E l e c t r i c a l Engineering
.............................. NAVFAC
Foundations and E a r t h S t r u c t u r e s
DM-4
NAVFAC DM-7.2
.................................. NAVFAC
F i r e P r o t e c t i o n Engineering.
........................................
Mechanical E n g i n e e r i n g
DM-$
NAVFAC DM-3
S o i l Dynamics. Deep S t a b i l i z a t i o n and
Special Geotechnical Construction ........................... NAVFAC DM-7.3
S o i l Mechanics ..............a..........e..a..............m.e.. NAVF AC DM- 7.1
........................................ NAVFAC DM-2
S t r u c t u r a l Engineering

SPECIFIC MANUALS

..............m..a....e....m.........
Administrative F a c i l i t i e s NAVFAC DM-34
............................................
A i r f i e l d Pavements NAVFAC DM-21
...... NAVFAC DM-23
Communications. N a v i g a t i o n a l Aids. and A i r f i e l d L i g h t i n g
..........................................
Community F a c i l i t i e s NAVFAC DM-37
......................................... NAVFAC DM-29
Drydocking F a c i l i t i e s
F a m i l y Housing.......................e....m..............a.m.. NAVFAC DM-35
.................................
Harbor and C o a s t a l F a c i l i t i e s NAVFAC DM-26
............................... NAVFAC DM-33
H o s p i t a l and Medical F a c i l i t i e s
................................... NAVFAC
Land O p e r a t i o n a l F a c i l i t i e s YAVFAC DM-24
..............am.....m DM-22
L i q u i d F u e l i n g and D i s p e n s i n g F a c i l i t i e s
........................................
Maintenance F a c i l i t i e s NAVFAC DM-28
......................................... NAVFAC DM-30
Production F a c i l i t i e s
.................... NAVFAC
Research. Development. and T e s t F a c i l i t i e s NAVFAC DM-31
.............................................
Supply F a c i l i t i e s
........................................... NAVFAC
DM-32
NAVFAC DM-27
Training F a c i l i t i e s
Troop Housing ................................................. NAVFAC DM-36
.............................
Waterfront Operational F a c i l i t i e s DM-25
................... NAVFAC DM-38
Weight Handling Equipment and S e r v i c e C r a f t

IIqDE X MANUAL

Cumulative Index .............................................. NAVFAC DM-50

 CONTENTS
I

Page

CHAPTER 1 . IDENTIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL AND ROCK

Section 1. Introduction ................................... a e e m . 7 1-1

.
Section 2. S o i l Deposits ....................................... 7. 1-1
Section 3. Soil Identification ................................ .7. 1-7
Section 4. S o i l C l a s s i f i c a t i o n and P r o p e r t i e s .........a....e...7e 1-16
Section 5. Rock C l a s s i f i c a t i o n and P r o p e r t i e s . . . . . . . . . m m e . a m m e .1-19
7.
Section 6. Special Materials. ................................ ..7. 1-34

CHAPTER 2 . FIELD EXPLORATION. TESTING. AND INSTRUMENTATION

Section 1 . Introduction .................................... m e m . 71-49

a
Section
Section
2
3
.
.
............
P u b l i s h e d S o i l and G e o l o g i c a l Maps
Remote S e n s i n g Data Methods
...a..7.
.........................
1-51
7. 1-51
Section
Section
4
5
.. .................................
G e o p h y s i c a l Methods
..........................
S o i l B o r i n g s and T e s t P i t s
7. 1-59
7. 1-65
Section 6 . Sampling ........................................... .7. 1-73
Section 7 . Penetration Resistance Tests ...................mm...7. 1-85
Section 8 . Groundwater Measurements ............................ 7. 1-93
.Section 9 . Measurement of S o i l and Rock P r o p e r t i e s

Section 10 . In Situ ........................................

Field Instrumentation .............................. 7. 1-97
.7. 1-110

CHAPTER 3 . LABORATORY TESTING

Section 1. I n t r o d u c t i o n ........................................ 7. 1-117
Section 2 . I n d e x P r o p e r t i e s T e s t s ..............................7. 1-134
Section 3 . P e r m e a b i l i t y T e s t s ..................................7. 1-137
Section 4 . C o n s o l i d a t i o n T e s t s .................................7. 1-138
Section 5 . S h e a r S t r e n g t h T e s t s ............................... .7. 1-145
Section
Section
6
7 .. Dynamic T e s t i n g . ................em..m...............
T e s t s o n Compacted S o i l s . . ...............e.........
7. 1-151
.7. 1-153
Section 8. T e s t s on Rock ............................m m e ~ ~ e e 1-154 e ~ ~ e 7 e

CHAPTER 4 . DISTRIBUTION OF STRESSES

Section 1. Introduction ........................................ 7. 1-161

Section 2. S t r e s s Conditions a t a P o i n t ...............m.ma.....7. 1-161
Section 3. ......
S t r e s s e s Beneath S t r u c t u r e s and Embankments... 7. 1-162
Section 4. ..........................
S h a l l o w P i p e s and C o n d u i t s 7. 1-181
Section 5. Deep Underground Openings .....am......... .....m..ma.7m 1-192
Section 6 . .....................
Numerical S t r e s s A n a l y s i s . . m m m . 7 1-202
m
 Page

CHAPTER 5 . ANALYSIS OF SETTLEMENT AND VOLUME EXPANSION

Section
Section
1.
2 .. Introduction .........................................
Analysis of S t r e s s Conditions ....................... 7.
7.
1-205
1-205
Section
Section
3
4.
I n s t a n t a n e o u s Settlement
Primary and Secondary Settlements...
............................
................ 7.
7.
1-209
1-223
Section
Section
5
6 ... ...............
T o l e r a b l e and D i f f e r e n t i a l S e t t l e m e n t
Methods of Reducing o r A c c e l e r a t i n g S e t t l e m e n t ...... 7. 1-238
7. 1-241
Section 7 Analysis of Volume Expansion ........................ 7. 1-253

CHAPTER 6 . SEEPAGE AND DRAINAGE

Section 1 . I n t r o d u c t i o n .........a.m..................m.........
7. 1-259
Section
Section
Section
2
3
4
... Seepage Analysis ...........................**.****.* 7 . 1-259
Seepage Control by Cutoff ...........................7. 1-263
Design of Drainage Blanket and F i l t e r s ..............7. 1-271
Section
Section
5
6
.. Wellpoint Systems and Deep Wells ..................** 7. 1-279
Linings f o r R e s e r v o i r s and P o l l u t i o n Control
Facilities .....................................7. 1-286
S e c t i o n 7. Erosion Control.. .............*..*..................7. 1-286

CHAPTER 7. SLOPE STABILITY AND PROTECTION

Section
Section
.. 1
2
Introduction ........................................
Types of F a i l u r e s ...................................7. 1-309
7. 1-309
Section3. Methods of A n a l y s i s .................................7. 1-314
Section4. E f f e c t s of S o i l Parameters and Groundwater
on S t a b i l i t y ................em.....d~~a~a~~~a~~7~ 1-331
Section 5.
Section 6.
Slope S t a b i l i z a t i o n
Slope P r o t e c t i o n
.................................7. 1-335
....................................7. 1-338
BIBLIOGRAPHY., ..............................................m.........7.l- B-1

APPENDIX A .L i s t i n g of Computer Programs .............................7.1- A-1

GLOSSARY... . . . . . . . . a a a ~ ~ ~ a ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ a ~ . ~ ~ ~ a G.~1 ~ ~ ~
 FIGURES

Figure Title Page

CHAPTER 1

Estimated Compactness of Sand from Standard P e n e t r a t i o n T e s t . 7. 1-14 ...

U t i l i z a t i o n of A t t e r b e r g P l a s t i c i t y Limits.. ....................7. 1-18
Strength Classification............m..........mm.m....mm.mm..m..7. 1-33
Volume Change P o t e n t i a l C l a s s i f i c a t i o n f o r Clay S o i l s . ..........
7. 1-38
C r i t e r i o n f o r C o l l a p s e P o t e n t i a l : U S.B.R . .....................
.7.1'-40
Typical C o l l a p s e P o t e n t i a l T e s t R e s u l t s ........................
.7. 1-41
Extreme F r o s t P e n e t r a t i o n ( i n i n c h e s ) Based Upon S t a t e Average ..7. 1-42

CHAPTER 2

Sample Boring Log .............................................. .7. 1-50

Standard S i z e s . i n Inches. f o r Casings. Rods. Core B a r r e l s .
and Holes . . . m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m m . . . m m . . m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m . . . 7 . 1-81
C o r r e l a t i o n s Between R e l a t i v e Density and Standard P e n e t r a t i o n
R e s i s t a n c e i n Accordance w i t h Gibbs and Holtz ................. 7. 1-87
C o r r e l a t i o n s of Standard P e n e t r a t i o n R e s i s t a n c e . . . . . . . . . . . m m m . . m 7 . 1-88
.
Shear Modulus vs N Values (SPT) a t Very Small S t r a i n s ..........
Dutch Cone Penetrometer . . . . . . . . m . . . . C m . m . . . . . . . . . m . . . . m . . . . . . . . . 7 m
7. 1-89
1-92
Open Standpipe Piezometers . . . . . . . . . . . m . . m . . . . . . . . . . m . . . . . m . m . . . . 7 . 1-95
Porous Element Piezometers . . . . . . . . m . . . . . m . m . . m . . . . m . . . . m . . . . . . . . 7 . 1-96
Sources of E r r o r and C o r r e c t i v e Methods i n Groundwater
P r e s s u r e Measurements .........................................7. 1-98
Vane Shear T e s t Arrangement . . . . . . . . m . . . m m m . . . m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m . 7 . 1-99
Menard Pressuremeter Equipment ~ m ~ m ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ m ~ ~ ~ ~
Analysis of P l a t e Bearing T e s t s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m . . . . . . m m . . . m . . . . . . 7 . 1-102
Analysis of P e r m e a b i l i t y by V a r i a b l e Head T e s t s ..............m.m7m 1-104
Test Zone I s o l a t i o n Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . m m . . m . . . . . . ~ . . . m . . . . . m . m 7 m 1-107
Example of I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n Adjacent t o a Building and Diaphragm
Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m . . m . . . . m . O . . . . . . . . m . . . m . . m . m m . m . . . . . . m . . . . 7 . 1-111

CHAPTER 3

1 P e r m e a b i l i t y of Sands and Sand-Gravel Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . m m . m . 7 . 1-139

2
3
Consolidation Test Relationships
. .................................
P r e c o n s o l i d a t i o n P r e s s u r e v s L i q u i d i t y Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m m m . . 7 .
7.1-140
1-142
4 Approximate C o r r e l a t i o n s f o r C o n s o l i d a t i o n C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
S i l t s and Clays ~ m ~ ~ m m ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ m m m ~ ~ ~ m ~ ~ ~ ~
5 T r i a x i a l Apparatus Schematic . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 . . m m . . . . . . m . . . m . . m m . . . . 7 m 1-146
6 T r i a x i a l Shear T e s t R e l a t i o n s h i p s ....... ..mmmm..mmmmm..~..mm .m.m7.
1-147
7 C o r r e l a t i o n s of S t r e n g t h C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r Granular S o i l s .....7. 1-149
Figure Title Page

CHAPTER 4

1 Examples of S t r e s s Conditions a t a P o i n t........................7- 64

2
3
.......7.7.1.1671-165
Formulas f o r S t r e s s e s i n S e m i - I n f i n i t e E l a s t i c Foundation
...........................
S t r e s s Contours and T h e i r A p p l i c a t i o n
4 I n f l u e n c e Value f o r V e r t i c a l S t r e s s Beneath a Corner of a

5
Uniformly Loaded Rectangular Area (Boussinesq Case) ...........7. 1.168
I n f l u e n c e Value1 f o r V e r t i c a l S t r e s s Under Uniformly Loaded

6
C i r c u l a r Area (Boussinesq Case)...............................7. 1-169
I n f l u e n c e Value f o r V e r t i c a l S t r e s s Under Embankment Load of

7
I n f i n i t e Length (Boussinesq Case).............................7. 1-170
I n f l u e n c e Value f o r V e r t i c a l S t r e s s Beneath T r i a n g u l a r Load
(Boussinesq Case) .............................................7. 1-171
......................7. 1-172
Examples of Computation of V e r t i c a l S t r e s s
Determination of S t r e s s Below Corner of Uniformly Loaded
Rectangular Area ..............................................
......7.7. 1-173
1-174
I n f l u e n c e Chart f o r V e r t i c a l S t r e s s Beneath I r r e g u l a r Load
V e r t i c a l S t r e s s Contours f o r Square and S t r i p Footings
(Westergaard Case) ............................................7. 1-176
I n f l u e n c e Value f o r V e r t i c a l S t r e s s Beneath a Corner of a
Uniformly Loaded Rectangular Area (Westergaard Case) ..........7. 1-177
I n f l u e n c e Value f o r V e r t i c a l S t r e s s Beneath T r i a n g u l a r Load
(Westergaard Case) ............................................7. 1-178
I n f l u e n c e Values f o r V e r t i c a l S t r e s s e s Beneath Uniformly
Loaded C i r c u l a r Area (Two-layer Foundation) ...................7.7. 1-179
.........................
S t r e s s P r o f i l e i n a Two-Layer S o i l Mass 1-180
Contact P r e s s u r e Under ( a ) Rigid Footings ( b ) F l e x i b l e
Foundation on a n E l a s t i c Half Space ...........................7. 1-182
I n f l u e n c e Values f o r V e r t i c a l S t r e s s e s Around a P i l e i n a n
E l a s t i c Solid .................................................7. 1-183
B a c k f i l l C o e f f i c i e n t s . Embankment Loads. and Load F a c t o r s f o r
Rigid Conduits ................................................
.............7.7. 1-187
V e r t i c a l P r e s s u r e on C u l v e r t Versus Height of Cover
1-185

P r e s s u r e T r a n s f e r C o e f f i c i e n t s f o r Corrugated F l e x i b l e
Conduits a s a Function of Standard S o i l Density and Ring
F l e x i b i l i t y o r Diameter and C o r r u g a t i o n Depth .................7m
1-189
Example of Ring D e f l e c t i o n ......................................
....................7. 1-191
Conduits Beneath Embankments of F i n i t e Width
Load Action on Underground Openings i n E a r t h . ...................7.7. 1-197
1-193

C o e f f i c i e n t s f o r Active o r P a s s i v e P r e s s u r e s on Underground
Cylindrical Shafts or Silos ...................................7. 1-201
CHAPTER 5

1
2.
Consolidation Settlement Analysis ...............................
...............7. 1-206
7. 1-207
P r o f i l e s of V e r t i c a l S t r e s s e s Before C o n s t r u c t i o n
3
4a
..7.1-210
Computation of T o t a l S e t t l e m e n t f o r Various Loading Conditions
R e l a t i o n s h i p Between S e t t l e m e n t R a t i o and Applied S t r e s s R a t i o

4b
...........7. 1-216
f o r S t r i p Foundation on Homogeneous I s o t r o p i c Layer
R e l a t i o n s h i p Between I n i t i a l Shear S t r e s s and O v e r c o n s o l i d a t i o n
Ratio .........................................................7. 1-217
Figure Title Page

CHAPTER 5 ( c o n t i n u e d )

Example of Immediate S e t t l e m e n t Computations i n Clay ............ 7. 1-218

I n s t a n t a n e o u s S e t t l e m e n t of I s o l a t e d F o o t i n g s on
Coarse-Grained S o i l s . . ........................................ 7. 1-219
S e t t l e m e n t of Footings Over Granular S o i l s : Example
Computation Using Schmertmann's Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m . e . e . e . m 7 m 1-220
...
R e l a t i o n Between S e t t l e m e n t R a t i o and O v e r c o n s o l i d a t i o n R a t i o 7. 1-225
Time Rate of C o n s o l i d a t i o n f o r V e r t i c a l Drainage Due t o
I n s t a n t a n e o u s Loading .me....m.................................
V e r t i c a l Sand Drains and S e t t l e m e n t Time Rate ................me.7m
7. 1-227
1-228
....
Nomograph f o r C o n s o l i d a t i o n With V e r t i c a l Drainage .......me.7. 1-229
E f f e c t of Drainage Conditions on Time Rate of C o n s o l i d a t i o n.....
.........
Time Rate of C o n s o l i d a t i o n f o r Gradual Load A p p l i c a t i o n
7. 1-230
7.1-232
C o e f f i c i e n t of C o n s o l i d a t i o n from F i e l d Measurements ...........m7e 1-233
Procedure f o r Determining t h e Rate of C o n s o l i d a t i o n f o r A l l
S o i l Systems Containing "N" Layers .....................e..... .7. 1-235
C o e f f i c i e n t bf Secondary Compression a s R e l a t e d t o N a t u r a l
Water Content . . . . . . . . . . . . m . m . m . m . . m . . . . . . . . e m m . e . . m . m m . . m m . . m e 7 . 1-237
Surcharge Load Required t o E l i m i n a t e S e t t l e m e n t Under F i n a l
Load . . . ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . e . . . m . . e e . . . . . m . m m . . m . m . . . m . e . . . . . . e e e . m m . 7 m 1-245
Data f o r T y p i c a l Sand Drain I n s t a l l a t i o n ..........e.ee......... .7. 1-248
Nomograph f o r C o n s o l i d a t i o n w i t h Radial Drainage t o V e r t i c a l
Sand Drain ....................................................
Example of Surcharge and Sand Drain Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m . . m m m . . 7 .
7. 1-249
1-250
Allowance f o r Smear E f f e c t i n Sand Drain Design ...... .......m...7. 1-252
Computation of Swell of Desiccated Clays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m m m . . 7 . 1-256
w

CHAPTER 6

Flow Net C o n s t r u c t i o n and Seepage A n a l y s i s . . . . . . . . . . . . m . m . e . . . . . 7 . 1-260

P e n e t r a t i o n of Cut Off Wall t o Prevent P i p i n g i n I s o t r o p i c
Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m . m m m m m . e e m . e . . e . . . . . . . m m . m . . . m . . m . e . . m 7 m 1-268
P e n e t r a t i o n of Cut Off Wall Required t o P r e v e n t P i p i n g i n
S t r a t i f i e d Sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . m . . m . . . . m m m m m . . m . . . . . m . ~ . . m . . ~ m . 7 m 1-269
Design C r i t e r i a f o r P r o t e c t i v e F i l t e r s ......................... .7. 1-272
T y p i c a l F i l t e r and Drainage Blanket A p p l i c a t i o n s . . . . . e . e e . . . m e . m 7 . 1-276
P e r m e a b i l i t y and C a p i l l a r i t y of Drainage M a t e r i a l s ............m.7. 1-277
Analysis of Drainage Layer Performance .......................... 7. 1-278
I n t e r c e p t i n g Drains f o r Roadways on a Slope ..................mmm7. 1-280
Rate of Seepage i n t o Drainage Trench ............................ 7. 1-281
Groundwater Lowering by Pumping Wells ..........................
Drainage of A r t e s i a n Layer by Line of R e l i e f Wells .............. .7. 1-284
7. 1-285
Nomograph f o r Determining S o i l E r o d i b i l i t y ( K ) f o r U n i v e r s a l
S o i l Loss Equation ............................................ 7. 1-290
Capacity of Sediment Control Ponds .............................
Design C r i t e r i a f o r Riprap and F i l t e r on E a r t h Embankments ...... .7. 1-302
7. 1-304
 .

Figure Title Page

CHAPTER 7

Method of S l i c e s .S i m p l i f i e d Bishop Method ( C i r c u l a r

S l i p Surface) ................................................ .7. 1-315
S t a b i l i t y A n a l y s i s f o r S l o p e s i c Cohesive S o i l s . Undrained
C o n d i t i o n s . i . e . , Assumed fl = 0 ...........................e... 7. 1.319
...............
C e n t e r of C r i t i c a l C i r c l e . Slope i n Cohesive S o i l 7. 1-320
I n f l u e n c e of Surcharge. Submergence. and Tension Cracks on
Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .................
Design of Berms f o r Embankments o n S o f t Clays
. . . . . . . . . ... .. . . . . . . . ..7. 1-321
7. 1-322
S t a b i l i t y A n a l y s i s of T r a n s l a t i o n a l F a i l u r e ............e........7. 1-323
..........
Example of S t a b i l i t y A n a l y s i s of T r a n s l a t i o n a l F a i l u r e 7. 1-325
S t a b i l i t y of Rock Slope ........................................ .7. 1-328
.............
E a r t h q u a k e Loading o n S l o p e s ...........o...........7.
C o r r e c t i o n F a c t o r s RE and RF t o Account f o r P r o g r e s s i v e
1-330

F a i l u r e i n Embankments o n S o f t Clay Foundations ............... 7. 1-332

I n f l u e n c e of S t a b i l i z i n g P i l e on S a f e t y factor^................ -7.1-339
........................................
P i l e S t a b i l i z e d Slope 7. 1-341
....................
Example C a l c u l a t i o n - P i l e S t a b i l i z e d S l o p e s 7. 1-342
This Page Intentionally Left Blank This Page Intentionally Left Blank
 TABLES

Table Title Page

CHAPTER 1

P r i n c i p a l S o i l Deposits .........................................
................................
V i s u a l I d e n t i f i c a t i o n of Samples
7.1-2
7.1-8
..............................
U n i f i e d S o i l C l a s s i f i c a t i o n System
Guide f o r C o n s i s t e n c y of Fine-Grained S o i l s..................... 7.1-9
7. 1-17
...........................
S o i l C l a s s i f i c a t i o n f o r Organic S o i l s
.........................
T y p i c a l Values of S o i l Index P r o p e r t i e s
7. 1-20
7. 1-22
Weathering C l a s s i f i c a t i o n
D i s c o n t i n u i t y Spacing
.......................................
........................................... 7. 1-24
7.1-25
..........................
Hardness C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f I n t a c t Rock
..................................
S i m p l i f i e d Rock C l a s s i f i c a t i o n
7. 1-27
7. 1-28
.............
E n g i n e e r i n g C l a s s i f i c a t i o n f o r I n S i t u Rock Q u a l i t y
.........7.7. 1.35
1-32
I d e n t i f i c a t i o n and C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of S p e c i a l M a t e r i a l s

CHAPTER 2

Remote Sensing Data

...............................7.7. 1-52
Sources of G e o l o g i c a l I n f o r m a t i o n
............................................. 1-55

O f f s h o r e Geophysical Methods
.....................
Onshore Geophysics f o r E n g i n e e r i n g P u r p o s e s 7. 1-60
....................................7. 1-63
Types of T e s t Borings ...........................................
Requirements f o r Boring Layout .................................. 7.1-66
7.1-68
Requirements f o r Boring Depths ..................................
.....7.1-70
Use. C a p a b i l i t i e s and L i m i t a t i o n s of T e s t P i t s and Trenches
7. 1-72

Common Samplers f o r Undisturbed Samples

.......7.7. 1-77
Common Samplers f o r D i s t u r b e d S o i l Samples and Rock Cores
......................... 1-74

Common Underwater Samplers

............................7.7.1-83
Sampling of D i s i n t e g r a t e d Rock Zones
...................................... 1-82

Procedures Which May A f f e c t t h e Measured N Values ...............

.............7.7. 1-94
Groundwater o r P i e z o m e t r i c L e v e l Monitoring Devices
1-90

Shape F a c t o r s f o r Computation of P e r m e a b i l i t y From V a r i a b l e

Head T e s t s ....................................................
Load and Temperature Devices i n Walled E x c a v a t i o n Elements ......7.7. 1-113
1-105

CHAPTER 3

Requirements f o r S t r u c t u r a l P r o p e r t i e s
...7.7. 1-121
Requirements f o r Index P r o p e r t i e s T e s t s and T e s t i n g S t a n d a r d s
.......................... 1.118

Requirements f o r Dynamic T e s t s
Requirements f o r Compacted Samples T e s t s
..................................
........................7. 1-124
7. 1-125
S o i l P r o p e r t i e s f o r A n a l y s i s and Design
Volume a n d Weight R e l a t i o n s h i p s
.........................
.................................7. 1-127
7. 1-135
C a p a b i l i t i e s of Dynamic T e s t i n g Apparatus
T e s t P r o c e d u r e s f o r I n t a c t Rock
.......................
.................................7. 1-152
7. 1-155
T e s t P r o c e d u r e s f o r Aggregate ...................................7. 1-157
 Title Page

CHAPTER 4

1
2
overburden Rock Load C a r r i e d by Roof Support ....................7. 1-195
Loads f o r Temporary Supports i n E a r t h Tunnels a t Depths More
Than 1.5 (B Ht) + .............................................7.1.199
CHAPTER 5

Shape and R i g i d i t y F a c t o r s I f o r C a l c u l a t i n g S e t t l e m e n t s of
P o i n t s on Loaded Areas a t t h e Surface of an E l a s t i c
Half-Space ....................................................7. 1-212
R e l a t i o n s h i p Between Undrained Modulus and Overconsolidation
.................................................7* 1-215
Estimates of C o e f f i c i e n t of Consolidation (Cc) ..................7.1-224
&ti0 em......

T o l e r a b l e S e t t l e m e n t s f o r Building ..............................7. 1-239

T o l e r a b l e D i f f e r e n t i a l S e t t l e m e n t f o r Miscellaneous S t r u c t u r e s ..7. 1-240
Methods of Reducing o r A c c e l e r a t i n g S e t t l e m n t o r Coping with
Settlement ....................................................
Common Types of V e r t i c a l Drains ................................. 7.
7.
1-242
1-247
Heave From Volume Change ........................................ 7. 1-254

CHAPTER 6

Cutoff Methods f o r Seepage Control

Impermeable Reservoir Linings
..............................7.7. 1-287
................................... 1-264

Typical Erosion Control P r a c t i c e ................................

Limiting Flow V e l o c i t i e s t o Minimize Erosion
1-291
....................7.7. 1-300
CHAPTER 7

.........................7. 1-310
Analysis of S t a b i l i t y of N a t u r a l Slopes
Analysis of S t a b i l i t y of Cut and F i l l Slopes. Conditions
.............................................7. 1-312
V a r y i n g - w i t h Time
Pore P r e s s u r e Conditions f o r S t a b i l i t y Analysis of Homogeneous
Embankment ....................................................
Methods of S t a b i l i z i n g Excavation Slopes........................7. 1-334

Thickness- and Gradation Limits of Dumped Riprap .................7.7. 1-347

1-336
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Figure o r Table Acknowledgement

Table 4, Terzaghi, K., and Peck, R.B., S o i l Mechanics i n Engine-

Chapter 1 n e e r i n g P r a c t i c e , John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1967.

Figure 3, Broch, E., and F r a n k l i n , J.A., The P o i n t Load S t r e n g t h

Chapter 1 -
T e s t , I n t e r n a t i o n a l J o u r n a l of Rock Mechanics and Mineral
Sciences, Pergamon P r e s s , 1972.

Table 6, Hough, B.K., Basic S o i l s Engineering, Ronald P r e s s , New

Chapter 1 York, 1969.

F i g u r e 10, Acker S o i l Sampling Catalog, Acker D r i l l Company,

Chapter 2 Scranton , PA.

Figure 14, Mehta, M.R., and V e l e t s o s , A.S., S t r e s s e s and Displacement

Chapter 4 i n Layered Systems, S t r u c t u r a 1 , R e s e a r c h S e r i e s No. 178,
U n i v e r s i t y of I l l i n o i s , Urbana, IL.

Figures 18(a), Watkins, R.K., Buried S t r u c t u r e s , Foundation Engineering

20, and 21, Handbook, Winterkorn, H.F. and Fang, H.Y., ed., Chapter
Chapter 4 27, Van Nostrand Reinhold company,' New York, 1975.

Figure 1 8 ( c ) , Sof t Ground Tunneling, (Company Brochure T-1 ) , Commercial

Chapter 4 Shearing, Inc., Youngstown, OH., 1971.

Figure 18(e), Concrete Pipe Design Manual, American Concrete Pipe

Chapter 4 A s s o c i a t i o n , Vienna, VA., 1980.

Table 1, P r o c t o r , R.V., and White, T.L., Rock Tunneling w i t h S t e e l

Chapter 4 Supports, Commercial Shearing, Inc., Youngstown, OH.,
1977.

Figure 23 and P r o c t o r , R.V., and White, T.L., E a r t h Tunneling w i t h S t e e l

Table 2, Supports, Commercial Shearing, Inc., Youngstown, OH.,
Chapter 4 1977.

Figure 1, Lambe, T.W., and Whitman, R.V., S o i l Mechanics, John Wiley

Chapter 7 & Sons, Inc., New York, 1969.

- F i g u r e s 2 and
3, Chapter 7
Janbu, N., S t a b i l i t y Analysis of Slopes w i t h Dimensionless
Parameters, Harvard S o i l Mechanics S e r i e s No. 46, Harvard
U n i v e r s i t y , Cambridge, MA.
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This Page Intentionally Left Blank
 CHAPTER 1. IDENTIFICATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL AND ROCK

S e c t i o n 1. INTRODUCTION

1. SCOPE. T h i s c h a p t e r p r e s e n t s c r i t e r i a f o r s o i l and rock i d e n t i f i c a t i o n

and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n p l u s i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e i r p h y s i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g p r o p e r t i e s .
Common s o i l s and rock a r e d i s c u s s e d a s w e l l a s s p e c i a l m a t e r i a l s such a s sub-
marine s o i l s and c o r a l , s a p r o l i t i c s o i l s , l a t e r i t i c s o i l s , expansive and c o l -
l a p s i n g s o i l s , cayernous l i m e s t o n e , quick c l a y , permafrost and h y d r a u l i c a l l y
placed f i l l s .

2. RELATED CRITERIA. For a d d i t i o n a l c r i t e r i a on t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of s o i l and rock, s e e t h e following s o u r c e s :

Subject Source

Pavement........................ Out
Out of
of Date
Date ......NAVFAC DM-5.4
A i r f i e l d Pavement .................! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N A,....
Cold Region Engineering...........I
-
VFAC
.NAVFAC DM-9
DM-21

S e c t i o n 2. SOIL DEPOSITS

1. GEOLOGIC O R I G I N AND MODE OF OCCURRENCE.

a . P r i n c i p a l S o i l Deposits. See Table 1 f o r p r i n c i p a l s o i l d e p o s i t s

grouped i n terms of o r i g i n (e.g., r e s i d u a l , c o l l u v i a l , e t c . ) and mode o f
occurrence (e.g., f l u v i a l , l a c u s t r i n e , e t c . ) .

b. Importance. A g e o l o g i c d e s c r i p t i o n a s s i s t s i n c o r r e l a t i n g e x p e r i -
ences between s e v e r a l s i t e s , and i n a g e n e r a l s e n s e , i n d i c a t e s t h e p a t t e r n o f
s t r a t a t o be expected p r i o r t o making a f i e l d i n v e s t i g a t i o n ( t e s t b o r i n g s ,
etc.). S o i l s with s i m i l a r o r i g i n and mode of occurrence a r e expected t o have
comparable i f n o t s i m i l a r e n g i n e e r i n g p r o p e r t i e s . For q u a n t i t a t i v e f o u n d a t i o n
a n a l y s i s , a g e o l o g i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n i s inadequate and a more s p e c i f i c c l a s s i f i -
c a t i o n i s r e q u i r e d . For s o u r c e s of i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e p h y s i c a l geology of t h e
United S t a t e s , s e e Chapter 2. A s t u d y of r e f e r e n c e s on l o c a l geology should
precede a major s u b s u r f a c e e x p l o r a t i o n program.

c . S o i l Horizon. S o i l horizons a r e p r e s e n t i n a l l sedimentary s o i l s and

t r a n s p o r t e d s o i l s s u b j e c t t o weathering. The A horizon c o n t a i n s t h e maximum
amount of o r g a n i c m a t t e r ; t h e underlying B horizon c o n t a i n s c l a y s , sesqui-
o x i d e s , and small amounts of o r g a n i c m a t t e r . The C horizon i s p a r t l y weather-
ed p a r e n t s o i l o r rock and t h e D h o r i z o n i s u n a l t e r e d p a r e n t s o i l and rock.
 TABLE 1
P r i n c i p a l S o i l Deposits

r
Major P e r t i n e n t Engineering
Division P r i n c i p a l S o i l Deposits Characteristics

SED IMENTARY
SOILS -
Residual

Material Residual sands and fragments of Generally f a v o r a b l e

formed by g r a v e l s i z e formed by s o l u t i o n and foundation c o n d i t i o n s .
disintegra- l e a c h i n g of cementing m a t e r i a l ,
t i o n of l e a v i n g t h e more r e s i s t a n t p a r t i -
underlying c l e s ; commonly q u a r t z .
p a r e n t rock
or partially Residual c l a y s formed by decomposi- Variable properties
indurated t i o n of s i l i c a t e r o c k s , d i s i n t e g r a - requiring detailed
material. t i o n of s h a l e s , and s o l u t i o n of i n v e s t i g a t i o n . De-
c a r b o n a t e s i n limestone. With few p o s i t s p r e s e n t favor-
e x c e p t i o n s becomes more compact, a b l e f o u n d a t i o n condi-
r o c k i e r , and l e s s weathered with t i o n s except i n humid
i n c r e a s i n g depth. A t i n t e r m e d i a t e and t r o p i c a l c l i m a t e s ,
s t age may r e f l e c t composition, where depth and r a t e
s t r u c t u r e , and s t r a t i f i c a t i o n of of weathering a r e v e r y
parent rock. great.

Organic

Accumulation Peat. A somewhat f i b r o u s aggregate Very compressible.

of h i g h l y of decayed and decaying v e g e t a t i o n Entirely unsuitable f o r
organic m a t t e r having a dark c o l o r and odor supporting building
material of decay. foundations.
formed i n
p l a c e by t h e -
Muck. Peat d e p o s i t s which have
growth and advanced i n s t a g e of decomposition
subsequent t o such e x t e n t t h a t t h e b o t a n i c a l
decay of c h a r a c t e r i s no l o n g e r e v i d e n t .
plant l i f e .
 TABLE 1 ( c o n t i n u e d )
P r i n c i p a l S o i l Deposits
J

Major P e r t i n e n t Engineering
Division P r i n c i p a l S o i l Deposits Characteristics

TRANSPORTED
SOILS -
Alluvial

Material F l o o d p l a i n d e p o s i t s . Deposits l a i d
transported down by a stream w i t h i n t h a t p o r t i o n
and d e p o s i t e d of i t s v a l l e y s u b j e c t t o i n u n d a t i o n
by running by floodwaters.
water.

P o i n t bar. A l t e r n a t i n g depos- Generally favorable

i t s of a r c u a t e r i d g e s and foundation conditions;
swales (lows) formed on t h e however, d e t a i l e d in-
i n s i d e o r convex bank of m i t i - v e s t i g a t i o n s a r e neces-
g a t i n g r i v e r bends. Ridge s a r y t o l o c a t e discon-
d e p o s i t s c o n s i s t p r i m a r i l y of tinuities. Flow s l i d e s
s i l t and sand, swales a r e may be a problem along
clay-£ i l l e d . riverbanks. Soils are
q u i t e pervious.

Channel f i l l . Deposits l a i d Fine-grained s o i l s a r e

down i n abandoned meander l o o p s
i s o l a t e d when r i v e r s s h o r t e n
t h e i r courses. Composed pri-
m a r i l y of c l a y ; however, s i l t y
and sandy s o i l s a r e found a t
t h e upstream and downstream
ends.
u s u a l l y compressible.
P o r t i o n s may be v e r y
heterogeneous. Silty
s o i l s generally present
f a v o r a b l e foundation
conditions.

Backswamp. The prolonged R e l a t i v e l y uniform i n a

accumulation of floodwater horizontal direction.
sediments i n flood b a s i n s Clays a r e u s u a l l y sub-
bordering a r i v e r . Materials jected t o seasonal
a r e g e n e r a l l y c l a y s but tend t o volume changes.
become more s i l t y near
riverbank.

A l l u v i a l Terrace deposits. Usually d r a i n e d ,

R e l a t i v e l y narrow, f l a t - s u r f a c e d , oxidized. Generally
r i v e r - f l a n k i n g remnants of flood- favorable foundation
p l a i n d e p o s i t s formed by entrench- conditions.
ment of r i v e r s and a s s o c i a t e d
processes.
 TABLE 1 (continued)
P r i n c i p a l S o i l Deposits

Major P e r t i n e n t Engineering
Division P r i n c i p a l S o i l Deposits Characteristics

( c o n t ' d) E s t u a r i n e d e p o s i t s . Mixed d e p o s i t s Generally f i n e - g r a i n e d

Materials of marine and a l l u v i a l o r i g i n l a i d and compressible. Many
transported down i n widened channels a t mouths local variations i n
and deposited of r i v e r s and influenced by t i d e of s o i l conditions.
by running body of water i n t o which t h e y a r e
water. deposited.

Alluvial-Lacustrine d e p o s i t s . Usually v e r y uniform i n

M a t e r i a l deposited w i t h i n l a k e s horizontal direction.
( o t h e r than those a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Fine-grained s o i l s
g l a c i a t i o n ) by waves, c u r r e n t s , and g e n e r a l l y compressible.
organo-chemical processes. Deposits
c o n s i s t of u n s t r a t i f i e d o r g a n i c c l a y
o r c l a y i n c e n t r a l p o r t i o n s of t h e
l a k e and t y p i c a l l y grade t o s t r a t i -
f i e d s i l t s and sands i n p e r i p h e r a l
zones .
D e l t a i c d e p o s i t s . Deposits formed Generally f i n e - g r a i n e d
a t t h e mouths of r i v e r s which r e s u l t and compressible. Many
i n e x t e n s i o n of t h e s h o r e l i n e . local variations i n
s o i l condition.

Piedmont d e p o s i t s . A l l u v i a l Generally f a v o r a b l e
d e p o s i t s a t f o o t of h i l l s o r foundat i o n c o n d i t i o n s .
mountains. Extensive p l a i n s o r
a l l u v i a l fans.

Aeolian

Material Loess. A calcareous, u n s t r a t i f i e d R e l a t i v e l y uniform

transported d e p o s i t of s i l t s o r sandy o r clayey deposits characterized
and d e p o s i t e d s i l t t r a v e r s e d by a network of t u b e s by a b i l i t y t o s t a n d i n
by wind. formed by r o o t f i b e r s now decayed. v e r t i c a l c u t s . Col-
lapsible structure.
Deep weathering o r s a t -
u r a t i o n can modify
characteristics.

Dune sands. Mounds, r i d g e s , and Very uniform g r a i n

h i l l s of uniform f i n e sand s i z e ; may e x i s t i n
characteristically exhibiting r e l a t i v e l y loose
rounded g r a i n s . condition.
 TABLE 1 (continued)
P r i n c i p a l S o i l Deposits

Major P e r t i n e n t Engineering
D i v i si o n P r i n c i p a l S o i l Deposits Characteristics

Glacial

Material G l a c i a l till. An accumulation of C o n s i s t s of m a t e r i a l o f

transported d e b r i s , d e p o s i t e d beneath, a t t h e a l l sizes i n various
and deposited s i d e ( l a t e r a l moraines), o r a t t h e p r o p o r t i o n s from boul-
by g l a c i e r s , lower l i m i t of a g l a c i e r ( t e r m i n a l d e r s and g r a v e l t o
o r by melt- moraine). M a t e r i a l lowered t o clay. Deposits a r e
water from ground s u r f a c e i n an i r r e g u l a r s h e e t u n s t r a t i f i e d . Gener-
the glacier. by a m e l t i n g g l a c i e r i s known a s a a l l y present favorable
ground moraine. foundation conditions;
b u t , r a p i d changes i n
c o n d i t i o n s a r e common.

Glacio-Fluvial d e p o s i t s . Coarse and Many l o c a l v a r i a t i o n s .

fine-grained m i t e r i a l deposited by Generally p r e s e n t
s t r e a m s of meltwater from g l a c i e r s . favorable foundation
M a t e r i a l d e p o s i t e d on ground s u r f a c e conditions.
beyond terminal of g l a c i e r i s known
a s an outwash plain. Gravel r i d g e s
known a s kames and eskers.

Glacio-Lacustrine d e p o s i t s . Mate- Very uniform i n a hori-

r i a l d e p o s i t e d w i t h i n l a k e s by zontal direction.
meltwater from g l a c i e r s . Consist-
i n g of c l a y i n c e n t r a l p o r t i o n s of
l a k e and a l t e r n a t e l a y e r s of s i l t y
c l a y o r s i l t and c l a y (varved c l a y )
i n p e r i p h e r a l zones.

Marine

Material Shore d e p o s i t s . Deposits of sands R e l a t i v e l y uniform and

transparted and/or g r a v e l s formed by t h e trans- of moderate t o h i g h
and deposited p o r t i n g , d e s t r u c t i v e , and s o r t i n g density.
by ocean a c t i o n of waves on t h e s h o r e l i n e .
waves and
currents i n Marine clays. Organic and i n o r g a n i c Generally very uniform
s h o r e and d e p o s i t s of fine-grained m a t e r i a l . i n composition. Com-
o f f shore p r e s s i b l e and u s u a l l y
areas. v e r y s e n s i t i v e t o re-
molding.
I
 TABLE 1 ( c o n t i n u e d )
P r i n c i p a l S o i l Deposits

Major P e r t i n e n t Engineering
Division P r i n c i p a l S o i l Deposits Characteristics

Colluvial

Material Talus. Deposits c r e a t e d 'by g r a d u a l Previous movement

transported accumulation of unsorted rock indicates possible
and d e p o s i t e d fragments and d e b r i s a t base of future difficulties.
by g r a v i t y . cliffs. Generally unstable
foundation c o n d i t i o n s .
Hillwash. Fine colluvium c o n s i s t i n g
of clayey sand, sand s i l t , o r c l a y .

Landslide d e p o s i t s . Considerable
masses of s o i l o r rock t h a t have
s l i p p e d down, more o r l e s s a s u n i t s ,
from t h e i r former p o s i t i o n on s t e e p
slopes.

Pyroclastic

Material Ejecta. Loose d e p o s i t s of v o l c a n i c Typically shardlike

e j e c t e d from a s h , l a p i l l i , bombs, e t c . p a r t i c l e s of s i l t s i z e
volcanoes and with l a r g e r v o l c a n i c
transported d e b r i s . Weathering and
by g r a v i t y , r e d e p o s i t i o n produce
wind and a i r . h i g h l y p l a s t i c , com-
p r e s s i b l e c l a y . Un-
u s u a l and d i f f i c u l t
foundation c o n d i t i o n s .

Pumice. Frequently a s s o c i a t e d with

l a v a flows and mud flows, o r may be
mixed with nonvolcanic sediments.
 S e c t i o n 3. SOIL IDENTIFICATION

1. REQUIREMENTS. A complete e n g i n e e r i n g s o i l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i n c l u d e s : ( a )
a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of c o n s t i t u e n t s , ( b ) t h e d e s c r i p t i o n of appearance and s t r u c -
t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and ( c ) t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of compactness o r c o n s i s t e n c y
i n situ.

a. F i e l d I d e n t i f i c a t i o n . I d e n t i f y c o n s t i t u e n t m a t e r i a l s v i s u a l l y ac-
cording t o t h e i r g r a i n s i z e , and/or type of p l a s t i c i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s p e r
ASTM Standard D2488, D e s c r i p t i o n of S o i l s (Visual-Manual Procedure).

( 1 ) Coarse-Grained S o i l s . Coarse-grained s o i l s a r e those s o i l s

where more than h a l f of p a r t i c l e s f i n e r t h a n 3-inch s i z e can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d
by t h e naked eye. The s m a l l e s t p a r t i c l e t h a t i s l a r g e enough t o be v i s i b l e
corresponds approximately t o t h e s i z e of t h e opening of No. 200 s i e v e used f o r
l a b o r a t o r y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . Complete i d e n t i f i c a t i o n i n c l u d e s g r a i n s i z e ,
c o l o r , and/or e s t i m a t e of compactness.

( a ) Color. Use c o l o r t h a t b e s t d e s c r i b e s t h e sample. If t h e r e

a r e two c o l o r s d e s c r i b e both c o l o r s . I f t h e r e a r e more than two d i s t i n c t
c o l o r s , use multi-colored n o t a t i o n .

( b ) Grain Size. I d e n t i f y components and f r a c t i o n s i n accor-

dance with Table 2 -
Coarse-Grained S o i l s .

( c ) Grading. I d e n t i f y b o t h w e l l graded o r poorly graded s i z e s

a s explained i n Table 3, under Supplementary C r i t e r i a f o r V i s u a l I d e n t i f i c a -
tion.

( d ) Assigned Group Symbol. Use Table 3 f o r e s t i m a t e of group

symbols based on t h e Unified C l a s s i f i c a t i o n System.

( e ) Compactness. Estimate compactness i n s i t u by measuring

r e s i s t a n c e t o p e n e t r a t i o n of a s e l e c t e d penetrometer o r sampling d e v i c e ( s e e
Chapter 2). I f t h e s t a n d a r d p e n e t r a t i o n t e s t i s performed, determine t h e
number of blows of a 140 pound hammer f a l l i n g 30 i n c h e s r e q u i r e d t o d r i v e a
2-inch OD, 1-318 i n c h I D s p l i t b a r r e l sampler 1 foot. The number of blows
t h u s obtained i s known a s t h e s t a n d a r d p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e , N. The s p l i t
b a r r e l i s u s u a l l y d r i v e n 18 inches. The p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e i s based on
t h e l a s t 12 inches.

1 ) D e s c r i p t i o n Terms. See Figure 1 (Reference 1, S o i l s

and Geology, Procedures f o r Foundation Design of B u i l d i n g s and Other Struc-
t u r e s (Except Hydraulic S t r u c t u r e s ) , by t h e Departments of t h e Army and Air
Force) f o r d e s c r i p t i v e terms of compactness of sand. Figure 1 i s a p p l i c a b l e
f o r normally c o n s o l i d a t e d sand.

2 ) C o m ~ a c t n e s sBased on S t a t i c Cone P e n e t r a t i o n Resis-

t a n c e , qc. Reference 2, Cone R e s i s t a n c e a s Measure of Sand S t r e n g t h , by
M i t c h e l l and Lunne, provides guidance f o r e s t i m a t i n g r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y w i t h re-
s p e c t t o t h e cone r e s i s t a n c e . I f qc and N v a l u e s a r e measured during t h e
f i e l d e x p l o r a t i o n , a qc-N c o r r e l a t i o n could be made, and F i g u r e 1 i s used t o
d e s c r i b e compactness. I f N i s n o t measured, but qc i s measured, then use
 TABLE 2
Visual I d e n t i f i c a t i o n of Samples
A

D e f i n i t i o n s of S o i l Components and F r a c t i o n s

1. Grain S i z e

Material Fraction Sieve Size

Boulders 12"+

Cobbles 3- - 12-
Gravel coarse 3/4" - 3"
fine No. 4 t o 3/4"

Sand coarse No. 1 0 t o No. 4

medium No. 40 t o No. 1 0
fine No. 200 t o No. 40

Fines Passing No. 200

( S i l t & Clay)

2. Coarse- and Fine-Grained Soils

Descriptive Adjective Percentage Requirement

trace 1 - 10%
little 10 - 20%
some 20 - 35%
and 35 - 50%
2. Fine-Grained S o i l s . I d e n t i f y i n accordance with p l a s t i c i t y charac-
t e r i s t i c s , d r y s t r e n g t h , and toughness a s described i n Table 3.

Descriptive
Term Thickness

alternating
thick
Stratified thin
Soils with
parting - 0 t o 1/16" t h i c k n e s s
seam - 1/16 t o 112" t h i c k n e s s
layer - 112 t o 12" t h i c k n e s s
stratum - g r e a t e r than 12" t h i c k n e s s
varved Clay - a l t e r n a t i n g seams o r l a y e r s of sand,
s i l t and c l a y
pocket -
--
small, e r r a t i c d e p o s i t , u s u a l l y l e s s
than 1 f o o t
lens ,
I
- l e n t i c u l a r deposit
occasional - one o r l e s s per f o o t of t h i c k n e s s
frequent - more than one per f o o t of t h i c k n e s s
 TABLE 3
Unified S o i l C l a s s i f i c a t i o n System

I
Supplementary
Primary Divisions f o r Field and Group Laboratory Classif i- C r i t e r i a For Visual
Laboratory I d e n t i f i c a t i o n Symbol Typical Names cation C r i t e r i a Identification

Coarse Gravel. Clean GW W e l l graded Wide range i n grain

grained (More gravels. gravels, -
Cu = D60 s i z e and substantial
soils. than half (Zess gravel-sand =)lo amounts of all i n t e r
(&re than of the than 5% mixtures, l i t t l e . _ greater than 4. mediate p a r t i c l e size.
half of coarse of o r no fines.*
material fraction material
f i n e r than i s larger smaller Cz = ( D ~ ~
3-inch than No. than No. D1O x D60
sieve i s 4 sieve 200 sieve betwen 1 and 3.
l a r g e r than s i z e about size. )
No. 200 114 inch.)
sieve GP Poorly graded Not meeting both Predaninantly one s i z e
size.) gravels, gravel- c r i t e r i a for GW. (miformly graded) o r
sand mixtures, a range of s i z e s with
l i t t l e or no some intermediate
fines.* s i z e s missing (gap
graded).

* Materials with 5 t o 12 percent smaller than No. 200 sieve a r e borderline cases, designated: GW-GM, SW-SC, etc.
 TABLE 3 (continued)
Unified S o i l C l a s s i f i c a t i o n System

Supplementary
Primary Divisions f o r Field and Group Laboratory Qassif i- C r i t e r i a For Visual
. Laboratory Identification Symbol Typical Names cation C r i t e r i a Identification

.....do.. .. .....do.. .. Gravels

with
GM S i l t y gravels,
and gravel-sand-
Atterberg Atterberg
limits limits
Nonplastic f i n e s o r
f i n e s of low plas-
fines. silt mixtures. below "A" above "Ae' t i c i ty.
(More line, or l i n e with
than 12% PI l e s s PI betwen
of mate- than4. 4 & 7 i s
rial borderline
smaller GC Clayey gravels, Atterberg case m-GC P l a s t i c fines.
than No. andgravel-sand- limits
200 sieve clay mixtures. above "A"
s i z e .)* l i n e , and
PI great-
e r than 7.

....do.. ... Sands.

(More than
Clean
sands.
SW W e l l graded
sands, gravelly
Cu --
D60
D1O
Wide range i n grain
s i z e s and substantial
half of the (Less sands, l i t t l e o r greaterthan6. amomts of all inter-
coarse than 5% no fines.* mediate p a r t i c l e
fraction i s of mate- ( ~ 3 ~ ) ~ sizes.
Cz =
smaller rial D1O x D60
than No. 4 smaller be tween 1 and 3.
sieve than No.
size.) 200 sieve SP Poorly graded Not meeting both Predominately one s i z e
size. ) sands and c r i t e r i a f o r SW. (uniformly graded) o r
gravelly sands, a range of s i z e s with
l i t t l e o r no some intermediate
fines .* sizes missing (gap
graded).

* Materials with 5 t o 12 percent smaller than No. 200 sieve a r e borderline cases, designated: GW-GM, SW-SC, etc.
 TABLE 3 (continued)
Unified S o i l C l a s s i f i c a t i o n System

Supplementary
Primary Divisions f o r *Field and Group Laboratory Classifi- Criteria For V i s u a l
Laboratory Identification Symbol Typical Names cation Criteria Identification

.....do.. .. .....do. ... Sands

with
SM sil'ty sands,
sand-sil t &
A t terberg Atterberg
limits limits
Nonplastic fines o r
fines of low plasti-
fines. tures. below "A" above "A" city.
(Wre l i n e , o r l i n e with
than 12% PI l e s s PI betmen
of mate- than 4. 4 and 7 i s
rial borderline
smaller case SM-SC.
than No.
200 sieve SC Clayey sands, A t terberg Plastic fines.
size.)* sand-clay mix- limits
tures. above "A"
line with
PI greater
than 7.

- - - - - -

* Materials with 5 t o 1 2 percent smaller than No. 200 sieve a r e borderline cases, designated: GW-GM, SW-SC, etc.
 TABLE 3 ( c o n t i n u e d )
Unified S o i l C l a s s i f i c a t i o n System

Supplementary
Primary Divisions f o r Field and Group Laboratory Classifi- C r i t e r i a For Visual
Laboratory Identification Symbol Typical Names cation C r i t e r i a Identification

Tough-
ness
Reaction Near
Dry to Plastic
Strength Shaking Limit -

Fine- S i l t s and clays. ML Inorganic silts, Atterberg Atterberg None to Quick t o None
grained (Liquid l i m i t l e s s very f i n e sands, limits limits slight slow
soils. than 50.) rock flour, s i l t y below "A" above "A"
(More o r clayey f i n e line, or l i n e with
than half sands. PI l e s s PI b e
of mate- than4. tween4
rial i s and 7 i s
smaller
than No.
........ ........
do CL Inorganic clays of
low to mediun
Atterberg border-
limits
Medium
l i n e case to high
None t o Medium
wry
200 sieve plasticity; above "A" M L U . slow
size.) gravelly clays, line,
(Visual : s i l t y clays, sandy with PI
m r e than clays, lean clays. greater
half of
- - - than 7.
particles
a r e so
fine that
........do.. ...... OL Organic silts and
organic silt-clays
Atterberg
limits
Slight
to
Slow Slight

they can- of low p l a s t i c i t y . below "A" medium

not be line.
seen by
naked
eye 1
 TABLE 3 (continued)
Unified S o i l C l a s s i f i c a t i o n System

-
Supplementary
Primary Divisions f o r Field and Group Laboratory Classifi- C r i t e r i a For Visual
Laboratory Identification Symbol Typical Names cation C r i t e r i a Identification

Tough-
ness
Reaction Near
Dry to Plastic
Strength Shaking Limit

.....do.. .. S i l t s and clays.

(Liquid l i m i t
MI Inorganicsilts,
micaceous o r
Atterberg
limits below
Slight
to
Slow
to
Slight
to
greater than 50.) diatomaceous f i n e "A" line. mediun none medium
sands o r silts,
e l a s t i c silts.

........do.. ...... U3 Inorganic clays of

high p l a s t i c i t y ,
Atterberg
limits above
High to None High
Very
f a t clays. "A" line. high
........do.. ...... OH Organic clays of
medium to high
Atterberg
l i m i t below
Medium
to
None
t o very
Slight
to
plasticity. "A" l i n e high slow mediun

.....do.. .. Highly organic

soils............
Pt Feat, muck and
other highly
High ignition l o s s ,
LL and P I decrease
Organic color and
.-odor, spongy f e e l ,
organic soils. a f t e r drying. frequently fibrous
texture.
-- .
 FEET

-
Dmn o.w.L. I

20 30 4 0 SO SO 70 00 q0 I00
20 30 40 SO 00 70 00 SO
-If'
IS0

140
130 =
W
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K
e
110
a!
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SO :
a, e
rn;
(r

$0 0
Z
50 *
0
40 f
n
30 K
0
20
Z
10

0
VERTICAL EFFECTIVE STRESS AT SAMPLE LOCATION - K S F

Example :

Blow count i n sand a t a depth of 40 f t = 20

Depth of Groundwter Table = 20 f t
Compactness ,u medium

FIGURE 1
Estimated Compactness of Sand from Standard Penetration Test
 qc 4c
N =T f o r sand and f i n e t o medium g r a v e l and N = 7 f o r s a n d , and u s e F i g u r e
1 f o r d e s c r i b i n g compactness.

( f ) D e s c r i b e , i f p o s s i b l e , a p p e a r a n c e and s t r u c t u r e s u c h a s
a n g u l a r i t y , c e m e n t a t i o n , c o a t i n g s , and h a r d n e s s of p a r t i c l e s .

(g) Examples of Sample D e s c r i p t i o n :

Medium d e n s e , g r a y c o a r s e t o f i n e SAND, t r a c e
s i l t , t r a c e f i n e g r a v e l (SW). Dry, d e n s e , l i g h t
brown c o a r s e t o f i n e SAND, some s i l t (SM).

( 2 ) Fine-Grained S o i l s . S o i l s a r e i d e n t i f i e d a s f i n e - g r a i n e d when
more t h a n h a l f of t h e p a r t i c l e s a r e f i n e r t h a n No. 200 s i e v e ( a s a f i e l d
g u i d e , such p a r t i c l e s c a n n o t be s e e n by t h e naked eye). Fine-grained s o i l s
c a n n o t be v i s u a l l y d i v i d e d between s i l t and c l a y , b u t a r e d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e by
p l a s t i c i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and o t h e r f i e l d t e s t s .

(a) Field Identification. I d e n t i f y by e s t i m a t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s -

t i c s i n Table 3.

( b ) Color. Use c o l o r t h a t b e s t d e s c r i b e s t h e sample. I f two

c o l o r s a r e used, d e s c r i b e both colors. I f t h e r e a r e more t h a n two d i s t i n c t
c o l o r s , u s e mult i - c o l o r e d n o t a t i o n .

(c) Stratification. Use n o t a t i o n s i n Table 2.

( d ) Appearance and S t r u c t u r e . These a r e b e s t e v a l u a t e d a t t h e

time of sampling. F r e q u e n t l y , however, i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o g i v e a d e t a i l e d
d e s c r i p t i o n of u n d i s t u r b e d samples i n t h e f i e l d . Secondary s t r u c t u r e i n par-
t i c u l a r may n o t be r e c o g n i z e d u n t i l a n u n d i s t u r b e d sample has been examined
and t e s t e d i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y . On v i s u a l i n s p e c t i o n , n o t e t h e f o l l o w i n g i t e m s :

1 ) Ordinary a p p e a r a n c e , s u c h as c o l o r ; m o i s t u r e condi-
t i o n s , whether d r y , m o i s t , o r s a t u r a t e d ; and v i s i b l e p r e s e n c e of o r g a n i c
material.

2 ) Arrangement of c o n s t i t u e n t m a t e r i a l s , whether s t r a t i -
f i e d , v a r v e d , o'r heterogeneous; and t y p i c a l d i p and t h i c k n e s s of l e n s e s o r
varves.

3 ) Secondary s t r u c t u r e , such a s f r a c t u r e s , f i s s u r e s ,
s l i c k e n s i d e s , l a r g e v o i d s , c e m e n t a t i o n , o r p r e c i p i t a t e s i n f i s s u r e s o r open-
ings.

(e) General F i e l d Behavior.

1) Clays. Clays e x h i b i t a h i g h d e g r e e of d r y s t r e n g t h i n
a s m a l l cube allowed t o d r y , h i g h toughness i n a t h r e a d r o l l e d o u t a t p l a s t i c
l i m i t , and exude l i t t l e o r no water from a small p a t shaken i n t h e hand.
 21 S i l t s .
S i l t s h a v e a low d e g r e e of d r y s t r e n g t h and
toughness, and d i l a t e r a p i d l y on shaking s o t h a t water a p p e a r s on t h e sample
surface.

3) Organic S o i l s . Organic s o i l s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by d a r k
c o l o r s , odor of decomposition, spongy o r f i b r o u s t e x t u r e , and v i s i b l e p a r t i -
c l e s of v e g e t a l m a t t e r .

(f) Consistency. Describe c o n s i s t e n c y i n accordance w i t h T a b l e

4 (Reference 3, S o i l Mechanics i n Engineering P r a c t i c e , by Terzaghi and Peck).
Use a pocket penetrometer o r o t h e r s h e a r d e v i c e t o check t h e c o n s i s t e n c y i n
the f i e l d .

( g ) Assignment of Group Symbol. Assign group symbol i n accor-

dance w i t h Table 3.

(h) Examples of Sample D e s c r i p t i o n :

Very s t i f f brown s i l t y CLAY (CL), wet

S t i f f brown c l a y e y SILT (a), moist
S o f t dark brown o r g a n i c CLAY ( O H ) , wet.

S e c t i o n 4. SOIL CLASSIFICATION AND PROPERTIES

1. REFERENCE. S o i l d e s i g n a t i o n s i n t h i s manual conform t o t h e Unified S o i l

C l a s s i f i c a t i o n ( s e e Table 3 ) per AS'LM D2487, C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of S o i l f o r Engi-
n e e r i n g Purposes.

2. UTILIZATION. C l a s s i f y s o i l s i n accordance with t h e Unified System and

i n c l u d e a p p r o p r i a t e group symbol i n s o i l d e s c r i p t i o n s . (See Table 3 f o r e l e -
ments of t h e Unified System.) A s o i l i s placed i n one of 15 c a t e g o r i e s o r a s
a b o r d e r l i n e m a t e r i a l combining two of t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s . Laboratory t e s t s may
b e required f o r p o s i t i v e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . Use t h e system i n Table 2 f o r f i e l d
s o i l d e s c r i p t i o n and terminology.

a. Sands and Gravels. Sands a r e d i v i d e d from g r a v e l s on t h e No. 4 s i e v e

s i z e , and g r a v e l s from cobbles on t h e 3-inch s i z e . The d i v i s i o n between f i n e
and medium sands i s a t t h e No. 40 s i e v e , and between medium and c o a r s e sand a t
t h e No. 10 s i e v e .

b. S i l t s and Clays. Fine-grained s o i l s a r e c l a s s i f i e d according t o

p l a s t i c i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s determined i n A t t e r b e r g l i m i t t e s t s . C a t e g o r i e s
a r e i l l u s t r a t e d on t h e p l a s t i c i t y c h a r t i n Figure 2.

c . Organic S o i l s . M a t e r i a l s c o n t a i n i n g v e g e t a b l e m a t t e r a r e charac-
t e r i z e d by r e l a t i v e l y low s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y , high water c o n t e n t , high i g n i t i o n
l o s s , and high g a s c o n t e n t . Decrease i n l i q u i d l i m i t a f t e r oven-drying t o a
value l e s s than t h r e e - q u a r t e r s of t h e o r i g i n a l l i q u i d l i m i t i s a d e f i n i t e
i n d i c a t i o n of an o r g a n i c s o i l . The Unified S o i l C l a s s i f i c a t i o n c a t e g o r i z e s
organic s o i l s based on t h e p l o t t e d p o s i t i o n on t h e A-line c h a r t a s shown i n
Figure 2. However, t h i s does not d e s c r i b e o r g a n i c s o i l s completely.
 TABLE 4
Guide f o r Consistency of Fine-Grained S o i l s

*
Estimated Range of
Unconfined Compr es-
SPT Penetration s i v e Strength
, (blows/foot) Estimated Consistency tonslsq. f t .
I

<2 Very s o f t <0.25

(extruded between f i n g e r s
when squeezed)

2 -4 Soft 0.25 - 0.50

(molded by l i g h t f i n g e r
press ure)

4 -8 Mediun 0.50 - 1.00

(molded by s t r o n g f i n g e r
pressure)

8 - 15 stiff 1-00 - 2.00

( r e a d i l y indented by
thumb but penetrated with
great effort)

15 - 30 Very s t i f f 2.00 - 4.00

( r e a d i l y indented by
thumbnail )

>30 Hard >4.00

(indented with d i f f i c u l t y
by thumbnail)
i
.
IPLASTICITY CHART I

OF THE SAME OODLZXilCALORIGIN

PARALLELTD.A"LINE

Y , - I 1 I I I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I J
0
0 20 405060 80 100 120 140 160 le0 200 220
LIQUID LIMIT (LL)

FIGURE 2
U t i l i z a t i o n of A t t e r b e r g P l a s t i c i t y L i m i t s
Therefore, Table 5 (Reference 4 , unpublished work by Ayers and Plum) i s pro-
vided f o r a more u s e f u l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of o r g a n i c s o i l s .

For . t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e Unified S o i l C l a s s i f i c a t i o n System

p e r t i n e n t t o roads and a i r f i e l d s , s e e NAVFAC DM-5.4.

3. TYPICAL PROPERTIES. Some t y p i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of s o i l s c l a s s i f i e d by t h e

Unified System a r e provided i n Table 6 (Reference 5, B a s i c S o i l s E n g i n e e r i n g ,
by Hough). More a c c u r a t e e s t i m a t e s should be based on l a b o r a t o r y a n d / o r f i e l d
t e s t i n g , and engineering e v a l u a t i o n .

S e c t i o n 5. ROCK CLASSIFICATION AND PROPERTIES

1. VISUAL CLASSIFICATION. Describe t h e rock sample i n t h e following

sequence :

a. Weathering C l a s s i f i c a t i o n . Describe a s f r e s h , s l i g h t l y weathered,

e t c . i n accordance with Table 7 (Reference 6, Suggested Methods of t h e
D e s c r i p t i o n of Rock Masses, J o i n t s and D i s c o n t i n u i t i e s , by ISRM Working
Party) .
b. D i s c o n t i n u i t y C l a s s i f i c a t i o n . Describe spacing of d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s a s
c l o s e , wide, e t c . , i n accordance with Table 8. I n d e s c r i b i n g s t r u c t u r a l fea-
t u r e s , d e s c r i b e rock mass a s t h i c k l y bedded o r t h i n l y bedded, i n accordance
w i t h Table 8. Depending on p r o j e c t requirements, i d e n t i f y t h e form of j o i n t
( s t e p p e d , smooth, undulating, p l a n a r , e t c . ) , i t s d i p ( i n d e g r e e s ) , i t s s u r f a c e
(rough, smooth, s l i c k e n s i d e d ) , i t s opening ( g i v i n g w i d t h ) , and i t s f i l l i n g
(none, sand, c l a y , b r e c c i a , e t c . ) .

c. Color and Grain Size. Describe with r e s p e c t t o b a s i c c o l o r s on r o c k

c o l o r c h a r t (Reference 7, -Rock Color C h a r t , by Geological S o c i e t y of America).
Use t h e following term t o d e s c r i b e g r a i n s i z e :

(1) For Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks:

coarse-grained - grain diameter >5mm

medium-grained - grain diameter 1 - 5mm

fine-grained - g r a i n diameter <lmm

aphanitic - g r a i n s i z e i s too small t o be perceived by unaided

eye

glassy - no g r a i n form can be d i s t i n g u i s h e d .

(2) For Sedimentary Rocks

coarse-grained - grain diameter >2mm

medium-grained - grain diameter = 0.06 - 2mm

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 TABLE 5 ( c o n t i n u e d )
S o i l C l a s s i f i c a t i o n f o r Organic S o i l s

b I
Distinguishing
Organic Group Characteristics
Content Symbols For Range of Laboratory
Category Name (% by wt.) (See Table 3 ) Visual Identification Test Values

Clayey Of t e n has s t r o n g H2S wn--65 t o 200%

ORGANIC odor. Thread may be tough LL--65 t o 150%
SILT depending on c l a y (usually plot a t o r
OH f r a c t i o n . Medium d r y near A l i n e )
s t r e n g t h , slow d i l a t e n c y . PI-- 50 t o 150
5 t o 30% Y --70 t o 100 pcf
Organics 0 - 2 . 3 t o 2.6
ORGANIC either Cc/(l+e0)=.20 t o .35
SOILS visible or -
Organic inferred Threads weak and f r i a b l e wn--30 t o 125%
SAND o r n e a r PL--or may n o t r o l l LL--30 t o 100%
SILT OL a t a l l . Low d r y s t r e n g t h ; ( u s u a l l y p l o t w e l l below
medium t o h i g h d i l a t e n c y . A line)
PI--non-plastic t o 40
Y --90 t o 110 pcf
G--2.4 t o 2.6
c c / ( l + e 0 ) = . l t o -25

SLIGHTLY SOIL Less t h a n Depend upon Depend upon t h e Depend upon i n o r g a n i c

ORGANIC FRACTION 5% Organics inorganic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e fractions.
SOILS add combined fraction inorganic fraction.
slightly v i s i b l e and
Organic inferred
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d
Q O
PI
rl
r % 12 I 2 6 212 2 2 2 2 S
ou
I I
-
a:.s
U
u
E
z
"l
2 ? YI 3
&;:
1 1: I :I
E 5 2 8
CI

I I
1
n
m
d I
d
0 0
 TABLE 6 (continued)
Typical Values of S o i l Index

( 1 Granular m a t e r i a l s may r e a c h emax when d r y o r only s l i g h t l y moist.

Clays can r e a c h em, o n l y when f u l l y s a t u r a t e d .

(2) Granular m a t e r i a l s r e a c h minimum u n i t weight when a t ern, and w i t h

hygroscopic m o i s t u r e only. The u n i t submerged weight of any s a t u r a t e d
s o i l i s t h e u n i t weight minus t h e u n i t weight of water.

(3). Applicable f o r very compact g l a c i a l till. Unusually h i g h u n i t weight

v a l u e s f o r t i l l s a r e sometimes due t o n o t o n l y a n extremely compact con-
d i t i o n but t o unusually high s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y values.

(45 Applicable f o r hardpan.

General Note: Tabulation i s based on G = 2.65 f o r g r a n u l a r s o i l ,

G = 2.7 f o r c l a y s , and 6 = 2.6 f o r o r g a n i c s o i l s .
L
 TABLE 7
Weathering C l a s s i f i c a t i o n

*
GRADE SYMBOL DIAGNOSTIC FEATURES

Fresh F No v i s i b l e s i g n of decomposition o r d i s c o l o r a -
t i o n . Rings under hammer impact.

Slightly
Weathered WS S l i g h t d i s c o l o r a t i o n inwards from open f r a c -
t u r e s , otherwise s i m i l a r t o F.

Moderately WM D i s c o l o r a t i o n throughout. Weaker m i n e r a l s s u c h

We a t her ed a s f e l d s p a r decomposed. S t r e n g t h somewhat l e s s
than f r e s h rock but c o r e s cannot be broken by
hand o r scraped by k n i f e . Texture preserved.

Highly WH Most m i n e r a l s somewhat decomposed. Specimens

Weathered can be broken by hand with e f f o r t o r shaved
w i t h k n i f e . Core s t o n e s p r e s e n t i n rock mass.
Texture becoming i n d i s t i n c t but f a b r i c
preserved.

Completely WC Minerals decomposed t o s o i l but f a b r i c and

Weathered s t r u c t u r e preserved ( S a p r o l i t e ) . Specimens
e a s i l y crumbled o r p e n e t r a t e d .

Residual RS Advanced s t a t e of decomposition r e s u l t i n g i n

So il p l a s t i c s o i l s . Rock f a b r i c and s t r u c t u r e
completely destroyed. Large volume change.
-
 TABLE 8
Discontinuity Spacing

Description f o r S t r u c t u r a l
Features : Bedding, Description f o r J o i n t s ,
F o l i a t i o n , o r Flow Banding Spacing F a u l t s o r Other F r a c t u r e s

Very t h i c k l y (bedded, Very widely ( f r a c t u r e d

f o l i a t e d ,or banded) More than 6 f e e t o r jointed)

Thickly 2 - 6 feet Widely

Medium 8 - 24 inches Medium

Thinly 2-112 - 8 inches Closely

Very t h i n l y 314 - 2-112 inches Very c l o s e l y

Description f o r Micro-
S t r u c t u r a l Features:
Lamination, F o l i a t i o n , o r Description f o r J o i n t s ,
Cleavage Spacing F a u l t s o r Other F r a c t u r e s

I n t e n s e l y (laminated, 114 - 3/4 inch Extremely c l o s e

f o l i a t e d , o r cleaved)

Very i n t e n s e l y Less than 114 inch

 fine-grained - g r a i n diameter = 0.002 - 0.06mm

v e r y fine-grained - g r a i n diameter <0.002mm

(3) Use 10X hand l e n s i f n e c e s s a r y t o examine rock sample.

d. Hardness C l a s s i f i c a t i o n . Describe a s very s o f t , s o f t , e t c . i n accor-

dance with Table 9 (from Reference 5 ) , which shows range of s t r e n g t h v a l u e s of
i n t a c t rock a s s o c i a t e d w i t h hardness c l a s s e s .

e. Geological C l a s s i f i c a t i o n . I d e n t i f y t h e rock by g e o l o g i c name and

l o c a l name ( i f any). A s i m p l i f i e d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s given i n Table 10.
I d e n t i f y s u b o r d i n a t e c o n s t i t u e n t s i n rock sample such a s seams o r bands of
o t h e r type of m i n e r a l s , e.g., d o l o m i t i c l i m e s t o n e , c a l c a r e o u s sandstone, sandy
limestone, mica s c h i s t . Example of t y p i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n :

F r e s h gray c o a r s e moderately c l o s e f r a c t u r e d Mica S c h i s t .

2. CLASSIFICATION BY FIELD MEASUREMENTS AND STRENGTH TESTS.

a. C l a s s i f i c a t i o n by Rock Q u a l i t y Designation and V e l o c i t y Index.

( 1 ) The Rock Q u a l i t y Designation (RQD) i s o n l y f o r NX s i z e c o r e

samples and i s computed by summing t h e l e n g t h s of a l l p i e c e s of c o r e e q u a l t o
o r longer than 4 i n c h e s and d i v i d i n g by t h e t o t a l l e n g t h of t h e c o r i n g run.
The r e s u l t a n t i s m u l t i p l i e d by 100 t o g e t RQD i n percent. It i s n e c e s s a r y t o .
d i s t i n g- u i s h between n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s and those caused by t h e d r i l l i n g o r
recovery - o -p e r a t i o n s . The f r e s h , i r r e g u l a r breaks should be ignored and t h e
p i e c e s counted a s i n t a c t l e n g t h s . Depending on t h e e n g i n e e r i n g requirements
of t h e p r o j e c t , breaks induced along h i g h l y a n i s o t r o p i c p l a n e s , such a s f o l i a -
t i o n o r bedding, may be counted a s n a t u r a l f r a c t u r e s . A q u a l i t a t i v e . r e 1 a t i o n -
s h i p between RQD, v e l o c i t y index and r o c k mass q u a l i t y i s presented i n Table
11 ( ~ e f e r e n c e8 , P r e d i c t i n g I n s i t u Modulus of Deformation Using Rock Q u a l i t y
Indexes, by Coon and M e r r i t t ) .

( 2 ) The v e l o c i t y index i s d e f i n e d a s t h e square of t h e r a t i o of t h e

f i e l d compressional wave v e l o c i t y t o t h e l a b o r a t o r y compressional wave v e l o c i -
ty. The v e l o c i t y index i s t y p i c a l l y used t o determine rock q u a l i t y using geo-
p h y s i c a l surveys. For f u r t h e r guidance s e e Reference 9 , Design of S u r f a c e
and Near S u r f a c e C o n s t r u c t i o n i n Rock, by Deere, e t a l .

b. C l a s s i f i c a t i o n by S t r e n g t h .

( 1 ) Uniaxial Compressive S t r e n g t h and Modulus Ratio. Determine t h e

u n i a x i a l compressive s t r e n g t h i n accordance w i t h ASTM Standard D2938, Uncon-
f i n e d Compressive S t r e n g t h of I n t a c t Rock Core Specimens. Describe t h e
s t r e n g t h of i n t a c t sample t e s t e d a s weak, s t r o n g , e t c . , i n accordance w i t h
Figure 3 (Reference 10, The P o i n t Load S t r e n g t h T e s t , by Broch and F r a n k l i n ) .

( 2 ) Point Load Strength. Describe t h e point l o a d s t r e n g t h of s p e c i -

men t e s t e d a s low, medium, e t c . i n accordance w i t h Figure 3. P o i n t load
s t r e n g t h t e s t s a r e sometimes performed i n t h e f i e l d f o r l a r g e r p r o j e c t s where
r i p p a b i l i t y and rock s t r e n g t h a r e c r i t i c a l d e s i g n f a c t o r s . T h i s simple f i e l d
t e s t can be performed on c o r e samples and i r r e g u l a r rock specimens. The p o i n t
 TABLE 9
Hardness C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of I n t a c t Rock

APPROXIMATE
RANGE OF
UNIAXIAL
COMPRESSION
STRENGTH
kg/ cm2
CLASS HARDNESS FIELD TEST ( t o n s ~tf2 )

I Extremely hard Many blows w i t h g e o l o g i c hammer >2000

r e q u i r e d t o break i n t a c t specimen.

I1 Very hard Hand h e l d specimen breaks w i t h 2000- 1000

hammer end of pick under more t h a n
one blow.

I11 Hard Cannot be scraped o r peeled w i t h 1000 - 500

k n i f e , hand h e l d specimen can be
broken w i t h s i n g l e moderate blow
with pick.

IV Soft Can j u s t be scraped o r peeled w i t h 500 - 250

knife. I n d e n t a t i o n s l m m t o 3mm
show i n specimen with moderate blow
w i t h pick.

V Very s o f t M a t e r i a l crumbles under moderate 250 - 10

blow w i t h s h a r p end of p i c k and can
be peeled w i t h a k n i f e , b u t i s t o o
hard t o hand- tr i m f o r t r i a x i a l t e s t
specimen.
 TABLE 10
S i m p l i f i e d Rock C l a s s i f i c a t i o n

COMMON IGNEOUS ROCKS

Color Light Intermediate Dark

Principal Quartz Feldspar Feldspar Augite and Augite

Mineral & & Feldspar Hornblende,
Feldspar brnblende 01ivine
Other
Minerals
Minor

Texture

COarse, Pegmatite Syenite Diori t e Gabbr o

Irregular, Pew- Pep- Pem-
Crystal l i n e ti te tite ti te

Coarse and Granite Syenite Diorite Gabbro Peridotite

Medium
Crystalline

Dolerite

Fine Apli te Mabase

Crystalline

Aphanit i c Felsite Basalt

Glassy Volcanic g l a s s Obsidian

Porous
(Gas Open-
ings) Pumice Scoria o r vesicular basalt

Fragmental Tuff ( f i n e ) , breccia (coarse), cinders (variable)

C
 TABLE 10 (continued)
S i m p l i f i e d Rock C l a s s i f i c a t i o n

COMMON SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

J

Group Grain Size Cmposi t ion Name

Rounded pebbles i n mediun- Conglmerate

Mostly grained matrix
Coarse
Grains
Angular coarse rock fragments,
often quite variable Breccia

Less than 10%of Siliceous

other minerals sands tone

Appreciable quantity Argillaceous

More than Medim of clay minerals sands tone
50% of quartz
medim grains
grains Appreciable quantity Calcareous
of c a l c i t e sands tone

Clastic Over 25% feldspar Arkose

25-50% feldspar and Graywacke

darker minerals

Fine to very fine quartz Siltstone ( i f

grains with clay minerals laminated, shale)

<lo%other minerals Shale

More than Micrw Appreciable c a l c i t e Calcareous shale

50% f i n e scopic
grain s i z e clay
minerals Appreciable carbon- Carbonaceous s h d e
aceous material

Appreciable iron Ferruginous shale

oxide cement
 TABLE 10 ( c o n t i n u e d )
S i m p l i f i e d Rock C l a s s i f i c a t i o n

COMMON SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Group Grain Size Composition Name

Variable Calcite and f o s s i l s Fossiliferous

limes tone

Organic Dolomite
Medium to Calcite a d appreciable dolomite limestone o r
microscopic dolanite

Variable Carbonaceous material Bituminous c o a l

Calcite Limestone

Doldte Dolanite

Quartz Chert, F l i n t ,
Chemical Microscopic etc.

Iron compounds with quartz Iron formation

Halite Rock salt

Gypsum Rock gypsum

 TABLE 10 (continued)
Simplified Rock C l a s s i f i c a t i o n

COMMON METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Texture Structure

Foliated Massive

Coarse Crystalline Gneiss Metaquartzite

( Sericite) Marble
Medium (Mica) Quartzite
Crystalline Schist (Talc) Serpentine
(Chlorite) Soapstone
(etc.1

Fine to Phylli te Hornf e l s

Microscopic Slate Anthracite coal
 TABLE 11
Engineering Classification For In Situ Rock Quality

RQD % VELOCITY INDEX ROCK MASS QUALITY

90 - 100 0.80 - 1.00 Excellent

75 - 90 0.60 - 0.80 Good

50 - 75 0.40 - 0.60 Fair

25 - 50 0.20 - 0.40 Poor

0 - 25 0 - 0.20 Very Poor

-
I

0.3
I 1 C O I ~ TLOAO STREWOTH'I~(SO),TOUWT~ I
I 3 10 30 100
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I
EL vL 1 L 1 M n vH EM

~xtremely
low
very low I
low I
rdium nigh very high rxtremely high
strength ranges for common materials (for general guidlines ,do not
~pp~oxirnate
associate a particular strength valw with a given geologic material)

I
coal
\
~imostw/~dr~ *
stiff clay - nrudstone

-
I
* sandstone I
concrete
0010Aite
auartzik

- .- -
volcanics 7
oranite I 4

weak wd.weak uod.strong v.strong EX.stronq

1 1 I 1 I I I I 1I I l l l l
1000
UNIAXIAL coMp!EsslvE srnEN2!,m*Vnl
I I I I I

.
FIGURE 3
Strength Classification
l o a d s t r e n g t h index i s d e f i n e d a s t h e r a t i o of t h e a p p l i e d f o r c e a t f a i l u r e t o
t h e squared d i s t a n c e between loaded p o i n t s . This index i s r e l a t e d t o t h e
d i r e c t t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h of t h e rock by a p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y c o n s t a n t of 0.7 t o
1.0 depending on t h e s i z e of sample. Useful r e l a t i o n s h i p s of p o i n t load ten-
s i l e s t r e n g t h index t o o t h e r parameters such a s s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y , s e i s m i c
v e l o c i t y , e l a s t i c modulus, and compressive s t r e n g t h a r e g i v e n i n Reference 1 1 ,
P r e d i c t i o n of Compressive S t r e n g t h from Other Rock p r o p e r t i e s , by DiAndrea, e t
a l . The technique f o r performing t h e t e s t i s d e s c r i b e d i n Reference 9.

c. C l a s s i f i c a t i o n by D u r a b i l i t y . Short-term weathering of r o c k s , par-

t i c u l a r l y s h a l e s and mudstones, can have a c o n s i d e r a b l e e f f e c t on t h e i r engi-
n e e r i n g performance. The w e a t h e r a b i l i t y of t h e s e m a t e r i a l s i s extremely v a r i -
a b l e , and rocks t h a t a r e l i k e l y t o degrade on exposure should be f u r t h e r char-
a c t e r i z e d by use of t e s t s f o r d u r a b i l i t y under s t a n d a r d d r y i n g and w e t t i n g
c y c l e ( s e e Reference 12, Logging Mechanical C h a r a c t e r of Rock, by F r a n k l i n , e t
1 . I f , f o r example, wetting and drying c y c l e s reduce s h a l e t o g r a i n s i z e ,
t h e n r a p i d s l a k i n g and e r o s i o n i n t h e f i e l d i s probable when rock i s exposed
( s e e Reference 13, C l a s s i f i c a t i o n and ~ d e n t i f i c a t i o nof S h a l e s , by
Underwood).

3. ENGINEERING AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCK. A p r e l i m i n a r y e s t i m a t e of

t h e p h y s i c a l and e n g i n e e r i n g p r o p e r t i e s can be made based on t h e c l a s s i f i c a -
t i o n c r i t e r i a g i v e n t o g e t h e r w i t h published c h a r t s , t a b l e s and c o r r e l a t i o n s
i n t e r p r e t e d by experienced e n g i n e e r i n g g e o l o g i s t s . (See Reference 8; Refer-
ence 13; Reference 14, Slope S t a b i l i t y i n R e s i d u a l S o i l s , by Deere and P a t t o n ;
Reference 15, G e o l o g i c a l C o n s i d e r a t i o n s , by Deere; Reference 16, Engineering
P r o p e r t i e s of Rocks, by Farmer.) Guidance i s provided i n Reference 14 f o r
d e s c r i p t i o n of weathered igneous and metamorphic r o c k ( r e s i d u a l s o i l , t r a n s i -
t i o n from r e s i d u a l t o s a p r o l i t e , e t c . ) i n terms of RQD, p e r c e n t c o r e recovery,
r e l a t i v e p e r m e a b i l i t y and s t r e n g t h . Typical s t r e n g t h parameters f o r weathered
igneous and metamorphic rocks a r e a l s o given i n Reference 14. Guidance on
p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of some s h a l e s i s given i n Reference 13.

S e c t i o n 6. SPECIAL MATERIALS

1. GENERAL CLASSIFICATION AND TYPICAL ENGINEERING IMPLICATIONS. See Table

12 f o r g e n e r a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and t y p i c a l e n g i n e e r i n g i m p l i c a t i o n s of s p e c i a l
m a t e r i a l s t h a t i n f l u e n c e foundation design.

2. EXPANSIVE SOILS.

a. Characteristics. Expansive s o i l s a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d by t h e i r poten-

t i a l f o r g r e a t volume i n c r e a s e upon a c c e s s t o moisture. S o i l s e x h i b i t i n g such
behavior a r e mostly mon tmor i l l o n i te c l a y s and c l a y s h a l e s .

b. I d e n t i f i c a t i o n and C l a s s i f i c a t i o n . F i g u r e 4 (Reference 17, Shallow

Foundations, by t h e Canadian Geotechnical S o c i e t y ) shows a method based on
A t t e r b e r g l i m i t s and g r a i n s i z e f o r c l a s s i f y i n g expansive s o i l s . A c t i v i t y of
c l a y i s defined a s t h e r a t i o of p l a s t i c i t y index and t h e p e r c e n t by weight
f i n e r than two microns ( 2 p ). The s w e l l t e s t i n a one dimensional c o n s o l i -
d a t i o n t e s t ( s e e Chapter 3 ) o r t h e Double Consolidometer T e s t (Reference 18,
The A d d i t i o n a l S e t t l e m e n t of Foundations Due t o C o l l a p s e of S t r u c t u r e s of
 TABLE 12
I d e n t i f i c a t i o n and C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of S p e c i a l M a t e r i a l s

Material I
I
~eographic/Geomorphic F e a t u r e s I Engineering Conditions

"Quick ' Marine o r brackjlsh water c l a y composed of ' Severe l o s s of s t r e n g t h when d i s t u r b e d . b y

Clay" g l a c i a l rock f l o u r t h a t i s e l e v a t e d above c o n s t r u c t i o n a c t i v i t i e s o r seismic ground
sea level. shaking.

' Generally confined t o f a r n o r t h a r e a s ; ' Replacement o f . f o r m a t i o n water c o n t a i n i n g

E a s t e r n Canada, Alaska, Scandinavia. d i s s o l v e d s a l t w i t h f r e s h water r e s u l t s i n
strength loss.

' Produces l a n d s l i d e prone a r e a s (Anchorage,

Alaska).

Hydraulic ' Coastal f a c i l i t i e s , levees, dikes, '. High void r a t i o

Fills t a i l i n g s dams
' Uniform g r a d a t i o n but v a r i a b l e g r a i n s i z e s
w i t h i n same f i l l

' High liquefaction potential

I I I' Lateral spreading

I
' E a s i l y eroded
I
Collapsing
Soil
' Desert a r i d and semi-arid environment ' Loss of s t r e n g t h when wetted
I
' Alluvial valleys, playas, l o e s s
I ' Differential
' Low density
settlement

' Moisture sensitive

I 1 1' ~ypsum/Anhydrite of t e n p r e s e n t
I
 TABLE 12 (continued)
I d e n t i f i c a t i o n and C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of S p e c i a l Materials
Material Geographic/Geomorphic F e a t u r e s
Submarine C o n t i n e n t a l s h e l f d e p o s i t s a t water
Soils d e p t h s up t o s e v e r a l hundred f e e t .
Submarine canyons, t u r b i d i t y flows,
d e l t a i c deposits, abyssal p l a i n
Lateritic T r o p i c a l r a i n f o r e s t and savanna
Soils
Deep r e s i d u a l s o i l p r o f i l e
S h i e l d and sedimentary cover o u t s i d e
s h i e l d i n South and C e n t r a l America,
C e n t r a l and West A f r i c a , s o u t h e a s t Asia,
and o t h e r p a r t s of t h e world.
Engineering Conditions
~ i s t r i b u t i o nand p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f
sand;. silt, and c l a y may change w i t h time
and l o c a l g e o l o g i c c o n d i t i o n s .
Shelf d e p o s i t s have few unique
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s r e q u i r i n g n u d i f i c a t i o n of
s o i l mechanics p r i n c i p a l s .
Local a r e a s , such a s t h e Gulf of Mexico
have weak, underconsolidated d e p o s i t s .
Deep s e a c a l c a r e o u s d e p o s i t s have water
c o n t e n t s up t o 100% and shear s t r e n g t h s up
t o about 220 p s f .
Deep s e a s i l t y c l a y s have average water
c o n t e n t s of 100-200% and shear s t r e n g t h s of
35-75 p s f .
Deep s e a d e p o s i t s a r e normally conso,lidated
but near s h e l f d e p o s i t s may be
underconsolidated.
Loss of s o i l s t r e n g t h w i t h time
High void r a t i o / p e r m e a b i l i t y
Aggregate d e t e r i o r a t i o n
' Variable moisture content
Shrinkage c r a c k s
 TABLE 12 (continued)
I d e n t i f i c a t i o n and C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of S p e c i a l M a t e r i a l s

Material Geographic/Geomorphic F e a t u r e s Engineering Conditions

Lateritic ' Easily compacts

Soils
(cont'd) ' Shear c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s somewhere between
sand and s i l t

' Landslide prone

' Depth of w e t t i n g a f f e c t s s l o p e s t a b i l i t y

' Varied foundation c o n d i t i o n s

Limestone ' Humid t r o p i c s and s u b t r o p i c s , i s l a n d ' Solution c a v i t i e s

and Coral environment.
' Extreme variations i n porosity
' Karsttopography a c c e l e r a t e d i n humid
climates. ' Void r a t i o s i n c o r a l up t o 2

' Limestone t h a t a r e cavernous o r prone t o ' Chimney-like s i n k h o l e s and c o l l a p s e

c a v i t y formations a r e widely d i s t r i b u t e d structures
throughout t h e world i n c o u n t r i e s of a r i d
and humid c l i m a t e s . I n t h e U. S., cav- ' Slump f a i l u r e s , r a v e l l i n g
ernous limestone i s found i n Kentucky,
Pennsylvania, C a l i f o r n i a , I n d i a n a , ' Rock s e t t l e m e n t and c o n s o l i d a t i o n
Michigan, New Mexico, Texas, and
Virginia. ' Piles o r bridging o f t e n required
 VERY HIGH

50 100
PERCENT OF CLAY (( 2 p ) IN WHOLE SAMPLE
C

FIGURE 4
Volume Change Potential Classification for Clay Soils
Sandy S o i l s on Wetting, by J e n n i n g s and Knight) i s used f o r e s t i m a t i n g t h e
swell potential.

3. COLLAPSING SOILS

a. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Collapsing s o i l s a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d by t h e i r poten-
t i a l t o undergo l a r g e d e c r e a s e i n volume upon i n c r e a s e i n m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t
even without i n c r e a s e i n e x t e r n a l l o a d s . Examples of s o i l s e x h i b i t i n g t h i s
behavior a r e l o e s s , weakly cemented sands and s i l t s where cementing a g e n t i s
s o l u b l e (e.g., s o l u b l e gypsum, h a l i t e , e t c . ) and c e r t a i n g r a n i t e r e s i d u a l
s o i l s . A common f e a t u r e of c o l l a p s i b l e s o i l s i s t h e l o o s e bulky g r a i n s h e l d
t o g e t h e r by c a p i l l a r y s t r e s s e s . Deposits of c o l l a p s i b l e s o i l s a r e u s u a l l y
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h r e g i o n s of m o i s t u r e d e f i c i e n c y .

b. I d e n t i f i c a t i o n and C l a s s i f i c a t i o n . D e t a i l e d g e o l o g i c s t u d i e s c o u l d
identify potentially collapsible soils. Figure 5 (Reference 19, Research
R e l a t e d t o S o i l Problems of t h e Arid Western United S t a t e s , by Holtz and
Gibbs) provides guidance f o r i d e n t i f y i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r c o l l a p s e f o r c l a y e y
sands and sandy c l a y s found i n t h e western United S t a t e s . For cemented s o i l s
and n o n p l a s t i c s o i l s , c r i t e r i a based on consolidometer t e s t s a r e more a p p l i c a -
b l e a s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 6 (Reference 20, A Guide t o C o n s t r u c t i o n on o r
w i t h M a t e r i a l s E x i b i t i n g A d d i t i o n a l S e t t l e m e n t s Due t o C o l l a p s e of G r a i n
.
S t r u c t u r e . by
- - - -

.. J e n n i ng~s and Knight; and Reference 21, The O r i g i n and

Occurrence of C o l l a p s i n g S o i l , by Knight). The p o t e n t i a l f o r c o l l a p s e i s a
e v a l u a t e d i n t h e f i e l d by performing s t a n d a r d p l a t e load t e s t s (ASTM D1194,
Bearing Capacity of S o i l f o r S t a t i c Load on Spread F o o t i n g s ) under v a r i e d
m o i s t u r e environments. For f u r t h e r guidance s e e Reference 22, Experience
w i t h C o l l a p s i b l e S o i l i n t h e Southwest, by Beckwith.

4. PERMAFROST AND FROST PENETRATION.

a. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . I n non-frost s u s c e p t i b l e s o i l , volume i n c r e a s e i s
t y p i c a l l y 4% ( p o r o s i t y 40%, water volume i n c r e a s e i n t u r n i n g t o i c e = lo%,
t o t a l heave = 40% x 10% = 4%). I n s u s c e p t i b l e s o i l heave i s much g r e a t e r a s
water flows t o c o l d e r zones (forming i c e l e n s e s ) . The a s s o c i a t e d l o s s of sup-
p o r t upon thaw can be more d e t r i m e n t a l t o s t r u c t u r e s t h a n t h e heave i t s e l f .

b. Classification. S i l t s a r e t h e most s u s c e p t i b l e t o f r o s t heave.

S o i l s of t y p e s SM, ML, GM, SC, GC, and CL a r e c l a s s i f i e d a s having f r o s t heave
potential.

c. Geography. Figure 7 (Reference 23, N a t i o n a l Oceanic and Atmospheric

A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ) may be used a s a guide f o r e s t i m a t i n g extreme d e p t h of f r o s t
p e n e t r a t i o n i n t h e United S t a t e s .

5. LIMESTONE AND RELATED MATERIALS.

a. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Limestone, d o l o m i t e , gypsum and a n h y d r i t e a r e char-

a c t e r i z e d by t h e i r s o l u b i l i t y and t h u s t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r c a v i t y presence and
c a v i t y development. Limestones a r e d e f i n e d a s t h o s e r o c k s composed of more
than 50% c a r b o n a t e m i n e r a l s of which 50% o r more c o n s i s t of c a l c i t e a n d / o r
aragonite. Some n e a r shore carbonate sediments ( a l s o c a l l e d limes t o n e , m a r l ,
c h a l k ) could f i t t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n . Such sediments a r e noted f o r e r r a t i c
degrees of i n d u r a t i o n , and t h u s v a r i a b i l i t y i n l o a d s u p p o r t i n g c a p a c i t y and
 LIQUID LIMIT- @lo

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
L

60
I COLLAPSIBLE
-
I-

= so
V)
Z

> NON COLLAPSIBLE

K
O
4
a
a
3 100
2
z

FIGURE 5
Criterion for Collapse Potential
I _I

,2 rsf Log P
b

r;
e
,, Aec

Collapse btential (CP) h &fined or :

CP:* 01 A HC
I + eo CPs Ho

A *c = Chonge in void mtio upon wetting A Hc = Change inheight upon wetting

e, = Noturol void ratio Ho = Initial height

Collqm Cbtmtiol Volws

CP Severity of Ploblem
0- I % No problem
I - sic Moderate trouble
5-0% Troub k
0-20% Severe Trouble
20% W y Seven Trouble

FIGURE 6
Typical Collapse Potential T e s t Results
u n c e r t a i n t y i n t h e i r long-term performance under s u s t a i n e d l o a d s . The most
s i g n i f i c a n t limestone f e a t u r e i s i t s s o l u b i l i t y . An extremely s o l u b l e one c a n
b e r i d d l e d with s o l u t i o n c a v e s , c h a n n e l s , o r o t h e r open, water, o r c l a y f i l l e d
features.

b. I d e n t i f i c a t i o n . Presence of s o l u t i o n f e a t u r e s may be checked by geo-

l o g i c a l reconnaissance, d r i l l i n g , and o t h e r forms of bedrock v e r i f i c a t i o n .
Geophysical t e c h n i q u e s , i n c l u d i n g shallow s e i s m i c r e f r a c t i o n , r e s i s t i v i t y and
gravimetry a r e o f t e n found t o be v a l u a b l e supplements.

c. Coral 'and Coral Formation.

( 1 ) Origin. Living c o r a l and c o r a l l i n e d e b r i s a r e g e n e r a l l y found

i n t r o p i c a l r e g i o n s where t h e water temperature exceeds 20' C. Coral i s a
term commonly used f o r t h e group of animals which s e c r e t e an o u t e r s k e l e t o n
composed of calcium c a r b o n a t e , and which g e n e r a l l y grow i n c o l o n i e s . The term
" c o r a l r e e f " i s o f t e n a p p l i e d t o l a r g e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of such c o l o n i e s which
fad e x t e n s i v e submerged t r a c t s around t r o p i c a l c o a s t s and i s l a n d s . In
g e n e r a l , c o r a l l i n e s o i l s d e p o s i t e d a f t e r t h e breakdown of t h e r e e f , t y p i c a l l y
by wave a c t i o n , a r e t h i n ( a few meters t h i c k ) and form a veneer upon cemented
m a t e r i a l s ( l i m e s t o n e s , sandstones, e t c . ) .

( 2 ) Geological C l a s s i f i c a t i o n . Because t h e g r a n u l a r c o r a l l i n e and

a l g a l m a t e r i a l s a r e derived from organisms which v a r y i n s i z e from microscopic
s h e l l s t o l a r g e c o r a l h e a d s s e v e r a l meters i n d i a m e t e r , t h e fragments a r e
broadly graded and range i n s i z e from b o u l d e r s t o fine-grained muds. Simi-
l a r l y , t h e shape of t h e s e m a t e r i a l s v a r i e s from s h a r p , i r r e g u l a r fragments t o
well-rounded p a r t i c l e s . C o r a l l i n e d e p o s i t s a r e g e n e r a l l y r e f e r r e d t o a s "bio-
genic m a t e r i a l s " by g e o l o g i s t s . When cemented, t h e y may be termed " r e e f r o c k , "
o r "beachrock," o r o t h e r names which imply an o r i g i n through cementation of
p a r t i c l e s i n t o a h a r d , coherent m a t e r i a l .

( 3 ) C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . C o r a l l i n e d e p o s i t s a r e g e n e r a l l y poor founda-
t i o n m a t e r i a l s i n t h e i r n a t u r a l s t a t e because of t h e i r v a r i a b i l i t y and suscep-
t i b i l i t y t o s o l u t i o n by p e r c o l a t i n g w a t e r s , and t h e i r g e n e r a l l y b r i t t l e
nature. C o r a l l i n e m a t e r i a l s a r e o f t e n used f o r compacted f i l l f o r roads and
l i g h t s t r u c t u r e s . Under l o a d s , compaction occurs a s t h e b r i t t l e carbonate
g r a i n s f r a c t u r e and c o n s o l i d a t e . They can provide a f i r m support f o r mats o r
spread f o o t i n g s bearing l i g h t l o a d s , but i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o thoroughly compact
t h e m a t e r i a l b e f o r e using i t a s a supporting s u r f a c e . Heavy s t r u c t u r e s i n
c o r a l a r e a s a r e g e n e r a l l y supported on p i l e foundations because of t h e e r r a t i c
induration. P r e d r j l l i n g frequently i s required.

Because of extreme v a r i a b i l i t y i n engineering p r o p e r t i e s of

n a t u r a l c o r a l formations, i t i s n o t prudent t o make p r e l i m i n a r y engineering
d e c i s i o n s on t h e b a s i s of " t y p i c a l p r o p e r t i e s . " Unconfined compression
s t r e n g t h s of i n t a c t specimens may range from 50 t o n s l f t 2 t o 300 t o n s l f t 2 ,
and p o r o s i t y may range from l e s s t h a n 40% t o over 50%.

For f u r t h e r guidance s e e Reference 24, F a i l u r e i n Limestone i n

Humid S u b t r o p i c s , by Sowers, which d i s c u s s e s f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n
i n l i m e s t o n e ; and Reference 25, T e r r a i n Analysis -
A Guide t o S i t e S e l e c t i o n
Using A e r i a l Photographic I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , by Way.
6. QUICK CLAYS.

a. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Quick c l a y s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e i r g r e a t s e n s i -
t i v i t y o r s t r e n g t h r e d u c t i o n upon d i s t u r b a n c e .

A l l quick c l a y s a r e of marine o r i g i n . Because of t h e i r b r i t t l e

n a t u r e , c o l l a p s e o c c u r s a t r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l s t r a i n s . Slopes i n q u i c k c l a y s
can f a i l without l a r g e movements. For f u r t h e r guidance s e e Reference 5 and
Reference 26, Quick Clays and C a l i f o r n i a : No Quick S o l u t i o n s , by Anne.

b. I d e n t i f i c a t i o n . Quick c l a y s a r e r e a d i l y recognized by measured

s e n s i t i v i t i e s g r e a t e r than about 15 and by t h e d i s t i n c t i v e , s t r a i n - s o f t e n i n g
shape of t h e i r s t r e s s - s t r a i n curves from s t r e n g t h o r c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y t e s t s .

7. OTHER MATERIALS AND CONSIDERATIONS.

a . Man-Made F i l l s . Composition and d e n s i t y a r e t h e main concerns.

Unless t h e s e can be shown t o be non-detrimental t o t h e performance of t h e
foundation, bypassing w i t h deep f o u n d a t i o n s , o r removal and replacement a r e i n
order.

S a n i t a r y l a n d f i l l s may undergo l a r g e s e t t l e m e n t s under s e l f weight a s

w e l l a s under s t r u c t u r a l loads. G u i d e l i n e s on t h e e v a l u a t i o n of s e t t l e m e n t
and o t h e r foundation c o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r s a n i t a r y l a n d f i l l s a r e given i n
DM-7.3, Chapter 3.

b. Chemically Reactive S o i l s . For foundation c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e main

concerns u s u a l l y a r e c o r r o s i o n and gas g e n e r a t i o n . Corrosion p o t e n t i a l i s
determined i n terms of pH, r e s i s t i v i t y , s t r a y c u r r e n t a c t i v i t y , groundwater
p o s i t i o n , chemical a n a l y s i s , e t c . ; and a compatible foundation t r e a t m e n t ,
e.g., s u l f a t e r e s i s t a n t c o n c r e t e , l a c q u e r s , c r e o s o t e , c a t h o d i c p r o t e c t i o n ,
e t c . , i s prescribed. For gas c o n c e n t r a t i o n , o r g a n i c m a t t e r c o n t e n t and f i e l d
t e s t i n g f o r gas a r e u s u a l l y performed. I f g a s g e n e r a t i o n i s expected, some
form of venting system i s designed ( s e e Chapter 2). The p o t e n t i a l presence of
noxious o r e x p l o s i v e g a s e s should be considered during t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n
excavations and tunneling.

c. L a t e r i t i c S o i l s . L a t e r i t i c s o i l s a r e found i n t r o p i c a l c l i m a t e s
throughout t h e world. Typical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e shown i n Table 12. For
f u r t h e r guidance s e e Reference 27, L a t e r i t e S o i l Engineering, by Gidigasu;
Reference 28, L a t e r i t e Genesis, L o c a t i o n , Use, by Persons; Reference 29,
Engineering Study of L a t e r i t e and L a t e r i t i c S o i l s i n Connection w i t h
. a . .
C o n s t r u c t i o n of Roads. Highwavs and A i r f i e l d s . bv the U.S. k e n c v
- d - ., f o r
I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development; Reference 30, -L a t e r i t e , L a t e r i t i c S o i l s and Other
Problem S o i l s of A f r i c a , by t h e U.S. Agency f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development; and
Reference 31, L a t e r i t e and L a t e r i t i c S o i l s and Other Problem S o i l s of t h e
Tropics,,by t h e U.S. Agency f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development.

d. Submarine S o i l s . Typical c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e shown i n Table 12.

F u r t h e r guidance may be found i n Reference 32, Engineering P r o p e r t i e s of
Submarine S o i l s : State-of-the-Art Review, by Noorany and G i z i e n s k i .
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and L a t e r i t i c S o i l s i n Connection With C o n s t r u c t i o n of Roads, Highways
and A i r f i e l d s , Southeast Asia, 196 9.

30. U.S. Agency f o r I n t e r n a t i o n a l Development, L a t e r i t e , L a t e r i t i c S o i l s and

Other Problem S o i l s of A f r i c a , 1971.
31. U.S. Agency f o r International Development, Laterite and L a t e r i t i c S o i l s
and Other Problem S o i l s of the Tropics, 1975.

32. Noorany,. I. and Gizienski, S.F., Engineering Properties of Submarine

S o i l s : State-of-the-Art Review, Journal of the S o i l Mechanics and
Foundation Division, ASCE, Vol. 96, No. SM5, 1970.
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Intentionally
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 CHAPTER 2. FIELD EXPLORATION, TESTING, AND INSTRUMENTATION

S e c t i o n 1. INTRODUCTION

1. SCOPE. T h i s c h a p t e r c o n t a i n s i n f o r m a t i o n on e x p l o r a t i o n methods i n c l u d -
i n g u s e of a i r photos and remote s e n s i n g , g e o p h y s i c a l methods, t e s t p i t s , t e s t
b o r i n g s , and penetrometers. Also p r e s e a t e d i s i n f o r m a t i o n on methods of sam-
p l i n g , measuring i n s i t u p r o p e r t i e s of s o i l and r o c k , f i e l d measurements, and
.
geo t e c h n i c a l m o n i t o r i n g e y i p m e n t

2. RELATED CRITERIA. For o t h e r c r i t e r i a r e l a t e d t o e x p l o r a t i o n and sam-

pling, see t h e following sources:

Subject Out
Out of
of Date
Date Source s

S o i l E x p l o r a t i o n and Subgrade Tesclng....................NAVFAC DM-5.4

F i e l d Pumping Tests......................................NAVFAC P-418

3. PLANNING FdR FIELD INVESTIGATIONS. The i n i t i a l phase of f i e l d i n v e s t i g a -

t i o n s should c o n s i s t of d e t a i l e d r e v i e w of g e o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s a t t h e s i t e
and i n i t s g e n e r a l e n v i r o n s . T h i s s h o u l d i n c l u d e a d e s k t o p s t u d y of a v a i l -
a b l e d a t a i n c l u d i n g remote s e n s i n g imagery, a e r i a l photography, and a f i e l d
reconnaissance. The i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d should be used a s a g u i d e i n plan-
ning the exploration.

To t h e e x t e n t p o s s i b l e , b o r i n g s s h o u l d be supplemented by lower c o s t e x p l o r a -
t i o n t e c h n i q u e s such a s t e s t p i t s , p r o b e s , s e i s m i c r e f r a c t i o n s u r v e y s , and
e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t i v i t y surveys. This i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e i n t h e offshore
environment where b o r i n g s a r e e x c e p t i o n a l l y expensive.

I n f o r m a t i o n on b o r i n g l a y o u t i s g i v e n i n S e c t i o n 5 and a sample b o r i n g l o g i s
g i v e n i n F i g u r e 1. Guidance on e x p l o r a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s i s g i v e n i n S e c t i o n s 5
and 6.

I t should be noted t h a t NAVFAC h a s a G e o t e c h n i c a l Data R e t r i e v a l System. To

o p t i m i z e i t s u s e , t h e U.S. Navy encourages u t i l i z a t i o n of i t s format on Navy
projects. D e t a i l s r e l a t i v e t o t h i s can be found i n R e f e r e n c e 1, G e o t e c h n i c a l
Data R e t r i e v a l System, by NAVFAC.

4. EXPLORATION PHASES. P r o j e c t e x p l o r a t i o n can g e n e r a l l y have t h r e e p h a s e s :

reconnaissance/feasibility e x p l o r a t i o n ; p r e l i m i n a r y e x p l o r a t i o n ; and d e t a i l e d /
f i n a l e x p l o r a t i o n . A d d i t i o n a l e x p l o r a t i o n may be r e q u i r e d d u r i n g o r a f t e r
construction. F r e q u e n t l y , a l l p r e c o n s t r u c t i o n phases a r e combined i n t o a
single exploration e f f o r t .

a. Reconnaissance/Feasibility. Reconnaissance i n c l u d e s a r e v i e w o f
a v a i l a b l e t o p o g r a p h i c and g e o l o g i c i n f o r m a t i o n , a e r i a l p h o t o g r a p h s , d a t a from
p r e v i o u s i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , and s i t e examination. Geophysical methods a r e a p p l i -
c a b l e i n s p e c i a l c a s e s . Reconnaissance/feasibility f r e q u e n t l y r e v e a l s d i f f i -
c u l t i e s which may be expected i n l a t e r e x p l o r a t i o n phases and a s s i s t s i n
d e t e r m i n i n g t h e t y p e , number and l o c a t i o n s of b o r i n g s r e q u i r e d .
 IDENTIFICATION

Soft brown Clayey SILT (ML) ,

Medium dense, gray coarse

t o f i n e SAND, trace s i l t ,
trace f i n e gravel (SW)

SANDSTONE, Brown f i n e grained

s l i g h t l y weathered, hard, medium
fractured, with brown s t a i n s

13:lO = P u l l Run 1

SPLIT SPOON SAMPLE

UNDISTURBED SAMPLE

1 WATER LEVEL

FIGURE 1
Sample Boring Log
 b. P r e l i m i n a r y Exploration. T h i s may i n c l u d e b o r i n g s t o ' r e c o v e r samples
f o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n tests only.

c. D e t a i l e d Exploration. T h i s phase normally i n c l u d e s b o r i n g s , d i s -

turbed and undisturbed sampling f o r l a b o r a t o r y t e s t i n g , s t a n d a r d p e n e t r a t i o n
r e s i s t a n c e s , and o t h e r i n s i t u measurements. A t c r i t i c a l s i t e s it may a l s o
i n c l u d e test p i t s , piezometer measurements, pumping tests, e t c .

d. C o n s t r u c t i o n / P o s t C o n s t r u c t i o n Phases. F u r t h e r e v a l u a t i o n of founda-
t i o n c o n d i t i o n s may be r e q u i r e d d u r i n g t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n phase. Monitoring of
t h e s i t e o r s t r u c t u r e may be n e c e s s a r y throughout t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n and p o s t
c o n s t r u c t i o n phases.

S e c t i o n 2. PUBLISHED SOIL AND GEOLOGICAL MAPS

1. SOURCES. Data on t h e p h y s i c a l geology of t h e United S t a t e s a r e a v a i l a b l e

i n maps and r e p o r t s by government a g e n c i e s , u n i v e r s i t i e s , and p r o f e s s i o n a l
s o c i e t i e s ( s e e Table 1). These s o u r c e s o f t e n c o n t a i n g e o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n
on f o r e i g n c o u n t r i e s .

2. PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS. For s t u d i e s i n developed a r e a s , c o l l e c t i n f o r -

mation from previous work on f o u n d a t i o n s and s u b s u r f a c e c o n d i t i o n s .

a. Shipyard o r Waterfront Areas. These l o c a t i o n s o f t e n have undergone

c y c l e s of expansion and r e c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h o l d e r f o u n d a t i o n s remaining b u r i e d
i n place. Records of former c o n s t r u c t i o n may c o n t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n on b o r i n g s ,
f i e l d tests, groundwater c o n d i t i o n s , and p o t e n t i a l o r a c t u a l s o u r c e s of
trouble..

b. Evaluation. Review of d a t a from previous work should r e c e i v e t h e

g r e a t e s t a t t e n t i o n of any phase i n a r e c o n n a i s s a n c e i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

S e c t i o n 3. REMOTE SENSING DATA METHODS

1. SOURCES. Remote sensing d a t a a r e a c q u i r e d by imagery recovery d e v i c e s

and t h e i r t r a n s p o r t i n g media. A e r i a l photographs a r e t h e most common type
w i t h coverage of almost t h e e n t i r e United S t a t e s a v a i l a b l e a t s c a l e s from
1:12,000 t o 1 :80,000. With t h e advent of improving technology, space programs
and d a t a g a t h e r i n g s a t e l l i t e s , a w e a l t h of o t h e r remote sensed d a t a a r e now
a v a i l a b l e f o r use. Table 2 summarizes t h e t y p e s of d a t a most commonly used i n
e n g i n e e r i n g s t u d i e s . Photos a t l a r g e r s c a l e up t o 1:2000 a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r
some l o c a t i o n s from s t a t e a g e n c i e s and commercial aero-photogrammetric f i n n s .

2. UTILIZATION. Use of photographs and mosaics i s r o u t i n e i n most l a r g e

e n g i n e e r i n g s t u d i e s such a s highway and a i r f i e l d work. Other forms of remote
s e n s i n g d a t a a r e used on a more s e l e c t i v e b a s i s when r e q u i r e d . For a complete
d e s c r i p t i o n on t h e use of imagery i n earthquake a n a l y s i s , s e e Reference 2,
Imagery i n Earthquake A n a l y s i s , by Glass and Slemmons. For u n f a m i l i a r s i t e s ,
t h e a i r photographs a i d i n planning and l a y o u t of an a p p r o p r i a t e boring pro-
gram.
 TABLE 1
Sources of Geological Information

Series Description of Material

U. S. Consult USGS Index of P u b l i c a t i o n s from Superintendent of

Geological Documents, Washington, D.C. Order p u b l i c a t i o n s from
Survey Superintendent of Documents. Order maps from USGS,
(USGS ) Washington, D.C. Contact r e g i o n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n o f f i c e s
f o r information.

Geological I n d i v i d u a l maps of each s t a t e showing coverage and sources

index map of all published geological maps.

F o l i o s of Contains maps of bedrock and s u r f a c e m a t e r i a l s f o r many

t h e Geo- important urban and seacoast areas. When o u t of p r i n t ,
logical o b t a i n f o l i o s through s u p p l i e r s of used t e c h n i c a l
A t l a s of literature.
t h e United
States

Geological This s e r i e s supplants t h e o l d e r g e o l o g i c a l f o l i o s including

Quadrangle a r e a l o r bedrock geology maps with b r i e f d e s c r i p t i v e t e x t .
Maps of S e r i e s i s being extended t o cover a r e a s n o t previously
United investigated.
States

Bulletins, General physical geology emphasizing a l l a s p e c t s o f - e a r t h

prof e s- sciences, including mineral and petroleum r e s o u r c e s ,
sional hydrology and s e i s m i c i t y . Areal and bedrock geology maps
Papers, f o r s p e c i f i c l o c a t i o n s included i n many p u b l i c a t i o n s .
circulars,
annual
reports,
monographs

Water S e r i e s includes papers on groundwater r e s o u r c e s i n s p e c i f i c

supply l o c a l i t i e s and a r e g e n e r a l l y accompanied by d e s c r i p t i o n of
Papers subsurface c o n d i t i o n s a f f e c t i n g groundwater plus observa-
t i o n s of groundwater l e v e l s .

Topographic Topographic contour maps i n a l l s t a t e s , widespread coverage

maps being c o n t i n u a l l y expanded.

Libraries Regional o f f i c e l i b r a r i e s c o n t a i n geological and

seismological information from many sources. Data on
foreign countries a r e often suitable.
 TABLE 1 (continued)
Sources of Geological Information

Series D e s c r i p t i o n of M a t e r i a l

National Consult Catalog 1 , A t l a n t i c and Gulf Coasts; 2, P a c i f i c

Oceanic and Coast, 3, Alaska; 4, Great Lakes; and 5 , Bathymetric Maps
Atmospheric and S p e c i a l Charts. Order from D i s t r i b u t i o n S e r v i c e ,
Admini s tr a- N a t i o n a l Ocean Survey, R i v e r d a l e , Maryland 20840.
t i o n (NOAA),
National
Ocean Survey
(NOS)

Naut i c a 1 Charts of c o a s t a l and i n l a n d waterways showing a v a i l a b l e

Charts soundings of bottom p l u s topographic and c u l t u r a l f e a t u r e s
a d j a c e n t t o t h e c o a s t o r waterways.

U. S. Consult " L i s t of Published S o i l Surveys," USDA, S o i l Conser-

Department of v a t i o n S e r v i c e , J a n u a r y 1980 ( p u b l i s h e d a n n u a l l y ) . Listing
Agriculture by s t a t e s and c o u n t r i e s .
(USDA) , S o i l
Conservation
Service.

S o i l maps Surveys of s u r f a c e s o i l s d e s c r i b e d i n a g r i c u l t u r a l terms.

and r e p o r t s P h y s i c a l geology summarized. E x c e l l e n t f o r highway o r
a i r f i e l d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . Coverage mainly i n midwest, e a s t ,
and southern United S t a t e s .

State Most s t a t e s provide e x c e l l e n t d e t a i l e d l o c a l g e o l o g i c a l maps

Geological and r e p o r t s covering s p e c i f i c a r e a s o r f e a t u r e s i n t h e
Surveys/State p u b l i c a t i o n s of t h e s t a t e g e o l o g i s t s . Some o f f i c e s a r e
Geologist's e x c e l l e n t s o u r c e s of i n f o r m a t i o n on f o r e i g n c o u n t r i e s .
Office

Geological Write f o r index t o GSA, P.O. Box 9140, 3300 Penrose P l a c e ,

S o c i e t y of Boulder, Colorado, 80302.
Amer i c a ( GSA)

Monthly Texts cover s p e c i a l i z e d g e o l o g i c a l s u b j e c t s and i n t e n s i v e

bulletins, i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of l o c a l geology. D e t a i l e d g e o l o g i c a l
special maps a r e f r e q u e n t l y included i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l a r t i c l e s .
papers, and
memoirs.

Geological P u b l i c a t i o n s i n c l u d e g e n e r a l g e o l o g i c a l maps of North and

maps South America, maps of g l a c i a l d e p o s i t s , and P l e i s t o c e n e
aeolian deposits.
-
 TABLE 1 ( c o n t i n u e d )
Sources of Geological Information

Series D e s c r i p t i o n of M a t e r i a l

L i b r a r y of Maintains e x t e n s i v e l i b r a r y of U.S. and f o r e i g n g e o l o g i c

Congress r e p o r t s by g e o g r a p h i c a l a r e a . I n q u i r y t o L i b r a r y of Con-
g r e s s , 10 F i r s t S t r e e t , Washington, D. C., 20540.

worldwide For a d d r e s s e s c o n s u l t "Worldwide D i r e c t o r y of N a t i o n a l

National Earth-Science Agencies," USGS C i r c u l a r 716, 1975
Earth-
Science
Agencies
 TABLE 2
Remote Sensing Data

TYPE DESCRIPTION AND GENERAL USE AVAILABILITY

Aer i a 1 A v a i l a b l e i n 9-inch frames w i t h o v e r l a p U.S. Geological Survey (USGS); N a t i o n a l .

Photography f o r s t e r e o s c o p i c viewing, Valuable I n f o r m a t i o n Center (NCIC), Reston, VA, U.S.
because of h i g h r e s o l u t i o n and a v a i l a b l e S o i l Conservation S e r v i c e (SCS) ; U. S. F o r e s t
s c a l e s could range from 1:12,000 ( o r S e r v i c e ; U.S. Bureau of Land Management;
l a r g e r ) t o 1:80,000. Photos used exten- Tennessee Valley Authority.
s i v e l y f o r topographic and/or g e o l o g i c
mapping, d r a i n a g e p a t t e r n s , and o t h e r
u s e s i n c l u d e i d e n t i f y i n g l o c a t i o n of
existing structures, vegetation, access
r o u t e s and s i t e l o c a t i o n s f o r planned
explorations.

Imagery o b t a i n e d by s a t e l l i t e which From E a r t h Resources Observation System (EROS)

f l i e s i n c i r c u l a r o r b i t 570 m i l e s above Data C e n t e r , Sioux F a l l s , SD 57198. Closest
E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e and c i r c l e s E a r t h about r e g i o n a l source can be determined by c a l l i n g
14 t i m e s a day. Gives r e p e t i t i v e (605) 594-6511, Ext. 151.
coverage every 18 days. The primary
s e n s o r i s t h e m u l t i s p e c t r a l scanner Imagery a v a i l a b l e i n s c a i e s of 1:1,000,000;
(MSS) which a c q u i r e s images 115 m i l e s 1:400,000; and 1:250,000. 1978 p r i c e s ranged
p e r s i d e i n f o u r s p e c t r a l bands. The from $8.00 f o r b l a c k and w h i t e images a t
f o u r bands a r e : 1:1,000,000 t o $50.00 f o r c o l o r i n f r a r e d
composite a t 1:250,000.
BAND 4: The green band, 0.5 t o 0.6
micrometers, emphasizes movement
of sediment-laden water and
d e l i n e a t e s a r e a s of shallow
w a t e r , such a s s h o a l s , r e e f s ,
etc., useful i n differentiating
. lithology;
 TABLE 2 (continued)
Remote Sensing Data

TYPE DESCRIPTION AND GENERAL USE AVAILABILITY

BAND 6: The r e d band, 0.6 t o 0.7

micrometers, emphasizes c u l t u r a l
f e a t u r e s , such a s m e t r o p o l i t a n
areas;

BAND 7: The n e a r - i n f r a r e d band, 0.7 t o

0.8 micrometers, emphasizes
v e g e t a t i o n , t h e boundary between
land and water, landforms and
useful i n structural interpreta-
t i o n of geology;

BAND 8: The second n e a r - i n f r a r e d band

0.8 t o 1.1 micrometers, provides
t h e b e s t p e n e t r a t i o n of atmos-
p h e r i c haze, t h e b e s t band f o r
detecting f a u l t s , lineaments,
mega-joint p a t t e r n s o r o t h e r
s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s , and a l s o
emphasizes v e g e t a t i o n , t h e
boundary between l a n d and w a t e r ,
and landf o m s .

Skylab S a t e l l i t e o r b i t 270 m i l e s above e a r t h From EROS Data Center, Sioux F a l l s , SD 47198.

with system which i n c l u d e s a s i x l e n s Photos can be enlarged t o s c a l e of 1:250,000
m u l t i - s p e c t r a camera and an E a r t h t e r - w i t h almost no l o s s of information.
r a i n camera. S i x l e n s a r r a y designed t o
provide high-quality photography of
E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e . Films used were
f i l t e r e d black and w h i t e , c o l o r and
f a l s e c o l o r i n f r a r e d . Area covered by
 TABLE 2 (continued)
Remote Sensing Data

TYPE DESCRIPTION AND GENERAL USE AVAILABILITY

Skylab e a c h image i s 100 x 100 miles. The

(cont'd) E a r t h t e r r a i n camera provided h i g h
r e s o l u t i o n photography f o r s c i e n t i f i c
study. Various b l a c k and w h i t e , c o l o r
and f a l s e - c o l o r i n f r a r e d f i l m s used.
Each frame covers 70 x 70 m i l e s .
Limited d a t a were acquired between
l a t i t u d e s 40 d e g r e e s n o r t h and 50
degrees south i n 1973-74 f l i g h t s .
Skylab f l i g h t s a r e completed. Photo-
graphy i s u s e f u l f o r r e g i o n a l planning,
environmental s t u d i e s , and geologic
analyses.

NASA A e r i a l photography produced from NASA Purchase from EROS Data Center, Sioux F a l l s , SD
E a r t h Resources A i r c r a f t Program. 57198. P r i c e s i n 1978 range upward from $8.00
Photos a v a i l a b l e i n wide v a r i e t y of f o r 1:120,000 s c a l e black and white photos.
f o r m a t s from f l i g h t s a s low a s a few
thousand f e e t t o U-2 f l i g h t s a t
a l t i t u d e s above 60,000 f e e t . High
a l t i t u d e photos g e n e r a l l y a v a i l a b l e a t
s c a l e s of about 1:120,000 and 1:60,000.
A t 1:120,000 s c a l e a r e a covered i s about
17 m i l e s on a s i d e . Photos a v a i l a b l e i n
b l a c k and white, c o l o r , o r f a l s e - c o l o r
i n f r a r e d . Coverage n o t a v a i l a b l e f o r a l l
a r e a s . F l i g h t s provide good r e s o l u t i o n
photos f o r planning, environmental
studies o r s i t e oriented studies; color
I R excellent for faultllineament
<
evaluation.
 TABLE 2 (continued)
Remote Sensing Data

TYPE DESCRIPTION AND GENERAL USE AVAILABILITY

SLAR Side-looking a i r b o r n e r a d a r (SLAR) i s National Cartographic Information Center

e s p e c i a l l y a p p l i c a b l e i n a r e a s of per- (NCIC) , Reston, VA. ; Goodyear Aerospace
s i s t e n t cloud cover and can be e s s e n t i - Corporation and Motorola, L i t c h f i e l d Park, AZ.;
a l l y o b t a i n e d i n all-weather, day-night Westinghouse E l e c t r i c Corp., P h i l a d e l p h i a , PA.
o p e r a t i o n s . Radar u s e s low, o b l i q u e
i l l u m i n a t i o n a n g l e s g i v i n g appearance of
low sun a n g l e imagery. It g i v e s l a r g e
a r e a views of E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e being
a v a i l a b l e i n s c a l e s ranging from
1:2,000,000 t o 1:250,000. SLAR should
n o t be used t o r e p l a c e a i r photos; i t i s
a v a l u a b l e complement t o photos f o r
regional studies. This i s t h e b e s t
imagery f o r r e g i o n a l s t r u c t u r a l ( f a u l t s /
lineaments) a n a l y s i s , often increasing
d e t e c t i o n of lineaments by 100-200%.

Thermal I R Thermal i n f r a r e d s e n s o r s d e t e c t t h e d i f - Very l i t t l e of E a r t h ' s s u r f a c e covered. Mostly

f e r e n t i n t e n s i t y of i n f r a r e d emission
( o r h e a t ) from an o b j e c t o r t h e E a r t h
s u r f a c e . Where temperature c o n t r a s t s
a r e s i g n i f i c a n t , thermal I R imagery can
be u s e f u l . O r d i n a r i l y i t i s used f o r
s p e c i a l purposes o r p r o j e c t s and could
be u s e f u l a s a complement t o o t h e r
remote sensing d a t a d u r i n g a planning
and s i t i n g study. Useful i n f a u l t
d e t e c t i o n i n covered a l l u v i a l a r e a s ,
geothermal e x p l o r a t i o n , l o c a t i o n of
seepage, l o c a t i o n of n e a r s u r f a c e p e a t
d e p o s i t s , covered meander s c a r s , and
+
heat l o s s studies.
obtained a s needed; most a e r i a l survey f i r m s
have c a p a b i l i t y of f l y i n g thermal I R a t p r i c e s
comparable t o l a r g e s c a l e photographic
coverage. A r e c e n t s a t e l l i t e , Heat Capacity
Mapping Mission (HCMM) has been a c q u i r i n g
thermal I R d a t a over t h e U.S. and p o r t i o n s of
f o r e i g n c o u n t r i e s . Hard copy images t o
e v e n t u a l l y be a v a i l a b l e through National Space
Science Data Center, Goddard Space F l i g h t
Center, Greenbelt, MD. No c o s t d a t a a v a i l a b l e .
 a . F l i g h t s t r i p s . Most a e r i a l photographs a r e t a k e n a s f l i g h t s t r i p s
with 60 p e r c e n t o r more o v e r l a p b e t w e n p i c t u r e s along the f l i g h t l i n e and 2 0
t o 30 p e r c e n t s i d e o v e r l a p between p a r a l l e l f l i g h t l i n e s .

b. I n t e r p r e t a t i o n . When overlapping p i c t u r e s a r e viewed s t e r e o s c o p i -

c a l l y , ground r e l i e f appears. From t h e appearance of land forms o r e r o s i o n a l
o r d e p o s i t i o n a l f e a t u r e s , t h e c h a r a c t e r of s o i l o r rock may b e i n t e r p r e t e d
( s e e Reference 3, T e r r a i n A n a l y s i s , A Guide t o S i t e S e l e c t i o n Using Aerial
Photographic I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , by Way, f o r guidance on i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and ter-
r a i n a n a l y s i s with r e s p e c t t o i s s u e s i n s i t e development).

3. LIMITATIONS. I n t e r p r e t a t ion of a e r i a l photographs and o t h e r remote

sensed d a t a r e q u i r e s c o n s i d e r a b l e e x p e r i e n c e and s k i l l , and r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d
depend on t h e i n t e r p r e t e r ' s p r o f i c i e n c y . Spot checking i n t h e f i e l d i s a n
e s s e n t i a l element i n photo-geologic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n .

a . Accuracy. Accuracy i s l i m i t e d where dense v e g e t a t i o n o b s c u r e s ground

f e a t u r e s ( u n l e s s SLAR imagery i s used) and i s dependent upon t h e s c a l e , sen-
s o r s , f i l m products and enlargements. Recently, computer enhancements of
mult i - s p e c t r a l imagery has made LANDSAT d a t a compatible with c o n v e n t i o n a l
a e r i a l photography.

b. U t i l i t y . For i n t e n s i v e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s w i t h i n developed- a r e a s , - a e r i a l
photographs a r e n o t e s s e n t i d t o e x p l o r a t i o n . Although v a l u a b l e , t h e t e c h n i -
que does n o t provide q u a n t i t a t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n f o r s i t e s p e c i f i c f o u n d a t i o n
conditions. However, p h o t o - i n t e r p r e t a t i o n g r e a t l y a i d s q u a l i t a t i v e c o r r e l a -
t i o n between a r e a s of known and unknown s u b s u r f a c e c o n d i t i o n s .

S e c t i o n 4. GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

1. UTILIZATION. See Table 3 f o r onshore and Table 4 f o r o f f s h o r e geophysi-

c a l methods and a p p l i c a t i o n .

a. Advantages. I n c o n t r a s t t o b o r i n g s , geophysical s u r v e y s e x p l o r e
l a r g e a r e a s r a p i d l y and economically. They i n d i c a t e average c o n d i t i o n s along
an alignment o r i n a n a r e a r a t h e r than along t h e r e s t r i c t e d v e r t i c a l l i n e a t a
s i n g l e l o c a t i o n a s i n a boring. This h e l p s d e t e c t i r r e g u l a r i t i e s of bedrock
s u r f a c e and i n t e r f a c e between s t r a t a .

b. A p p l i c a t i o n s . Geophysical methods a r e b e s t s u i t e d t o p r o s p e c t i n g
s i t e s f o r dams, r e s e r v o i r s , t u n n e l s , highways, and l a r g e groups of s t r u c t u r e s ,
e i t h e r on o r o f f s h o r e . They a l s o have been used t o l o c a t e g r a v e l d e p o s i t s
and s o u r c e s of o t h e r c o n s t r u c t i o n m a t e r i a l s where p r o p e r t i e s d i f f e r substan-
t i a l l y from a d j a c e n t s o i l s . Downhole, uphole and cross-hole s e i s m i c s u r v e y s
a r e used e x t e n s i v e l y f o r determining dynamic p r o p e r t i e s of s o i l and rock a t
small s t r a i n s .

( 1 ) R i p p a b i l i t y - v e l o c i t y r e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r v a r i o u s rock t y p e s a r e
given i n DM-7.2 Chapter 1.
 TABLE 3
Onshore Geophysics f o r Engineering Purposes
Name of
Method Procedure .or P r i n c i p l e U t i l i z e d
SEISMIC
METHODS :
Refraction Based on t i m e required f o r seismic waves
t o t r a v e l from source of energy t o
p o i n t s on ground s u r f a c e , a s measured by
geophones spaced a t i n t e r v a l s on a l i n e
a t t h e s u r f a c e , r e f r a c t i o n of seismic
waves a t t h e i n t e r f a c e between d i f f e r e n t
s t r a t a gives a p a t t e r n of a r r i v a l times
vs. d i s t a n c e a t a l i n e of geophones.
Seismic v e l o c i t y can be obtained from a
s i n g l e geophone and recorder with a
.
sledge hammer a s a source f o r seismic
wave s
High Geophones record t r a v e l time f o r t h e
Resolution a r r i v a l of seismic waves r e f l e c t e d from
Reflection t h e i n t e r f a c e of ad joining s t r a t a .
Vibration The t r a v e l time of t r a n s v e r s e o r shear
waves generated by a mechanical v i b r a t o r
c o n s i s t i n g of a p a i r of e c c e n t r i c a l l y
weighted d i s k s i s recorded by seismic
d e t e c t o r s placed a t s p e c i f i c d i s t a n c e s
from t h e v i b r a t o r .
A p p l i c a b i l i t y and Limitations
U t i l i z e d f o r preliminary site i n v e s t i g a t i o n t o
determine d e p t h - t o rock o r other lower stratum
s u b s t a n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t i n wave v e l o c i t y than
t h e overlying m a t e r i a l , r i p p a b i l i t y and f a u l t -
i n g , g e n e r a l l y l i m i t e d t o depths up t o 100 f t .
of a s i n g l e stratum. Used only where wave
v e l o c i t y i n successive l a y e r s becomes g r e a t e r
with depth.
S u i t a b l e f o r determining depths t o deep rock
s t r a t a . Generally a p p l i e s t o depths of a few
thousand f e e t , without s p e c i a l s i g n a l enhance-
ment techniques, r e f l e c t e d impulses a r e weak
and e a s i l y obscured by the d i r e c t s u r f a c e and
shallow r e f r a c t i o n impulses; method u s e f u l f o r
l o c a t i n g groundwater.
Velocity of wave t r a v e l and n a t u r a l period of
v i b r a t i o n g i v e s some i n d i c a t i o n of s o i l type.
Travel time p l o t t e d a s a f u n c t i o n of d i s t a n c e
i n d i c a t e s depths o r thickness of s u r f a c e
s t r a t a . Useful i n determining dynamic modulus
of subgrade r e a c t i o n and obtaining information
on t h e n a t u r a l period of v i b r a t i o n f o r t h e
design of foundations of v i b r a t i n g s t r u c t u r e s .
 TABLE 3 ( c o n t i n u e d )
Onshore Geophysics f o r Engineering Purposes

N a m e of
Method Procedure o r P r i n c i p l e U t i l i z e d A p p l i c a b i l i t y and L i m i t a t i o n s

Uphole, Uphole o r downhole: Geophones on Obtain dynamic s o i l p r o p e r t i e s a t very s m a l l

Downhole s u r f a c e , energy s o u r c e i n borehole a t s t r a i n s , r o c k mass q u a l i t y , c a v i t y d e t e c t i o n .
and Cross- v a r i o u s l o c a t i o n s s t a r t i n g from h o l e Unreliable for i r r e g u l a r s t r a t a or s o f t s t r a t a
hole bottom. Procedure can be r e v i s e d w i t h w i t h l a r g e g r a v e l c o n t e n t . Also u n r e l i a b l e f o r
Surveys energy source on s u r f a c e , d e t e c t o r s v e l o c i t i e s d e c r e a s i n g w i t h depth. Cross-hole
moved up o r down t h e hole. measurements b e s t s u i t e d f o r i n s i t u modulus
Downhole: Energy source a t t h e s u r f a c e determination.
(e.g., wooden plank s t r u c k by hammer),
geophone probe i n borehole.
Cross-hole: Energy s o u r c e i n c e n t r a l
h a l e , d e t e c t o r s i n surrounding h o l e s .

ELECTRICAL
METHODS
Resistiv- Basedonthedifferenceinelectrical
ity c o n d u c t i v i t y o r r e s i s t i v i t y of s t r a t a ,
r e s i s t i v i t y of s u b s o i l s a t v a r i o u s
d e p t h s i s determined by measuring t h e
p o t e n t i a l drop and c u r r e n t flowing
between two c u r r e n t and two p o t e n t i a l
e l e c t r o d e s from a b a t t e r y source.
Resistivity is correlated to material
t Y Pe
Used t o determine h o r i z o n t a l e x t e n t and d e p t h s
up t o 100 f e e t of s u b s u r f a c e s t r a t a . P r i n c i p a l
a p p l i c a t i o n s f o r i n v e s t z g a t i n g f o u n d a t i o n s of
dams and o t h e r l a r g e s t r u c t u r e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y
i n e x p l o r i n g g r a n u l a r r i v e r channel d e p o s i t s o r
bedrock s u r f a c e s . Also used f o r l o c a t i n g
f r e s h l s a l t water boundaries.

Drop i n Based on t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e r a t i o S i m i l a r t o r e s i s t i v i t y methods but g i v e s

Potential of p o t e n t i a l drops between 3 p o t e n t i a l
e l e c t r o d e s a s a f u n c t i o n of t h e c u r r e n t
imposed on 2 c u r r e n t e l e c t r o d e s .
s h a r p e r i n d i c a t i o n of v e r t i c a l o r s t e e p l y
i n c l i n e d boundaries and more a c c u r a t e d e p t h
d e t e r m i n a t i o n s . More s u s c e p t i b l e than
r e s i s t i v i t y method t o s u r f a c e i n t e r f e r e n c e and
minor i r r e g u l a r i t i e s i n s u r f a c e s o i l s . -
 TABLE 3 (continued)
Onshore Geophysics f o r Engineering Purposes
Name of
Method Procedure o r P r i n c i p l e U t i l i z e d
E-Logs Based on d i f f e r e n c e s i n r e s i s t i v i t y and
c o n d u c t i v i t y measured i n b o r i n g s a s t h e
probe i s lowered o r r a i s e d .
MAGNET I C
MEASURENENTS Highly s e n s i t i v e protonmagnetometer i s
used t o measure t h e E a r t h ' s magnetic
f i e l d a t c l o s e l y spaced s t a t i o n s along a
traverse.
GRAVITY
MEASUREMENTS Based on d i f f e r e n c e s i n d e n s i t y of
s u b s u r f a c e m a t e r i a l s a s i n d i c a t e d by t h e
v e r t i c a l i n t e n s i t y o r t h e c u r v a t u r e and
gravitational f i e l d a t various points
being i n v e s t i g a t e d .
A p p l i c a b i l i t y and L i m i t a t i o n s
Useful i n c o r r e l a t i n g h i t s between b o r i n g s ,
has been used t o c o r r e l a t e m a t e r i a l s having
s i m i l a r seismic v e l o c i t i e s . Generally n o t
s u i t e d t o c i v i l engineering e x p l o r a t i o n b u t
valuable i n geologic investigations.
D i f f i c u l t t o i n t e r p r e t i n q u a n t i t a t i v e terms
but i n d i c a t e s t h e o u t l i n e of f a u l t s , bedrock,
buried u t i l i t i e s , o r m e t a l l i c t r a s h i n f i l l s .
Useful i n t r a c i n g boundaries of s t e e p l y
i n c l i n e d s u b s u r f a c e i r r e g u l a r i t i e s such a s
f a u l t s , i n t r u s i o n s , o r domes. Methods n o t
s u i t a b l e f o r shallow d e p t h d e t e r m i n a t i o n b u t
u s e f u l i n r e g i o n a l s t u d i e s . Some a p p l i c a t i o n
i n l o c a t i n g limestone caverns.
J
 TABLE 4
Offshore Geophysical Methods

Equipment Purpose Characteristics Capabilities

Depth Recorders:

Fat hometer Precision depth recording Most r e c o r d i n g sounders
determining bathymetry. o p e r a t e 200 K H z , p i p e
mounted t r a n s d u c e r .
L i t t l e subbottom pene-
tration.
Four depth r a n g e s c o v e r 0-250
f e e t ; range doubling s w i t c h
permits bottom t r a c k i n g t o
410 f e e t ; accuracy of 0.5% of
i n d i c a t e d depth.

Seismic Re f l e c -
tion Profilers:

Stratasonde Seismic p r o f i l i n g Low-frequency SONAR-type Resolve r e f l e c t i n g l a y e r s

Acoustic (shallow) - characteris- transducer p r o f i l i n g w i t h i n 3-4 f e e t of t h e
Hypacs t i c s of s u r f a c e m a t e r i a l s . system; o p e r a t e s a t 3.5 bottom; p e n e t r a t i o n capa-
and 7 KHz frequency; b i l i t i e s of 50 f e e t o r less.
h i g h r e s o l u t i o n due t o
s h o r t p u l s e l e n g t h and
high r e p e t i t i o n rate.

Acoustipulse Seismic p r o f i l i n g ( i n t e r - Electromechanical t r a n s - O p e r a t e s i n water d e p t h from

Boomer mediate) - characteristics ducer; s h o r t duration, 10-600 f e e t ; provides moder-
of s u r f a c e and s u b s u r f a c e h i g h power e l e c t r i c a l a t e r e s o l u t i o n w i t h moderate
materials. p u l s e d i s c h a r g e s from a n p e n e t r a t i o n up t o 300 f e e t o r
energy s o u r c e i n t o an more f o r g e o l o g i c and
electromagnetic c o i l engineering i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
c o n t r o l l e d metal p l a t e ,
generating a repeatable
sound p u l s e ; mounted i n a
catamaran s l e d towed by
v e s s e l ; board band
a c o u s t i c p u l s e i n 500-800
H z region.
 TABLE 4 ( c o n t i n u e d )
Off s h o r e Geophysical Methods

Equipment Purpose Characteristics Capabilities

Sparker Seismic p r o f i l i n g (deep) - Low-frequency, h i g h Operates i n water d e p t h s o f

g e o l o g i c s t r u c t u r e of energy sound generated by
bedrock. r a p i d d i s c h a r g e of e l e c -
t r i c a l energy between
e l e c t r o d e s and a sur-
rounding frame; a plasma
bubble i s formed i n t h e
frequency range of
100-500 Hz and energy
d i s c h a r g e s 100-3000
joules.
40-2000 f e e t , r e s o l u t i o n
c a p a b i l i t i e s of 50-80 f e e t
w i t h p e n e t r a t i o n d e p t h s of
hundreds t o thousands of
f e e t depending upon energy
selection.

S i d e Scan Bottom s u r f a c e f e a t u r e s . Mark 1B; SONAR image of High r e s o l u t i o n scanning c a n

Sonar ocean bottom up t o 500 d i f f e r e n t i a t e v a r i o u s bottom
meters on each s i d e of m a t e r i a l s , l o c a t e hazards o r
tow f i s h ; o p e r a t e s a t 105 o b s t r u c t i o n s (submerged
KHz frequency; new hulks, outcrops).
safety release harness
allows recovery of tow
f i s h when o b s t r u c t i o n i s
encountered; a c o u s t i c
r e f l e c t o r s , (rocks, metal
o b j e c t s , sand r i p p l e s )
a r e shown by d a r k a r e a s ;
d e p r e s s i o n s a r e shown by
l i g h t areas.
i
 c. C r i t e r i a . No d e f i n i t e c r i t e r i a f o r g e o p h y s i c a l methods can be g i v e n
because t h e y a r e h i g h l y s p e c i a l i z e d and r e q u i r e e x p e r i e n c e d o p e r a t o r s a n d
i n t e r p r e t e r s f o r each a p p l i c a t i o n .

2. LIMITATIONS. Geophysical s u r v e y s a r e a b l e t o o u t l i n e b o u n d a r i e s between

s t r a t a , b u t c a n o n l y i n d i c a t e approximate s o i l p r o p e r t i e s .

a. S o u r c e s of E r r o r s . D i f f e r e n c e s i n d e g r e e of s a t u r a t i o n , p r e s e n c e o f
m i n e r a l s a l t s i n groundwater,
- o r s i m i l a r i t i e s of s t r a t a t h a t e f f e c t t r a n s m i s -
s i o n of s e i s m i c waves may l e a d t o vague o r d i s t o r t e d c o n c l u s i o n s .

b. Check Borings. Geophysical s u r v e y s should be supplemented by b o r i n g s

and sampling t o d e t e r m i n e s o i l p r o p e r t i e s and c o n f i r m t h e s t r a t i f i c a t i o n re-
v e a l e d by t h e s u r v e y .

S e c t i o n 5. SOIL BORINGS AND TEST PITS

1. SOIL BORINGS. S o i l b o r i n g s a r e p r o b a b l y t h e most common method of sub-

surface exploration i n the field.

a. Boring Methods. See T a b l e 5 f o r a p p l i c a b i l i t y of t h e s e v e r a l meth-

-
o d s of makin9; s o i l b o r i n g-s . For d e t a i l s of b o r i n g t e c h n i q u e s and equipment,
s e e R e f e r e n c e 4 , S u b s u r f a c e E x p l o r a t i o n and sampling f o r C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g
P u r p o s e s , by Hvorslev.

b. Boring Layout. General g u i d a n c e f o r p r e l i m i n a r y and f i n a l b o r i n g

l a y o u t i s p r e s e n t e d i n Table 6 a c c o r d i n g t o t h e t y p e of s t r u c t u r e o r problem
b e i n g i n v e s t i g a t e d . Boring l a y o u t s h o u l d a l s o be governed by t h e geology o f
the site.

( 1 ) G e o l o g i c a l S e c t i o n s . Arrange b o r i n g s s o t h a t g e o l o g i c a l sec-
t i o n s may be determined a t t h e most u s e f u l o r i e n t a t i o n s f o r f i n a l s i t i n g and
d e s i g n . Borings i n s l i d e a r e a s should e s t a b l i s h t h e f u l l g e o l o g i c a l s e c t i o n
necessary f o r s t a b i l i t y analyses.

( 2 ) C r i t i c a l S t r a t a . Where d e t a i l e d s e t t l e m e n t , s t a b i l i t y , o r seep-
a g e a n a l y s e s a r e r e q u i r e d , i n c l u d e a minimum of two b o r i n g s t o o b t a i n undis-
t u r b e d samples of c r i t i c a l s t r a t a . P r o v i d e s u f f i c i e n t p r e l i m i n a r y sample
b o r i n g s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e most r e p r e s e n t a t i v e l o c a t i o n f o r u n d i s t u r b e d sample
borings.

c. Boring Depths. The d e p t h t o which b o r i n g s s h o u l d be made depends o n

t h e s i z e s and t y p e s of proposed s t r u c t u r e s ( s e e T a b l e 7 ) . It i s a l s o c o n t r o l -
l e d t o a g r e a t d e g r e e by t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and sequence of t h e s u b s u r f a c e
m a t e r i a l s encountered.

( 1 ) U n s u i t a b l e Foundation S t r a t a . Extend a l l b o r i n g s t h r o u g h
unsuitable foundation s t r a t a , such a s unconsolidated f i l l ; peat; h i g h l y
o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l s ; s o f t , f i n e - g r a i n e d s o i l s ; and l o o s e , c o a r s e - g r a i n e d s o i l s
t o r e a c h h a r d o r compact m a t e r i a l s of s u i t a b l e b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y .
 TABLE 5
Types of Test Borings
Boring Method Procedure U t i l i z e d
Auger b o r i n g Hand o r power operated a u g e r i n g w i t h
p e r i o d i c removal of m a t e r i a l . I n some
c a s e s continuous auger may be used
r e q u i r i n g o n l y one withdrawal.
Changes i n d i c a t e d by examination of
m a t e r i a l removed. Casing g e n e r a l l y
n o t used.
Hollow-s t em f 1i g h t Power o p e r a t e d , hollow stem s e r v e s a s
auger a casing.
Wash-type boring f o r Chopping, t w i s t i n g , and j e t t i n g ac-
undisturbed o r d r y t i o n of a l i g h t b i t a s c i r c u l a t i n g
sample d r i l l i n g f l u i d removes c u t t i n g s from
holes. Changes i n d i c a t e d by r a t e of
p r o g r e s s , a c t i o n of r o d s , and exami-
n a t i o n of c u t t i n g s i n d r i l l i n g f l u i d .
Casing used a s r e q u i r e d t o prevent
caving.
Rotary d r i l l i n g Power r o t a t i o n of d r i l l i n g b i t a s
c i r c u l a t i n g f l u i d removes c u t t i n g
from hole. Changes i n d i c a t e d by r a t e
of p r o g r e s s , a c t i o n of d r i l l i n g
t o o l s , and examination of c u t t i n g i n
d r i l l i n g fluid. Casing u s u a l l y not
r e q u i r e d except n e a r s u r f ace.
Applicability
O r d i n a r i l y used f o r shallow e x p l o r a t i o n s
above water t a b l e i n p a r t l y s a t u r a t e d
sands and s i l t s , and s o f t t o s t i f f
cohesive s o i l s . May be used t o c l e a n o u t
h o l e between d r i v e samples. Very f a s t
when power-driven. Large diameter bucket
auger permits examination of hole. Hole
c o l l a p s e s i n s o f t s o i l s and s o i l s below
groundwater t a b l e .
Access f o r sampling ( d i s t u r b e d o r undis-
% turbed) o r c o r i n g through hollow stem.
Should n o t be used with plug i n g r a n u l a r
s o i l . Not s u i t a b l e f o r undisturbed
sampling i n sand and s i l t .
Used i n sands, sand and g r a v e l without
b o u l d e r s , and s o f t t o hard cohesive s o i l s .
Most common method of s u b s o i l e x p l o r a t i o n .
Usually can be adapted f o r i n a c c e s s i b l e
l o c a t i o n s , such a s on water, i n swamps, on
slopes, o r within buildings. Difficult to
o b t a i n undisturbed samples.
Applicable t o a l l s o i l s e x c e p t t h o s e con-
t a i n i n g much l a r g e g r a v e l , c o b b l e s , and
boulders. D i f f i c u l t t o determine changes
a c c u r a t e l y i n some s o i l s . Not p r a c t i c a l
i n i n a c c e s s i b l e l o c a t i o n s because of heavy
t r u c k mounted equipment, b u t a p p l i c a t i o n s
a r e i n c r e a s i n g s i n c e i t i s u s u a l l y most

Boring Method
Percussion d r i l l i n g
(Churn d r i l l i n g )
Rock c o r e d r i l l i n g
Wire-line d r i l l i n g
TABLE 5 (continued)
Types of Test Borings
Procedure U t i l i z e d
Power chopping with l i m i t e d amount of
water a t bottom of hole. Water be-
comes a s l u r r y t h a t i s p e r i o d i c a l l y
removed w i t h b a i l e r o r sand pump.
Changes i n d i c a t e d by r a t e of pro-
g r e s s , a c t i o n of d r i l l i n g t o o l s , and
composition of s l u r r y removed. Casing
r e q u i r e d except i n s t a b l e rock.
Power r o t a t i o n of a c o r e b a r r e l a s
c i r c u l a t i n g water removes ground-up
m a t e r i a l from hole. Water a l s o a c t s
a s coolant f o r core b a r r e l b i t .
Generally h o l e i s cased t o rock.
Rotary type d r i l l i n g method where t h e
c o r i n g device i s an i n t e g r a l p a r t of
t h e d r i l l rod s t r i n g which a l s o
s e r v e s a s a casing. Core samples
obtained by removing i n n e r b a r r e l
assembly from t h e c o r e b a r r e l p o r t i o n
of t h e d r i l l rod. The i n n e r b a r r e l i s
r e l e a s e d by a r e t r i e v e r lowered by a
wire-line through d r i l l i n g rod.
Applicability
r a p i d method of advancing borehole. Soil
samples and rock c o r e s u s u a l l y l i m i t e d t o
6 inches.
Not p r e f e r r e d f o r o r d i n a r y e x p l o r a t i o n o r
where undisturbed samples a r e r e q u i r e d
because of d i f f i c u l t y i n determining
s t r a t a changes, d i s t u r b a n c e caused below
chopping b i t , d i f f i c u l t y of a c c e s s , and
u s u a l l y h i g h e r c o s t . Sometimes used i n
combination with auger o r wash borings f o r
p e n e t r a t i o n of c o a r s e g r a v e l , b o u l d e r s ,
and rock formations. Could be u s e f u l t o
probe c a v i t i e s and weakness i n rock by
changes i n d r i l l r a t e .
Used a l o n e and i n combination w i t h b o r i n g
t y p e s t o d r i l l weathered r o c k s , bedrock,
and boulder formations.
E f f i c i e n t f o r deep hole c o r i n g over 100
f e e t on l a n d and o f f s h o r e c o r i n g and
sampling.
 TABLE 6
Requirements f o r Boring Layout

Areas f o r
Investigation Boring Layout

New s i t e of wide Space p r e l i m i n a r y b o r i n g s 200 t o 500 f t a p a r t s o

extent. t h a t a r e a between any four b o r i n g s i n c l u d e s
approximately 10% of t o t a l a r e a . I n d e t a i l e d
e x p l o r a t i o n , add b o r i n g s t o e s t a b l i s h g e o l o g i c a l
s e c t i o n s a t t h e most u s e f u l o r i e n t a t i o n s .

Development of s i t e Space borings 100 t o 200 f t a t p o s s i b l e b u i l d i n g

on s o f t compressible l o c a t i o n s . Add i n t e r m e d i a t e b o r i n g s when b u i l d i n g
strata. s i t e s a r e determined.

Large s t r u c t u r e w i t h Space borings approximately 50 f t i n b o t h d i r e c -

separate closely t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g b o r i n g s a t p o s s i b l e e x t e r i o r foun-
spaced f o o t i n g s . d a t i o n w a l l s a t machinery o r e l e v a t o r p i t s , and t o
e s t a b l i s h geologic s e c t i o n s a t t h e most u s e f u l
orientations.

Low-load warehouse Minimum of f o u r borings a t c o r n e r s p l u s i n t e r m e d i a t e

b u i l d i n g of l a r g e borings a t i n t e r i o r foundations s u f f i c i e n t t o d e f i n e
area. subsoil profile.

I s o l a t e d r i g i d foun- Minimum of t h r e e borings around perimeter. Add

d a t i o n , 2,500 t o i n t e r i o r b o r i n g s depending on i n i t i a l r e s u l t s .
10,000 sq f t i n a r e a .

Isolated rigid Minimum of two b o r i n g s a t o p p o s i t e c o r n e r s . Add more

foundation, l e s s than f o r e r r a t i c conditions.
2,500 sq f t i n a r e a .

Major w a t e r f r o n t I f d e f i n i t e s i t e i s e s t a b l i s h e d , space b o r i n g s
s t r u c t u r e s , such a s g e n e r a l l y n o t f a r t h e r than 50 f t adding i n t e r m e d i a t e
d r y docks. b o r i n g s a t c r i t i c a l l o c a t i o n s , such a s deep pump-
well, gate s e a t , tunnel, o r culverts.

Long bulkhead or' P r e l i m i n a r y b o r i n g s on l i n e of w a l l a t 200 f t .

wharf wall. spacing. Add i n t e r m e d i a t e b o r i n g s t o d e c r e a s e
spacing t o 50 f t . Place c e r t a i n i n t e r m e d i a t e
b o r i n g s inboard and outboard of w a l l l i n e t o
determine m a t e r i a l s i n scour zone a t t o e and i n
a c t i v e wedge behind wall.

Slope s t a b i l i t y , deep Provide t h r e e t o f i v e borings on l i n e i n t h e c r i t i -

c u t s , high c a l d i r e c t i o n t o provide g e o l o g i c a l s e c t i o n f o r
embankments. a n a l y s i s . Number of g e o l o g i c a l s e c t i o n s depends on
e x t e n t of s t a b i l i t y problem. For an a c t i v e s l i d e ,
place a t l e a s t one boring upslope of s l i d i n g a r e a . h
 TABLE 6 (continued)
Requirements for Boring Layout

Areas for
Investigation Boring Layout

Dams and water Space preliminary borings approximately 200 f t over

retention structures. foundation area. Decrease spacing on centerline t o
100 f t by intermediate borings. Include borings a t
location of cutoff, c r i t i c a l spots in abutment,
spillway and outlet works.
 TABLE 7
Requirements f o r Boring Depths

Areas of
Investigation Boring Depth

Large s t r u c t u r e Extend t o d e p t h where i n c r e a s e i n v e r t i c a l s t r e s s f o r

with s e p a r a t e combined foundations i s l e s s than 10% of e f f e c t i v e
c l o s e l y spaced overburden s t r e s s . Generally a l l b o r i n g s should
footings. extend t o no l e s s t h a n 30 f t below l o w e s t p a r t o f
foundation u n l e s s rock i s encountered a t shallower
depth.

Extend t o depth where v e r t i c a l s t r e s s d e c r e a s e s t o

Isolated rigid
foundations . 10% of bearing p r e s s u r e . Generally a l l b o r i n g s
should extend no l e s s t h a n 30 f t below lowest p a r t of
foundation u n l e s s rock i s encountered a t shallower
depth.

Long bulkhead o r Extend t o d e p t h below dredge l i n e between 314 and

wharf wall. 1-112 times unbalanced h e i g h t of wall. Where
s t r a t i f i c a t i o n i n d i c a t e s p o s s i b l e deep s t a b i l i t y
problem, s e l e c t e d b o r i n g s should r e a c h t o p of hard
stratum.

Slope s t a b i l i t y . Extend t o an e l e v a t i o n below a c t i v e o r p o t e n t i a l

f a i l u r e s u r f a c e and i n t o hard s t r a t u m , o r t o a d e p t h
f o r which f a i l u r e i s u n l i k e l y because of geometry of
c r o s s section.

Deep c u t s . Extend t o d e p t h between 314 and 1 times base width of

narrow c u t s . Where c u t i s above groundwater i n
s t a b l e m a t e r i a l s , d e p t h of 4 t o 8 f t below b a s e may
s u f f i c e . Where base i s below groundwater, determine
e x t e n t of pervious s t r a t a below base.

High embankments. Extend t o d e p t h between 1 / 2 and 1-114 times

h o r i z o n t a l l e n g t h of s i d e slope i n r e l a t i v e l y
homogeneous foundation. Where s o f t s t r a t a a r e
encountered, b o r i n g s should r e a c h hard m a t e r i a l s .

Dams and water Extend t o d e p t h of 112 base width of e a r t h dams o r 1

retention t o 1-112 t i m e s h e i g h t of small c o n c r e t e dams i n
structures. r e l a t i v e l y homogeneous foundations. Borings may
t e r m i n a t e a f t e r p e n e t r a t i o n of 10 t o 20 f t i n hard
and impervious s t r a t u m i f c o n t i n u i t y of t h i s s t r a t u m
i s known from reconnaissance.
 ( 2 ) Fine-Grained S t r a t a . Extend b o r i n g s i n p o t e n t i a l l y c o m p r e s s i b l e
fine-grained s t r a t a of g r e a t t h i c k n e s s t o a d e p t h where stress from s u p e r p o s e d
load i s so s m a l l t h a t corresponding c o n s o l i d a t i o n w i l l n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y in-
.
f luence s u r f a c e s e t t l e m e n t

( 3 ) Compact S o i l s . Where s t i f f o r compact s o i l s a r e encountered a t

shallow d e p t h s , extend b o r i n g ( s ) through t h i s m a t e r i a l t o a d e p t h where t h e
presence of an underlying weaker s t r a t u m cannot a f f e c t s t a b i l i t y o r s e t t l e -
ment.

( 4 ) Bedrock Surface. I f bedrock s u r f a c e i s encountered and g e n e r a l

c h a r a c t e r and l o c a t i o n of rock a r e known, extend one o r two b o r i n g s 5 f e e t i n -
t o sound, unweathered rock. Where l o c a t i o n and c h a r a c t e r of r o c k a r e unknown,
o r where b o u l d e r s o r i r r e g u l a r l y weathered m a t e r i a l a r e l i k e l y g e o l o g i c a l l y ,
i n c r e a s e t h e number of b o r i n g s p e n e t r a t i n g i n t o rock t o b r a c k e t t h e a r e a . I n
cavernous limestone a r e a s , extend b o r i n g s through s t r a t a s u s p e c t e d of c o n t a i n -
ing s o l u t i o n channels.

( 5 ) Check Borings. I n u n f a m i l i a r a r e a s , a t l e a s t one boring should

extend w e l l below t h e zone n e c e s s a r y f o r apparent s t a b i l i t y , t o make s u r e no
unusual c o n d i t i o n s e x i s t a t g r e a t e r depth.

d. S e a l i n g Boreholes. Borings made i n foundation a r e a s t h a t e v e n t u a l l y

w i l l be excavated below groundwater, o r where a r t e s i a n p r e s s u r e s a r e encoun-
t e r e d , must be plugged o r grouted u n l e s s they a r e used f o r c o n t i n u i n g water-
l e v e l o b s e r v a t i o n s . I n boreholes f o r groundwater o b s e r v a t i o n s , p l a c e c a s i n g
i n t i g h t c o n t a c t w i t h walls of h o l e s , o r f i l l a n n u l a r space w i t h s a n d l g r a v e l .

e . Cavernous Limestone. I n limestone a r e a s suspected of c o n t a i n i n g

s o l u t i o n channels o r c a v i t i e s , each column l o c a t i o n should be i n v e s t i g a t e d .
For s m a l l e r s t r u c t u r e s , l o c a t e boring o r probe a t each planned column loca-
t i o n . For l a r g e s t r u c t u r e s and a r e a i n v e s t i g a t i o n use i n d i r e c t methods
noted below, followed by borings o r probes i n f i n a l column l o c a t i o n s , and on
c l o s e c e n t e r s (25 f t . under w a l l s o r h e a v i l y loaded a r e a s ) . A e r i a l photo-
graphs have been used e f f e c t i v e l y by experienced g e o l o g i s t s f o r d e t e c t i n g
s i n k h o l e s and t h e progress of c a v i t y development by comparing o l d t o new
photographs. Geophysical methods a r e used t o d e t e c t anomalies i n s u b s u r f a c e
r e s i s t i v i t y , g r a v i t y , magnetic f i e l d o r seismic v e l o c i t i e s and t o c o r r e l a t e
such anomalies w i t h c a v i i y presence ( s e e Reference 5, The Use of Geophysical
Methods i n Engineering Geology, P a r t 11, E l e c t r i c a l R e s i s t i v i t y , Magnetic and
G r a v i t y Methods, by Higginbottom, and Reference 6 , Bedrock V e r i f i c a t i o n
Program f o r Davis Besse Nuclear Power S t a t i o n , by M i l l e t and Morehouse).

2. TEST PITS. Test p i t s a r e used t o examine and sample s o i l s i n s i t u , t o

determine t h e d e p t h t o groundwater, and t o determine t h e t h i c k n e s s of t o p s o i l .
They range from s h a l l o w manual o r machine excavations t o deep, s h e e t e d , and
braced p i t s . See Table 8 f o r t y p e s , u s e s , and l i m i t a t i o n s of t e s t p i t s and
trenches. Hand-cut samples a r e f r e q u e n t l y n e c e s s a r y f o r h i g h l y s e n s i t i v e ,
cohesive s o i l s , b r i t t l e and weathered rock, and s o i l formation w i t h honeycomb
structure.
 TABLE 8
Use, C a p a b i l i t i e s and L i m i t a t i o n s of Test f i t s and Trenches
Exploration Method General Use
Hand-Excavated Test Bulk sampling, i n s i t u
P i t s and S h a f t s t e s t i n g , visual
inspection.
Backhoe Jkcavat ed Bulk sampling, i n s i t u
T e s t P i t s and t e s t i n g , v i s u a l inspec-
Trenches t i o n , excavation r a t e s ,
depth of bedrock and
groundwater.
Drilled Shafts Pre-excavation f o r p i l e s
and s h a f t s , l a n d s l i d e
i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , drainage
wells.
Dozer Cuts Bedrock c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
depth of bedrock and
groundwater l e v e l , r i p
p a b i l i t y , i n c r e a s e depth
c a p a b i l i t y of backhoes,
l e v e l a r e a f o r other ex-
p l o r a t i o n equipment.
Trenches f o r F a u l t Evaluation of presence
Investigations and a c t i v i t y of f a u l t i n g
and s o m e t i m e s l a n d s l i d e
features.
Capabilities
Provides d a t a i n inac-
- cessible areas, l e s s
mechanical d i s t u r b a n c e
of surrounding ground.
F a s t , economical , gener-
a l l y l e s s than 15 f e e t
deep, can be up t o 30
f e e t deep.
F a s t , more economical
than hand excavated,
min. 30 inches d i a . ,
max. 6 f e e t d i a .
R e l a t i v e l y low c o s t , ex-
posures f o r geologic
mapping.
D e f i n i t i v e l o c a t i o n of
f a u l t i n g , subsurface
o b s e r v a t i o n u p t o 30
feet.
,
>
Limitations '
Expensive, time-consuming,
l i m i t e d t o depths above
groundwater l e v e l .
Equipment a c c e s s , g e n e r a l l y
l i m i t e d t o d e p t h s above
groundwater l e v e l , l i m i t e d
undisturbed sampling.
Equipment a c c e s s , d i f f i c u l t
t o o b t a i n undisturbed
samples, casing obscures
v i s u a l inspection.
Exploration l i m i t e d t o depth
above groundwater l e v e l .
Costly, time-consuming,
r e q u i r e s s h o r i n g , only use-
f u l where d a t e a b l e m a t e r i a l s
a r e p r e s e n t , depth l i m i t e d
t o zone above groundwater
1eve1 .
3. TEST TRENCHES. T e s t t r e n c h e s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l f o r e x p l o r a t i o n i n
very heterogeneous d e p o s i t s such a s r u b b l e f i l l s , where b o r i n g s a r e e i t h e r
meaningless o r n o t f e a s i b l e . They a r e a l s o u s e f u l f o r d e t e c t i o n o f - f a u l t
traces i n seismicity investigations.

S e c t i o n 6. SAMPLING

1. APPLICATION. Disturbed samples a r e p r i m a r i l y used f o r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n

t e s t s and must c o n t a i n a l l of t h e c o n s t i t u e n t s . o f t h e s o i l even though t h e
s t r u c t u r e i s d i s t u r b e d . Undisturbed samples a r e taken p r i m a r i l y f o r l a b o r a -
t o r y s t r e n g t h and c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y t e s t s and i n those c a s e s where t h e i n - p l a c e
p r o p e r t i e s of t h e s o i l must be s t u d i e d . Many o f f s h o r e samplers f a l l i n a
s p e c i a l c a t e g o r y and a r e t r e a t e d s e p a r a t e l y i n t h i s s e c t i o n .

2. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR SAMPLING PROGRAM. The number and type of sam-
p l e s t o be t a k e n depend on t h e s t r a t i f i c a t i o n and m a t e r i a l encountered.

a. ~ e ~ r e s e n t a t i vDisturbed
e Samples. Take r e p r e s e n t a t i v e d i s t u r b e d
samples a t v e r t i c a l i n t e r v a l s of no l e s s than 5 f e e t and a t e v e r y change i n
s t r a t a . Table 9 l i s t s common t y p e s of samples f o r r e c o v e r y of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
d i s t u r b e d s o i l samples. Recommended procedures f o r o b t a i n i n g d i s t u r b e d sam-
p l e s a r e c o n t a i n e d i n AS'IM Standard D1586, ~ e n e t r a t ' i o nT e s t and S p l i t B a r r e l
Sampling of S o i l s .

b. Undisturbed Samples. The number and spacing of u n d i s t u r b e d samples

depend on t h e a n t i c i p a t e d design problems and t h e n e c e s s a r y t e s t i n g program.

Undisturbed samples should comply with t h e following c r i t e r i a : t h e y

should c o n t a i n : n o v i s i b l e d i s t o r t i o n of s t r a t a , o r opening o r s o f t e n i n g of
m a t e r i a l s ; s p e c i f i c recovery r a t i o ( l e n g t h of undisturbed sample r e c o v e r e d
d i v i d e d by l e n g t h of sampling push) should exceed 95 p e r c e n t ; and t h e y should
be taken with a sampler w i t h a n a r e a r a t i o ( a n n u l a r c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a of
sampling tube d i v i d e d by f u l l a r e a of o u t s i d e diameter of sampler) less than
1 5 percent. Table 10 l i s t s common t y p e s of samplers used f o r recovery of
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e u n d i s t u r b e d samples.

Obtain undisturbed samples i n cohesive s o i l s t r a t a , so t h a t t h e r e i s

a t l e a s t one r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sample i n each boring f o r each 10 f e e t depth.
Recommended procedures f o r o b t a i n i n g undisturbed samples a r e d e s c r i b e d i n ASTM
Standard D1587, Thin-Walled Tube Sampling of S o i l s . A d d i t i o n a l c a u t i o n s
i n c l u d e t h e following:

( 1 ) Caving. Use c a s i n g o r v i s c o u s d r i l l i n g f l u i d t o advance bore-

hole i f t h e r e i s danger of caving. I f groundwater measurements a r e planned,
d r i l l i n g f l u i d should be of t h e r e v e r t type.

( 2 ) Above Groundwater Table. When sampling above groundwater t a b l e ,

m a i n t a i n borehole d r y whenever p o s s i b l e .
 TABLE 9
Canmon Samplers f o r Disturbed S o i l Samples and Rock Cores

Best R e s u l t s i n Causes of
S o i l o r Rock Methods of Disturbance o r
Sampler Dimens i o n s Types Penetration Low Recovery Remarks

S p l i t Barrel 2 " OD - 1.375" I D A l l fine-grained Hammer Vibration SPT i s made using

i s standard. Pene- s o i l s i n which driven s t a n d a r d penetrometer
t r o m e t e r s i z e s up sampler can be w i t h 140# hammer
t o 4" OD - 3.5" I D driven. Gravels f a l l i n g 30". Undis-
available. invalidate drive turbed samples of t e n
data. taken with l i n e r s .
Some sample d i s -
turbance i s l i k e l y .

Retractable 1" OD t u b e s 6" For s i l t s , Hammer Improper s o i l Light weight, h i g h l y

Plug long. Maximum of 6 c l a y s , f i n e and driven t y p e s f o r sam- p o r t a b l e u n i t s can be
t u b e s can be f i l l e d l o o s e sands. pler. Vibra- hand c a r r i e d t o job.
i n single tion. Sample d i s t u r b a n c e i s
penetration. likely.

Augers :

Continuous 3" t o 16" dia. Can For most s o i l s Rotation Hard s o i l s , Rapid method o f
He1i c a 1 p e n e t r a t e t o depths above water cobbles, determining s o i l pro-
Flight i n e x c e s s of 50 table. W i l l not boulders. f i l e . Bag samples
feet. p e n e t r a t e hard can b e obtained. Log
s o i l s o r those and sample d e p t h s
c o n t a i n i n g cob- must account f o r l a g
b l e s o r boul- be tween p e n e t r a t i o n
ders. of b i t and a r r i v a l of
sample a t s u r f a c e .
-
 TABLE 9 ( c o n t i n u e d )
Common Samplers f o r Disturbed S o i l Samples and Rock Cores

,
Best R e s u l t s i n Causes of
SoilorRock Methodsof Disturbanceor
Sampler Dimensions Types Penetration Low Recovery Remarks

Disc Up t o 42" d i a . Same a s f l i g h t Rotation Same a s f l i g h t Rapid method of

Usually has maximum auger. auger. determining s o i l
p e n e t r a t i o n of 25 profile. Bag samples
feet. can be o b t a i n e d .

Bucket Up t o 48" d i a . For most s o i l s Rota t i o n S o i l too hard S e v e r a l type b u c k e t s

common. Larger
available. With
extensions, depths
g r e a t e r t h a n 80
f e e t a r e possible.
above water t o dig. available including
table. Can d i g t h o s e with r i p p e r
h a r d e r s o i l than t e e t h and chopping
above t y p e s , and buckets. Progress i s
can p e n e t r a t e slow when e x t e n s i o n s
s o i l s w i t h cob- a r e used.
b l e s and small
b o u l d e r s when
equipped w i t h a
rock bucket.

Ho 11ow G e n e r a l l y 6" t o 8" Same a s Bucket. Same Same A s p e c i a l type of

Stem OD w i t h 3" t o 4" I D f l i g h t auger w i t h
hollow stem. hollow c e n t e r through
which u n d i s t u r b e d
samples o r SPT can be
taken.

Diamond Core Standard s i z e s Hard rock. A l l

Barrels 1-112" t o 3" OD, b a r r e l s can be
718" t o 2-118" f i t t e d with
core. See Figure insert bits for
2. B a r r e l l e n g t h s c o r i n g s o f t rock
5 t o 10 f e e t f o r o r hard s o i l .
exploration.
 TABLE 9 ( c o n t i n u e d )
Common Samplers f o r Disturbed S o i l Samples and Rock Cores

# f

Best R e s u l t s i n Causes of
S o i l o r Rock Methods of Disturbance o r
Sampler Dimensions Types Penetration Low Recovery Remarks

Single Primarily f o r F r a c t u r e d rock. D r i l l f l u i d must

Tube s t r o n g , sound Rock too s o f t . c i r c u l a t e around c o r e
and uniform - rock must n o t be
rock. subject t o erosion.
S i n g l e tube n o t o f t e n
used f o r e x p l o r a t i o n .

Double Non-uniform, Improper Has i n n e r b a r r e l o r

Tube fractured, rotation or swivel which does n o t
f r i a b l e and s o f t feed rate i n r o t a t e with o u t e r
rock. fractured or tube. For s o f t ,
so£ t rock. e r o d i b l e rock. Best
w i t h bottom d i s c h a r g e
bit.

Triple Same a s Double Same a s Double D i f f e r s from Double

Tube Tube. Tube. Tube by having an
additional inner
s p l i t tube l i n e r .
Intensely fractured
rock core best
preserved i n t h i s
?
barrel.
 TABLE 10
Common Samplers For Undisturbed Samples

Best Results Method of Causes of

Sampler Dimensions i n s o i l types Penetration Disturbance Remarks

ShelbyTube 3" OD-2.875" Forcohesive Pressing w i t h E r r a t i c pressure Simplest sampler

I D most common. fine-grained o r f a s t , smooth applied during f o r undisturbed
Available from soft soils. stroke. Can be sampling, samples. Boring
2" t o 5" OD. 30" Gravelly s o i l s c a r e f u l l y ham- hammering, should be c l e a n
sampler l e n g t h w i l l crimp t h e mered. gravel before lowering
i s standard. tube. particles, sampler. L i t t l e
crimping tube waste a r e a i n
edge, improper sampler. Not
s o i l types f o r suitable for
sampler. hard, dense o r
gravelly soils.

Stationary 3" OD most For s o f t t o Pressing w i t h E r r a t i c pressure P i s t o n a t end of

Piston common. Avail- medium c l a y s and continuous, during sampling, sampler prevents
a b l e from 2" t o f i n e silts. Not steady stroke. allowing p i s t o n e n t r y of f l u i d
5" OD. 30" sam- f o r sandy s o i l s . rod t o move dur- and contaminating
ple length i s ing press. Zm- m a t e r i a l . Re-
standard. proper s o i l q u i r e s heavy
types f o r d r i l l r i g with
sampler. hydraulic d r i l l
head. Generally
less d i s t u r b e d
samples than
Shelby. Not
suitable for
hard, dense o r
gravelly soil.
No p o s i t i v e con-
t r o l of s p e c i f i c
recovery r a t i o .
 TABLE 10 (continued)
Common Samplers For Undisturbed Samples

Best R e s u l t s Method of Causes of

Sampler Dimensions i n s o i l types Penetration Disturbance Remarks

Hydraulic 3" OD most For s i l t s-clays Hydraulic o r Inadequate Needs o n l y stan-

Piston common - availa- and some sandy compressed a i r clamping of dard d r i l l rods.
(Osterberg) b l e from 2" t o soils. pressure. d r i l l rods, Requires adequate
4" OD, 36" e r r a t i c pres- hydraulic o r a i r
sample l e n g t h . sure. capacity t o acti-
v a t e sampler.
Generally less
d i s t u r b e d samples
t h a n Shelby. Not
suitable for
h a r d , dense o r
gravelly soil.
Not p o s s i b l e t o
l i m i t l e n g t h of
push o r amounts
of sample
penetration.

Denison Samplers from Can be used f o r R o t a t i o n and Improperly Inner tube f a c e

3.5" O D t o s t i f f t o hard hydraulic operating p r o j e c t s beyond
7-314" OD. c l a y , s i l t and pressure. sampler. Poor o u t e r tube which
(2.375" t o 6.3" sands with some drilling r o t a t e s . Amount
s i z e samples). cementation, procedures. of p r o j e c t i o n can
24" sample s o f t rock. be a d j u s t e d .
length i s Generally t a k e s
standard. good samples.
Not s u i t a b l e f o r
l o o s e sands and
s o f t clays.
 TABLE 10 ( c o n t i n u e d )
Common Samplers For Undisturbed Samples

f
Best R e s u l t s Method of Causes of
Dimensions Penetration Disturbance -Remarks

Pitcher Sampler 4.125" Same a s Denison. Same as Denison. Same a.s Denison. D i f f e r s from
Sampler OD u s e s 3" Deni son i n t h a t
Shelby Tubes. i n n e r tube
24" sample projection i s
length. s p r i n g con-
trolled. Of t e n
ineffective i n
cohesionless
soils.

Hand c u t Highest q u a l i t y Change of s t a t e - Requires

block o r Sample c u t by undisturbed of s t r e s s by accessible
cylindrical hand. sampling i n excavation. excavation. Re-
sample cohesive s o i l s , q u i r e s dewatering
cohesionless i f sampling below
soil, residual groundwater.
s o i l , weathered
rock, s o f t rock.
 ( 3 ) Below Groundwater Table. When sampling below groundwater t a b l e ,
m a i n t a i n borehole f u l l of water o r d r i l l i n g f l u i d during c l e a n o u t , d u r i n g
sampling and sample withdrawal, and while removing c l e a n o u t t o o l s . Where con-
t i n u o u s samples a r e r e q u i r e d , c a s i n g should remain f ull f o r t h e e n t i r e d r i l l -
i n g and sampling o p e r a t i o n .

( 4 ) S o f t o r Loose S o i l . Sampling of a s o f t o r l o o s e s o i l d i r e c t l y
below a s t i f f o r compact s o i l i n t h e same tube should be avoided. D i s c o n t i n u e
d r i v i n g of sample tube when a sudden d e c r e a s e i n r e s i s t a n c e occurs.

3. UNDISTURBED SAMPLES FROM TEST PITS.' Hand trimmed samples may be o b t a i n e d

i n t e s t p i t s , i n t e s t t r e n c h e s , o r i n s u r f a c e exposures. Samples s o o b t a i n e d
a r e p o t e n t i a l l y t h e l e a s t d i s t u r b e d of a l l t y p e s of samples. The b a s i c proce-
dure c o n s i s t s of trimming o u t a column of s o i l t h e same s i z e o r s l i g h t l y
s m a l l e r than t h e c o n t a i n e r t o be used i n t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , s l i d i n g t h e c o n t a i n e r
over t h e sample, and surrounding t h e sample with wax. T i g h t , s t i f f c o n t a i n e r s
t h a t can be s e a l e d , and a r e n o t r e a d i l y d i s t o r t e d , should be used.

4. ROCK CORES. Rock i s sampled w i t h c o r e b a r r e l s having e i t h e r tungstencar-

b i d e o r diamond c o r e b i t s a s l i s t e d o r d e s c r i b e d i n Table 9 and Figure 2..

The s u i t a b i l i t y of c o r e s f o r s t r u c t u r a l property t e s t s depends on t h e

q u a l i t y of i n d i v i d u a l samples. S p e c i f y double o r t r i p l e tube c o r e b a r r e l f o r
maximum c o r e recovery i n weathered, s o f t , o r f r a c t u r e d rock. The p e r c e n t a g e
o f c o r e recovery i s an i n d i c a t i o n of soundness and degree of weathering of
rock. C a r e f u l l y examine c o r e s e c t i o n f o r r e a s o n s f o r low recovery. More
d e t a i l s on rock recovery can be found i n Chapter 1.

5. SAMPLING OF DISINTEGRATED ROCK TRANSITION ZONES. General guidance on

sampling of rock with v a r i o u s degrees of d i s i n t e g r a t i o n i s g i v e n i n Table 11
(modified from Reference 7 , Sampling of Residual S o i l s i n Hong Kong, by
Brenner ) .
6. OFFSHORE SAMPLING. For water depths l e s s than about 60 f e e t , land t y p e
s o i l boring equipment can be used on small jack-up platforms, s m a l l barges o r
b a r r e l f l o a t s . F l o a t i n g equipment r e q u i r e s s u i t a b l e anchoring and i s l i m i t e d
t o f a i r l y calm s e a c o n d i t i o n s . For deeper water o r more extreme s e a s , l a r g e r
d r i l l s h i p s a r e r e q u i r e d t o o b t a i n q u a l i t y undisturbed samples. See Table 12
f o r common underwater samplers. Numerous t y p e s of oceanographic samplers,
both open-tube and p i s t o n t y p e s , a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r use from shipboard. These
depend upon f r e e - f a l l p e n e t r a t i o n and thus a r e l i m i t e d i n d e p t h of explora-
t i o n . The q u a l i t y of samples o b t a i n e d by most oceanographic samplers i s n o t
h i g h because of t h e i r l a r g e l e n g t h t o diameter r a t i o . For d e t a i l e d informa-
t i o n on underwater sampling equipment s e e Reference 8, Underwater S o i l
Sampling, T e s t i n g ' a n d C o n s t r u c t i o n C o n t r o l , ASTM STP 501, and Reference 9 ,
S e a f l o o r S o i l Sampling and Geotechnical Parameter Determination -
Handbook, by
Lee and Clausner.
 b
S i z e Symbol
Approx.
Casing, Diameter Approx.
Core Drill Casing Casing B i t Core B a r r e l D r i l l Rod of Core Diameter
Barrel Rod OD OD B i t OD OD Hole of Core

EX E 1 13/16 1 27/32 1 7/16 1 5/16 1 112 7I 8

AX A 2114 2 5/16 1 27/32 1 518 1 718 1 1/8

BX B 2 718 2/15/16 2 5/16 1 29/16 2 318 1 518

NX N 3112 3 9/16 2 15/16 2 318 3 2 118

SIZE DESIGNATION

STANDARDS BY NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS DIAMOND CORE

DRILL MANUFACTURERS.

FIGURE 2
Standard S i z e s , i n Inches, f o r Casings, Rods, Core B a r r e l s , and Holes
 TABLE 11
Sampling of D i s i n t e g r a t e d Rock Zones

D e s c r i p t i o n of M a t e r i a l Sampling Method

Colluvium - Loosely packed, poorly s o r t e d Driven samples o r t r i p l e t u b e

material. core barrel. Double tube
barrel i s required f o r
boulders. Denison Sampler can
be used i f no b o u l d e r s a r e
present.

Structureless residual s o i l -
The s o i l Driven samples o r t r i p l e t u b e
shows none of t h e f a b r i c of t h e rock from core barrel. Dennison Sampler
which i t i s derived. can be used. Hand c u t samples
a r e best.

Decomposed rock c o n t a i n i n g rounded Driven samples o r t r i p l e t u b e

boulders which may be much h a r d e r than core barrel. Double t u b e
surrounding m a t e r i a l . b a r r e l i s r e q u i r e d t o sample
boulders.

Decomposed rock c o n t a i n i n g a n g u l a r Double tube c o r e b a r r e l w i t h

b o u l d e r s s e p a r a t e d by t h i n seams of t r i p l e tube b a r r e l i n weak
f r i a b l e material. seams.

S l i g h t l y decomposed rock Friable - Double tube c o r e b a r r e l .

material, i f present, is limited to
narrow seams.
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 TABLE 12 (continued)
Common Underwater Sampler s

Water Depth Method of

Sampler S i z e of Sample Length of Sample Limitations Penetration Remarks

Vibratory Sample i s 3.5" 20' standard, Minimum depth Pneumatic im- Samples a r e dis-
Corer diameter canbe lengtk limited b y d r a f t pactingvibra- turbed because of
ened t o 40'. of support t o r y hammer. v i b r a t i o n and
vessel. Maximum large area ratio.
depth about Samples not s u i t -
200'.
testing .
able for strength

tration resis-
Pene-

tance can be
measured, con-
tinuous represen-
t a t i v e samples i n
marine s o i l s a r e
obtained.
 S e c t i o n 7. PENETRATION RESISTANCE TESTS

1. GENERAL. The most common t e s t i s t h e S t a n d a r d P e n e t r a t i o n T e s t (SPT)

which m e a s u r e s r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e p e n e t r a t i o n of a . s t a n d a r d sampler i n bor-
i n g ~ . The method i s r a p i d , and when t e s t s a r e p r o p e r l y conducted i n t h e f i e l d ,
t h e y y i e l d u s e f u l d a t a , a l t h o u g h t h e r e a r e many f a c t o r s which c a n a f f e c t t h e
results. A more c o n t r o l l e d t e s t i s t h e cone penetrometer t e s t i n which a c o n e
shaped t i p i s jacked from t h e s u r f a c e of t h e ground t o p r o v i d e a c o n t i n u o u s
r e s i s t a n c e record.

a. S t a n d a r d P e n e t r a t i o n T e s t (SPT).

( 1 ) D e f i n i t i o n . The number of blows r e q u i r e d t o d r i v e a s p l i t spoon

sampler a d i s t a n c e of 1 2 i n c h e s a f t e r a n i n i t i a l p e n e t r a t i o n of 6 i n c h e s i s
r e f e r r e d t o a s a n "N" v a l u e o r SPT "N" v a l u e .

( 2 ) Procedure. The t e s t i s covered under ASRl S t a n d a r d Dl586 which

r e q u i r e s t h e use of a s t a n d a r d 2-inch (O.D.) s p l i t b a r r e l s a m p l e r , d r i v e n by a
140 pound hammer d r o p p i n g 30 i n c h e s i n f r e e f a l l . The procedure i s g e n e r a l -
i z e d as fo'llows:

( a ) Clean t h e b o r i n g of a l l l o o s e m a t e r i a l , and m a t e r i a l d i s -
t u r b e d by d r i l l i n g .

( b ) I n s e r t s a m p l e r , v e r i f y i n g t h e sampler r e a c h e s t h e same
d e p t h a s was d r i l l e d .

( c ) O b t a i n a c o n s i s t e n t 30-inch f r e e - f a l l d r o p of t h e hammer
w i t h two wraps of a r o p e around t h e c a t h e a d on t h e d r i l l r i g . (Cables
a t t a c h e d t o t h e h o i s t i n g drum should n o t be used because i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o
obtain free f a l l . )

( d ) Drive t h e sampler 18 i n c h e s , o r u n t i l normal maximum

r e s i s t a n c e ( r e f u s a l ) i s r e a c h e d , u s i n g t h e s t a n d a r d hammer and drop. (Refusal
i s d e f i n e d a s a p e n e t r a t i o n of l e s s t h a n 6 i n c h e s f o r 100 hammer blows.)

( e ) Count and r e c o r d t h e number of blows r e q u i r e d t o d r i v e e a c h

6 i n c h e s of p e n e t r a t i o n .

(3) Correlations. See F i g u r e 1 and T a b l e 4 , Chapter 1 f o r a p p r o x i -

mate c o r r e l a t i o n s between t h e "N" v a l u e s from t h e s t a n d a r d p e n e t r a t i o n t e s t
and t h e compactness of g r a n u l a r s o i l s and t h e c o n s i s t e n c y of f i n e g r a i n e d
soils.

( a ) R e l a t i v e D e n s i t y of G r a n u l a r ( b u t f i n e g r a i n e d ) D e p o s i t s .
Assuming t h a t t h e t e s t i s a t r u e s t a n d a r d t e s t , t h e "N" v a l u e i s i n f l u e n c e d by
t h e e f f e c t i v e v e r t i c a l stress a t t h e l e v e l where "N" i s measured, d e n s i t y of
t h e s o i l , s t r e s s h i s t o r y , g r a d a t i o n and o t h e r f a c t o r s . The work r e p o r t e d i n
Reference 10, SPT and R e l a t i v e D e n s i t y i n Coarse Sands, by Marcuson a n d
Bieganouski, e s t a b l i s h e s s t a t i s t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s between r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y
(D,) i n p e r c e n t , "N" (blows/f t ) , e f f e c t i v e v e r t i c a l stress ( pounds p e r
s q u a r e i n c h ) , g r a d a t i o n expressed i n terms of u n i f o r m i t y c o e f f i c i e n t (C,),
and o v e r c o n s o l i d a t i o n r a t i o (OCR). The Gibbs & Holtz c o r r e l a t i o n of F i g u r e 3
r e p o r t e d i n Reference 1 1, D i r e c t Determination and I n d i r e c t E v a l u a t i o n of
R e l a t i v e Density and Earthwork C o n s t r u c t i o n P r o j e c t s , by L a c r o i x and Horn i s
commonly used t o e s t i m a t e t h e r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y from SPT.

( b ) Undrained Shear Strength. A crude e s t i m a t e f o r t h e

undrained shear s t r e n g t h can be made using Figure 4. Correlations are not
meaningful f o r medium t o s o f t c l a y s where e f f e c t s of d i s t u r b a n c e a r e exces-
sive.

( c ) Shear Modulus a t Very Small S t r a i n s . A c r u d e e s t i m a t e of

t h e s h e a r modulus a t small s t r a i n s f o r sandy and cohesive s o i l s can be o b t a i n -
ed from t h e s t a t i s t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n Figure 5 (Reference 12, On Dynamic
Shear Moduli and P o i s s o n ' s R a t i o s of S o i l D e p o s i t s , by Ohsaki and Iwasaki).

( d ) Limitations. Except where confirmed by s p e c i f i c s t r u c t u r a l

~ -

p r o p e r t y t e s t s , t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e s u i t a b l e f o r e s t i m a t e s only. Blow
c o u n t s a r e af f e c t e d by o p e r a t i o n a l procedures, by t h e presence of g r a v e l , o r
cementation. They do not r e f l e c t f r a c t u r e s o r s l i c k e n s i d e s i n c l a y , which may
be very important t o s t r e n g t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The s t a n d a r d p e n e t r a t i o n test
r e s u l t s ( N v a l u e s ) a r e influenced by o p e r a t i o n a l procedures a s i l l u s t r a t e d i n
Table 13 (modified from Reference 13, P r o p e r t i e s of S o i l and Rock, by t h e
Canadian Geotechnical S o c i e t y ) .

b. Cone Penetrometer T e s t s (CPT). This t e s t i n v o l v e s f o r c i n g a cone

i n t o t h e ground and measuring t h e r a t e of p r e s s u r e needed f o r each increment
of p e n e t r a t i o n . (See Figure 6 ) . The most commonly used cone t e s t i s t h e Dutch
Cone T e s t (DCT) .
( 1 ) Resistance. For t h e Dutch Cone, r e s i s t a n c e t o p e n e t r a t i o n i s
t h e sum of p o i n t r e s i s t a n c e and f r i c t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e on t h e s i d e s of t h e
s h a f t . The more s o p h i s t i c a t e d systems can d i f f e r e n t i a t e between t h e p o i n t and
f r i c t i o n a l components of t h e r e s i s t a n c e , and t h e r a t i o between f r i c t i o n a l and
p o i n t r e s i s t a n c e ( F r i c t i o n R a t i o ) i s one a i d i n d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g between v a r i -
ous s o i l types. Clean sands g e n e r a l l y e x h i b i t very low r a t i o s (low f r i c t i o n
component i n comparison t o p o i n t r e s i s t a n c e ) , while an i n c r e a s e i n c l a y con-
t e n t w i l l u s u a l l y r e s u l t i n a higher r a t i o , more o f t e n t h e r e s u l t of a reduc-
t i o n i n p o i n t r e s i s t a n c e r a t h e r than an i n c r e a s e i n f r i c t i o n a l component.

( 2 ) C o r r e l a t i o n s . C o r r e l a t i o n s have been developed f o r t h e cone

p e n e t r a t i o n t e s t with bearing c a p a c i t y , r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y of sands, s t r e n g t h
and s e n s i t i v i t y of c l a y s and o v e r c o n s o l i d a t i o n , a s w e l l a s w i t h SPT v a l u e s and
p i l e design parameters. Procedures and l i m i t a t i o n s of t h e cone p e n e t r a t i o n
t e s t and i t s c o r r e l a t i o n s a r e d e s c r i b e d i n Reference 14, G u i d e l i n e s f o r Cone
P e n e t r a t i o n T e s t s Performance and Design, Federal Highway Administration.

( 3 ) Advantages and L i m i t a t i o n s . The s t a t i c cone t e s t can be used a s

a p a r t i a l replacement f o r conventional borings. The speed of o p e r a t i o n a l l o w s
c o n s i d e r a b l e d a t a t o be obtained i n a s h o r t period of time. The major draw-
backs of s t a t i c cone t e s t s a r e t h e n o n - r e c o v e r a b i l i t y of samples f o r i d e n t i f i -
c a t i o n , d i f f i c u l t y i n advancing t h e cone i n dense o r hard d e p o s i t s , and need
f o r s t a b l e and f a i r l y s t r o n g working s u r f a c e t o jack t h e r i g a g a i n s t .
 STANDARD PENETRATW RESISTANCE,N BL/FT.

FIGURE 3
C o r r e l a t i o n s Between R e l a t i v e Density and Standard P e n e t r a t i o n
R e s i s t a n c e i n Accordance w i t h Gibbs and Holtz
 PENETRATW RESISTANCE VS SOWERS:
UNCONFINEDSTRENGTH OFCLAY
,,CcLAys ww
pLLSTK:In AN
I CLAYEY SILTS.
z-2 5 . 0.-

ci3 20
0*/

a ,&Awl MDd& 0°0

-#(
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15-
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df
8
0~~ - 00
,*0-
& C C - ~

# .*Cam

C--='
*#-*
*coo

2.O 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH qu ,TSF

FIGURE 4
C o r r e l a t i o n s of Standard P e n e t r a t i o n R e s i s t a n c e
 FIGURE 5 .. -
- -- -

Shear Modulus vs. N Values (SPT) a t Very Small Strains

 TABLE 13
Procedures Which May Affect t h e Measured "N" Values
r

Inadequate cleaning of SPT i s only p a r t i a l l y made i n o r i g i n a l s o i l .

t h e borehole Sludge may be trapped i n the sampler and compressed
a s t h e sampler i s driven, i n c r e a s i n g t h e blow count.
(This may a l s o prevent sample recovery.)

Not s e a t i n g t h e I n c o r r e c t "N" values obtained.

sampler spoon on
undisturbed m a t e r i a l

Driving of t h e sample "N" values a r e increased i n sands and reduced i n

spoon above t h e bottom cohesive s o i l s .
of t h e casing

F a i l u r e t o maintain The water t a b l e i n t h e borehole must be a t l e a s t

s u f f i c i e n t hydrostatic equal t o t h e piezometric l e v e l i n t h e sand, other-
head i n boring wise t h e sand a t t h e bottom of t h e borehole may be
transformed i n t o a l o o s e s t a t e .

A t t i t u d e of o p e r a t o r s Blow counts- f o r t h e same s o i l using t h e same r i g can

vary, depending on who i s operating t h e r i g , and
I
, perhaps t h e mood of o p e r a t o r and time of d r i l l i n g .

Overdrive sampler Higher blow counts u s u a l l y r e s u l t from overdriven

sampler.

Sampler plugged by Higher blow counts r e s u l t when g r a v e l plugs sampler,

gravel r e s i s t a n c e of l o o s e sand could be highly o v e r e s t i -
mated.

Plugged casing High "R' values may be recorded f o r loose sand when
sampling below groundwater t a b l e . Hydrostatic
pressure causes sand t o r i s e and plug casing.

Overwashing ahead of Low blow count may r e s u l t f o r dense sand s i n c e sand

casing i s loosened by overwashing.

~ r i l i i n
methpd
~ D r i l l i n g technique (e.g., cased h o l e s vs. mud
s t a b i l i z e d holes) may r e s u l t i n d i f f e r e n t "N" v a l u e s
f o r t h e same s o i l .

Not using t h e standard Energy d e l i v e r e d per blow i s n o t uniform. European

hammer drop c o u n t r i e s have adopted an automatic t r i p hammer n o t
c u r r e n t l y i n use i n North America.

F r e e f a l l of t h e d r i v e Using more than 1-112 t u r n s of rope around the drum

w i g h t i s not a t t a i n e d and/or using wire cable w i l l r e s t r i c t the f a l l of
- t h e d r i v e weight.
-
 TABLE 1 3 ( c o n t i n u e d )
Procedures Which May A f f e c t t h e Measured "N" Values

Not using c o r r e c t D r i l l e r f r e q u e n t l y s u p p l i e s d r i v e hammers w i t h

weight weights varying f r a n t h e s t a n d a r d by as much as
10 l b s .

Weight does n o t s t r i k e Impact energy i s reduced, i n c r e a s i n g "N" values.

t h e d r i v e cap
concentrically

Not using a guide rod I n c o r r e c t "N" v a l u e obtained.

Not using a good t i p I f t h e t i p i s damaged and reduces t h e opening o r

on t h e sampling spoon i n c r e a s e s t h e end a r e a the" N" v a l u e can b e
increased.

Use of d r i l l rods With h e a v i e r rods more energy i s absorbed by t h e

heavier than.standard rods causing an i n c r e a s e i n t h e blow count.

Not recording blow I n c o r r e c t "N" v a l u e s obtained.

c o u n t s and p e n e t r a t i o n
accurately

Incorrect d r i l l i n g The SPT w a s o r i g i n a l l y developed from wash b o r i n g

procedures techniques. D r i l l i n g procedures which s e r i o u s l y
d i s t u r b t h e s o i l w i l l a f f e c t t h e "IT' v a l u e , e.g.
d r i l l i n g w i t h c a b l e t o o l equipment.

Using d r i l l h o l e s t h a t Holes g r e a t e r than 1 0 cm ( 4 i n ) i n diameter a r e

a r e too l a r g e n o t recommended. Use of l a r g e r diameters may
r e s u l t i n d e c r e a s e s i n t h e blow count.

Inadequate s u p e r v i s i o n Frequently a sampler w i l l be impeded by g r a v e l o r

cobbles c a u s i n g a sudden i n c r e a s e i n blow count;
t h i s i s n o t recognized by an inexperienced
observer. (Accurate r e c o r d i n g of d r i l l i n g ,
sampling and depth i s always r e q u i r e d . )

Improper logging of Not d e s c r i b i n g t h e sample c o r r e c t l y .

soils

Using too l a r g e a pump Too high a pump c a p a c i t y w i l l l o o s e n t h e s o i l a t

t h e base of t h e hole causing a d e c r e a s e i n blow
count.
,
 TESTsawEw€
#lERT)(L:~tPRLSATTESI
#PTH,THFKISTWlME INNER ROO
AWANCES THE CONE 30MM. NEXT
M001JEMIDM FRIClW SLEEVE
ARE ADVANCE0 lOGEfMER FOR REAP
INGS O F a E MARING AND SOlL
FRICTDY.UMDWI,-
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CONE PENETRATON M 9011s)
OONEOlYCY
WANES

CONE AND FRcTloN

SLEEVE AWANE

TSF

CONE FRICTION RAT0

BEARING

FIGURE 6
Dutch Cone Penetrometer
 S e c t i o n 8. GROUNDWATER MEASUREMENTS

1. UTILIZATION. The groundwater l e v e l should be measured a t t h e d e p t h a t

which water i s f i r s t encountered a s w e l l a s a t t h e l e v e l a t which i t s t a b i -
lizes after drilling. I f n e c e s s a r y , t h e b o r i n g should be k e p t open w i t h per-
f o r a t e d c a s i n g u n t i l s t a b i l i z a t i o n occurs. On many p r o j e c t s , s e a s o n a l ground-
water f l u c t u a t i o n i s of importance and long-term measurements can be made by
c o n v e r t i n g t h e b o r i n g s t o s t a n d p i p e piezometers. For c e r t a i n c o n s t r u c t i o n
p r o j e c t s , more s o p h i s t i c a t e d pneumatic o r e l e c t r i c a l t y p e s of p i e z o m e t e r s may
be used.

2. TYPICAL INSTALLATION. The t h r e e b a s i c components of a piezometer i n s t a l -

lation are:

-
a. Tip. A piezometer t i p c o n s i s t i n g of a p e r f o r a t e d s e c t i o n , w e l l
s c r e e n , porous t u b e , o r o t h e r s i m i l a r f e a t u r e and, i n fine-grained o r u n s t a b l e
m a t e r i a l s , a surrounding zone of f i l t e r sand;

b. Standpipe. W a t e r t i g h t s t a n d p i p e o r measurement c o n d u i t , of t h e
s m a l l e s t p r a c t i c a l d i a m e t e r , a t t a c h e d t o t h e t i p and extending t o t h e s u r f a c e
of t h e ground;

c. Seals. A s e a l o r s e a l s c o n s i s t i n g of cement g r o u t , b e n t o n i t e s l u r r y ,
o r o t h e r s i m i l a r l y impermeable m a t e r i a l placed between t h e s t a n d p i p e and t h e
b o r i n g w a l l s t o i s o l a t e t h e zone t o be monitored.

The v e r t i c a l l o c a t i o n , i . e . , depth and e l e v a t i o n of e a c h item must b e

a c c u r a t e l y measured and recorded.

3. PIEZOMETER TYPES. A l l systems, e x c e p t t h e open w e l l , have a porous f i l -

t e r element which i s placed i n t h e ground. The most common t y p e s used f o r
groundwater measurements a r e d e s c r i b e d below ( s e e Table 14).

a. Open Well. The most common groundwater r e c o r d i n g technique i s t o

measure water l e v e l i n an open boring a s shown i n F i g u r e 7 ( a ) . A disadvantage
i s t h a t d i f f e r e n t l a y e r s of s o i l may be under d i f f e r e n t h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e s
and t h e r e f o r e t h e groundwater l e v e l recorded may be i n a c c u r a t e and misleading.
Thus, t h i s system i s u s e f u l only f o r r e l a t i v e l y homogeneous d e p o s i t s .

(1) Open Standpipe Piezometer. Most of t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e s of t h e

open b o r e h o l e can be overcome by i n s t a l l i n g an open s t a n d p i p e piezometer i n
t h e borehole a s shown i n F i g u r e 7 ( b ) . This system i s e f f e c t i v e i n i s o l a t i n g
s u b s t r a t a of i n t e r e s t .

b. Porous Element Piezometer. A s shown i n F i g u r e 8, a porous element i s

connected t o t h e riser pipe which i s of small diameter t o reduce t h e equaliza-
tion time. The most common t i p i s t h e n o n m e t a l l i c ceramic s t o n e (Casagrande
Type). The ceramic t i p i s s u b j e c t t o damage and f o r t h a t r e a s o n porous metal
t i p s o r o t h e r t i p s of t h e same dimension a r e now a v a i l a b l e . Pores a r e about
50 microns s i z e , s o t h a t t h e t i p can be used i n d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h f i n e -
grained s o i l s .
 TABLE 14
Groundwater o r Piezometric Level Monitoring Devices

Instrument Advantages Disadvantages

Standpipe piezome ter Simple. R e l i a b l e . Slow r e s p o n s e time.

o r wellpoint. Long e x p e r i e n c e F r e e z i n g problems.
record. No e l a b o r a t e
t e r m i n a l p o i n t needed.

Pneumatic piezome ter. Level of t e r m i n a l Must prevent humid a i r

independent of t i p from e n t e r i n g tubing.
l e v e l . Rapid response.

E l e c t r i c piezometer Level of t e r m i n a l
independent of t i p
Expensive . Temperature
c o r r e c t i o n may be
l e v e l . Rapid response. required. E r r o r s due t o
High s e n s i t i v i t y . z e r o d r i f t can a r i s e .
S u i t a b l e f o r automatic
readout.
 THREADED CAP

WOOLED CLAY

PUDDLED CLAY
OR BENTONITE

(a 1 ( b)

NOTE
TEST SECTIONS MAY BE PERFORATED
WITH SLOTS OR DRILLED HOLES

FIGURE 7
Open S t a n d p i p e Piezometers
b

PLASTIC TUBE

.
CENTRAL SHAFT

POROUS BRONZE
TUBE 38mm 0.0.

SOLID CONICAL

u
Ism
CASAGRANDETYPEBOREHOLE GEONOR BOREHOLE PIEZOMETER TIP
PIEZOMETER

FIGURE 8
Porous Element Piezometers
 c. Other Types. Other piezometers used f o r s p e c i a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s
i n c l u d e e l e c t r i c a l , a i r pneumatic, o i l pneumatic and water p r e s s u r e t y p e s .

4. MULTIPLE INSTALLATIONS. S e v e r a l piezometers may be i n s t a l l e d 'in a s i n g l e

boring w i t h an impervious s e a l s e p a r a t i n g t h e measuring zones. However, i f
measurements a r e needed i n zones with 10 f e e t o r l e s s of v e r t i c a l s e p a r a t i o n ,
i t i s g e n e r a l l y b e s t t o i n s t a l l piezometers i n s e p a r a t e borings.

5. MEASUREMENTS. water l e v e l s can be measured t o w i t h i n 0.5 inch, u s i n g

s e v e r a l dev.ices, i n c l u d i n g t h e plumb bob, c l o t h o r metal s u r v e y o r s ' t a p e s

.
coated with chalk, o r con-ercially a v a i l a b l e e l e c t r i c a l i n d i c a t o r s f o r use i n
small t ube s

6. SOURCES OF ERROR. Major s o u r c e s of e r r o r a r e due t o g a s bubbles and t u b e

blockage. Some a r e shown i n Figure 9. The magnitude of e r r o r s can be con-
t r o l l e d by proper piezometer s e l e c t i o n , i n s t a l l a t i o n , and d e - a i r i n g t e c h n i -
ques.

.Section 9. MEASUREMENT OF SOIL AND ROCK PROPERTIES I N SITU

1. SCOPE. A g r e a t number of t o o l s and methods have been devised f o r measur-

i n g i n s i t u e n g i n e e r i n g p r o p e r t i e s of s o i l and rock. The most common t o o l s ,
t h e s p l i t spoon sampler and t h e cone penetrometer,' have been p r e v i o u s l y d i s -
cussed. This s e c t i o n d e s c r i b e s o t h e r methods commonly used i n e x p l o r a t i o n
programs o r during c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n t r o l .

2. SHEAR STRENGTH BY DIRECT METHODS. S e v e r a l d e v i c e s a r e a v a i l a b l e t o ob-

t a i n s h e a r s t r e n g t h d a t a i n t h e f i e l d a s a supplement t o l a b o r a t o r y tests o r
where i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n r e p r e s e n t a t i v e samples f o r t e s t i n g .

a. Pocket Penetrometer. Used f o r o b t a i n i n g t h e s h e a r s t r e n g t h of cohe-

s i v e , non-gravelly s o i l s on f i e l d e x p l o r a t i o n o r c o n s t r u c t i o n sites. Commer-
c i a l - p e n e t r o m e t e r s a r e a v a i l a b l e which read unconfined compressive s t r e n g t h
directly. The t o o l i s used a s a n a i d t o o b t a i n i n g uniform c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f
soils. It does n o t r e p l a c e o t h e r f i e l d t e s t s o r l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s .

b. Torvane Shear Device. Used f o r o b t a i n i n g r a p i d approximations of

s h e a r s t r e n g t h of c o h e s i v e , non-gravelly s o i l s on f i e l d e x p l o r a t i o n . Can b e
used on ends of Shelby t u b e s , p e n e t r a t i o n samples, block samples from t e s t
p i t s o r s i d e s of test p i t s . The d e v i c e i s used i n uniform s o i l s and does n o t
replace laboratory tests.

c . Vane Shear Apparatus. Equipment s e t u p f o r t h e vane s h e a r test i s

i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 10 (Reference 15, Acker S o i l Sampling Catalog, by Acker
D r i l l Company, Inc.). In s i t u vane s h e a r measurements a r e e s p e c i a l l y u s e f u l
i n very s o f t s o i l d e p o s i t s where much of t h e s t r e n g t h may be l o s t by d i s t u r -
bance d u r i n g sampling. It should n o t be used i n s t i f f c l a y s o r i n s o f t s o i l s
c o n t a i n i n g g r a v e l , s h e l l s , wood, e t c . The main equipment components a r e t h e
torque assembly, which i n c l u d e s a g e a r r e d u c t i o n d e v i c e c a p a b l e of producing
c o n s t a n t a n g u l a r r o t a t i o n of 1 degree t o 6 degrees per minute, a c a l i b r a t e d
proving r i n g w i t h a d i a l gage f o r torque measurement w i t h i n 5%, a means of
 B PIEZOMETER LEVEL
PIPE PYIRTIALLY PIPE FULLOF LIQUID - AFTER W A L I Z A T W

FILLED WITH OIL, OTHER THAN WATER.

KEROSENE OR OTHER DIFFERENCES IF1 S U R W WATER
NON -FREEZING AND TENSION N INTERFU
NON-CORROSIVE IN SOl L MAY CAUSE
LIQUID. POSITION OF APfRECIAELE AND AIR OR GAS BUBBLES PIPE DIAMETER
INTERFACE MAY MISLEADINGCHANGES IN OPEN TUBE MAY SHOULD # LARGE
BECOME UNCERTAIN IN THE PRESSURES CAUSE STABILIZED E N O W AND INTERIOR
WETOLEA~~EW DETERMINED. WATER LEVELTO RISE SMOOTH ID#RMlT
EVAPORATION. ABOVE THE GROUND RISE OF GAS WBBLES.
WATER LEVEL A W D DOWNWARD
PROTRUDING EDGES.

4
BUBBLES

E m AT JOINT

INTERFACE OF LIQUIDS GAS BUBBLES IN OeEN SYSTEM

PIEZOMETER
OUTLET VALVE
GAS

CHANGE IN VOLUME PROVIDE GAS TRAP AND GAS BUBBLES IN s a L USE WELL #)IN1 OF
OF ENTRAPPEDGAS OUTLET VALVE AND NEAR INTAKE WILL MATERIALS WHICH
CAUSES INCREASE FLUSHING FACILITIES. INCREASETHE TME DO NOTCAUSE arc-
IN TIME LAG,BUT GAS USE MATERIALS WHICH L M W E TO DECRLASE fMKVSIS AND WlTH
ABOVE GAGE DOES DO NOT CAUSE ELECTRO- OF PERMEABlLlTY AND M E 3 OR MILES
NOT AFFECT LYSIS AND DEVELOPMENT CHANGES IN VOLUME LAmEOSOUOHID
EQUALIZEDPRESS- OF GAS. OF GAS. PERMIT ESCAPE OF
URES. @AS BUBBLES.

BUBBLES STOPPED
BY PROTRUDING GAS OR AIR BUBBLES

GAS BUBBLES IN CLOSED SYSTEM GAS BUBBLES IN SOIL

I
FIGURE 9
Sources of Error and Corrective Methods i n
Groundwater Pressure Measurements
HIGH PRECISION
FORCE GAUGE
MAXIMUM
READ1NG
TYPE

THREE POSlTlON TORQUE ARM

BALL BEARING

DRIVING MECHANISM,720 RAT0

HAND CRANK

STANDARD DRILL ROD

BALL BEARING,GUIM COUPLING

BALL BEARING,GWDE COUPLING

--
FIGURE 10
Vane Shear T e s t Arrangement
measuring a n g u l s r r o t a t i o n i n d e g r e e s , and t h r u s t b e a r i n g s t o s u p p o r t vane a t
ground s u r f a c e . Procedures f o r t h e vane s h e a r test and methods of i n t e r p r e t a -
t i o n a r e d e s c r i b e d under ASTM S t a n d a r d D2573, F i e l d Vane S h e a r T e s t i n Cohe-
s i v e Soil.

3. DEFORMATION MODULI. A number of d i f f e r e n t methods a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r

o b t a i n i n g v a l u e s of d e f o r m a t i o n moduli i n s o i l and rock. Each method h a s i t s
own a d v a n t a g e s o r d i s a d v a n t a g e s and i n s i t u t e s t i n g s h o u l d o n l y be a t t e m p t e d
w i t h a f u l l knowledge of t h e l i m i t a t i o n s of t h e s e v e r a l t e c h n i q u e s .

a. Pressuremeter. See F i g u r e 11 ( m o d i f i e d from R e f e r e n c e 1 3 ) . The

p r e s s u r e m e t e r t e s t i s a n i n s i t u l a t e r a l l o a d i n g t e s t performed i n a b o r e h o l e
by means of a c y l i n d r i c a l probe. Under i n c r e m e n t s of p r e s s u r e , r a d i a l expan-
s i o n i s measured, and t h e modulus of d e f o r m a t i o n i s c a l c u l a t e d . If the t e s t
i s c a r r i e d t o f a i l u r e , s h e a r s t r e n g t h s can be c a l c u l a t e d and a r e g e n e r a l l y
h i g h e r t h a n t h o s e o b t a i n e d from vane s h e a r t e s t s . M a t e r i a l s d i f f i c u l t t o
sample (e.g., s a n d s , r e s i d u a l s o i l , t i l l s , s o f t rock) can be e f f e c t i v e l y
i n v e s t i g a t e d by t h e pressuremeter. Equipment and procedures f o r t h e pres-
s u r e m e t e r a r e d e s c r i b e d i n Reference 13.

( 1 ) L i m i t a t i o n s . P r e s s u r e m e t e r t e s t s a r e s e n s i t i v e t o t e s t pro-
cedures. The t e s t s measure s o i l c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y i n t h e r a d i a l d i r e c t i o n and
some assumptions a r e r e q u i r e d on t h e r a t i o between t h e v e r t i c a l moduli t o
r a d i a l moduli. T h i s may be d i f f i c u l t t o i n t e r p r e t and t h u s of o n l y l i m i t e d
v a l u e f o r s t r a t i f i e d s o i l s , f o r v e r y s o f t s o i l s , and f o r s o i l s where d r a i n a g e
c o n d i t i o n s d u r i n g l o a d t n g a r e n o t known. Roughness of t h e b o r e h o l e w a l l
a f f e c t s t e s t r e s u l t s , a l t h o u g h t h e s e l f - b o r i n g p r e s s u r e m e t e r e l i m i n a t e s some
of t h i s d i s a d v a n t a g e ( s e e Reference 1 6 , F r e n c h Self-Boring P r e s s u r e m e t e r , by
B a g u e l i n and J e z e q u a l , and R e f e r e n c e 1 7 , Cambridge I n - S i t u P r o b e , by Wroth).

b. P l a t e B e a r i n g T e s t . The p l a t e b e a r i n g t e s t can be used a s a n i n d i -

c a t o r of c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y and a s a supplement t o o t h e r c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y d a t a .

( 1 ) Procedure. For o r d i n a r y tests f o r f o u n d a t i o n s t u d i e s , u s e pro-

c e d u r e of ASTM S t a n d a r d D1194, T e s t f o r Bearing C a p a c i t y of S o i l f o r S t a t i c
Load on Spread F o o t i n g s , e x c e p t t h a t d i a l gages r e a d i n g t o 0.001 i n . s h o u l d b e
substituted. T e s t s a r e u t i l i z e d t o e s t i m a t e t h e modulus of subgrade r e a c t i o n
and s e t t l e m e n t s of s p r e a d f o u n d a t i o n s . R e s u l t s o b t a i n e d have no r e l a t i o n t o
deep s e a t e d s e t t l e m e n t from volume change under load of e n t i r e f o u n d a t i o n .

( 2 ) A n a l y s i s of T e s t R e s u l t s . ( S e e F i g u r e 12.) Determine y i e l d
p o i n t p r e s s u r e f o r l o g a r i t h m i c p l o t of l o a d v e r s u s s e t t l e m e n t . Convert
modulus of subgrade r e a c t i o n determined from t e s t Kv, t o t h e p r o p e r t y Kv
f o r u s e i n computing immediate s e t t l e m e n t ( C h a p t e r 5 ) . In general, t e s t s
s h o u l d be conducted w i t h groundwater s a t u r a t i o n c o n d i t i o n s s i m u l a t i n g t h o s e
a n t i c i p a t e d under t h e a c t u a l s t r u c t u r e .

Data from t h e p l a t e l o a d t e s t i s a p p l i c a b l e t o m a t e r i a l o n l y i n
t h e immediate zone ( s a y t o a d e p t h of two p l a t e d i a m e t e r s ) of t h e p l a t e and
should n o t be e x t r a p o l a t e d u n l e s s m a t e r i a l a t g r e a t e r d e p t h i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h e
same.
 PRESSURE GAGE

WMETER - COMPRESSED GAS

EXTERIOR GUARD CELL

ZONE OF BORING ZONE Of BORlNG

UNDER MEASUREMENT
UNDER

INTERIOR MEASURING CELL

FIGURE 11
Menard Pressuremeter Equipment
 4

I
LOAD SETTLEMENT
DIAGRAM
/;T 1/2 YIELD m l N T UMD
-
YIELD POINT
ESTIMATED
F n U b ~ M K :
DIMRAM

= ZEM) ~ ~ R E C T I OFWI
N
IMPERFECT SATING
of BEmNG M E

I 2 3 4
LQaD INTENSITY, q
~INlTKwsS
KVI*WOUUIS OFSUBGRADE M K ) N PDR
I-fT-9OlJARE BEARING W E XT-D -
smM[X.
K,,=YObUUIsOFSUBORA#REACTK)Nm
WWRE DEMING PLATEOFANY WIDTH B
'kt molm SU-E.
q = APPLIED LDAD INTENSITY
8 = COMKCTED SEtTLEmNT = MEASURED
SETTLEMENT -4
B WIDTH OF SQUARE EARING PLATE (Ft)
R RADIUS OF CIRCULAR BEARING PLATE (FT)
bxWOMIWS OF ELASTICITY OF SOIL
CI CpLQADTEST MAMETERS
DETERMINE KL
I. ESTIMATE & BY BACKWARD PRWECTK)N
OF ARITHMETIC UYD-SETTLEMENTCURVE 0.7
1D ZERO w.
2. PUTT W R I T t I M I C U#0-SETTLEWNT
CURVE AND DETERMINE YIELD W N T UMR
3. DETERMINE 8 AW) q AT 1/2 YIELD W N T W.
4. K~' q/8 .I .2 .3 .5 .7 1 2 3 S 7 K )
WAD INTENSITY, q
ID DEERMINE Ku
FOR FIRM COHESM SOILS: FOR WHESK)NLESS COARSE FOR SOILS COMBINING FRICTION
GRAINED SOILS : AND COHESKjN :
$1 BKv ( SOUARE PLATE)

=QSSK~~(I-~~)
K~~= ( 6 4
C
(R
ICULAR UTE) D(FrOIEm W'mHS. SOLM mR
W E T E R S CI AND Cp
N0TE:ABOVE RELATKNSHIPS APPLY La SAME CONTACT PRESSURE.
+
K,,,=C1 C2

FIGURE 1 2
Analysis of P l a t e Bearing Tests
7.1-102
4. PERMEABILITY. F i e l d p e r m e a b i l i t y tests measure t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of
p e r m e a b i l i t y ( h y d r a u l i c c o n d u c t i v i t y ) of in-place m a t e r i a l s . The c o e f f i c i e n t
o f p e r m e a b i l i t y i s t h e f a c t o r of p r o p o r t i o n a l i t y r e l a t i n g t h e r a t e of f l u i d
discharge per u n i t of c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a t o t h e h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t ( t h e
p r e s s u r e o r "head" inducing flow, d i v i d e d by t h e l e n g t h of t h e flow p a t h ) .
This r e l a t i o n i s u s u a l l y expressed simply:

H
Where Q i s d i s c h a r g e (volume/time); A i s c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l area,--c i s t h e
h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t ( d i m e n s i o n l e s s ) ; and K i s t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of p e r m e a b i l i t y ,
expressed i n l e n g t h per u n i t time (cmlsec, f t l d a y , e t c . ) . The a r e a and l e n g t h
f a c t o r s a r e o f t e n combined i n a "shape f a c t o r " o r " c o n d u c t i v i t y c o e f f i c i e n t . "
See Figure 13 f o r a n a l y s i s of o b s e r v a t i o n s and Table 15 f o r methods of compu-
tation. P e r m e a b i l i t y i s t h e most v a r i a b l e of a l l t h e m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s
commonly used i n g e o t e c h n i c a l a n a l y s i s . A p e r m e a b i l i t y spread of t e n o r more
o r d e r s of magnitude has been r e p o r t e d f o r a number of d i f f e r e n t types of t e s t s
and m a t e r i a l s , Measurement of p e r m e a b i l i t y i s h i g h l y s e n s i t i v e t o b o t h
n a t u r a l and . t e s t c o n d i t i o n s . The d i f f i c u l t i e s i n h e r e n t i n f i e l d p e r m e a b i l i t y
t e s t i n g r e q u i r e t h a t g r e a t c a r e be taken t o minimize s o u r c e s of e r r o r and t o
c o r r e c t l y i n t e r p r e t , and compensate f o r , d e v i a t i o n s from i d e a l t e s t condi-
t ions.

a . F a c t o r s A f f e c t i n g T e s t s . The following f i v e p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s -
t i c s i n £ luence t h e performance and a p p l i c a b i l i t y of p e r m e a b i l i t y t e s t s :

(1) p o s i t i o n of t h e water l e v e l ,

(2) type of m a t e r i a l - rock o r s o i l ,

(3) d e p t h of t h e t e s t zone,

(4) p e r m e a b i l i t y of t h e t e s t zone, and

(5) h e t e r o g e n e i t y and a n i s o t r o p y of t h e t e s t zone.

To account f o r t h e s e i t i s necessary t o i s o l a t e t h e test zone.

Methods f o r doing so a r e shown i n Figure 14.

b. Types of T e s t s . Many t y p e s of f i e l d p e r m e a b i l i t y t e s t s can be per-

formed. I n g e o t e c h n i c a l e x p l o r a t i o n , e q u i l i b r i u m t e s t s a r e t h e most common.
These i n c l u d e c o n s t a n t and v a r i a b l e bead g r a v i t y t e s t s and p r e s s u r e (Packer)
t e s t s . conducted i n s i n g l e borings. I n a few g e o t e c h n i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , and
commonly i n water r e s o u r c e o r environmental s t u d i e s , non-equilibrium "aqui-
f e r " o r "pump" tests a r e conducted ( a w e l l i s pumped a t a c o n s t a n t r a t e f o r
a n extended period of time). See Table 15 f o r computation of p e r m e a b i l i t y
from v a r i a b l e head t e s t s .

( 1 ) Constant Head Test. This i s t h e most g e n e r a l l y a p p l i c a b l e per-

m e a b i l i t y test. It may be d i f f i c u l t t o perform i n m a t e r i a l s of e i t h e r very
high o r v e r y low p e r m e a b i l i t y s i n c e t h e flow of water may be d i f f i c u l t t o
m a i n t a i n o r t o measure.
 F = SHAPE W O R OF INTAKE WIN1
A = STMlOPlPE AREA
K r MEAN PERMEABILITY

ESTIMATE RATIO C f
RADIUS OF INTAKE #)INT VERnCALPERMEABILllYAN) DlVlOE
(R) DIFFERS FROM RADIUS HORIZONTAL DlMlJSKMISOF THE I)SIKE
OF STANDPIPE (r) :

2*L 2rL
F = T, = TOC~MPUTE
ln(R) MEAN ERMEABILllY K = fm
A = wr2 FOR CASE (c) ABLE IS
2tL
F=

FIGURE 13
Analysis of Permeability by Variable Head Tests
 TABLE 15
Shape Factors f o r Computation of Permeability From Variable Head T e s t s
4

ERMEABILITY, K
SHAPE
CONDITION DIAGRAM BY VARMBLE APPUCABlLlTY
FACltn?,F
HEAD TEST

( A ) UNCASED HOLE ( FOR OBSERVATKm WELL OF CONSTANT CROSS SBCTm)

SIMPLEST M E W PDR #R-

R (H2-HI) =ABILITY DETERMINAW.
F = 16rDSR K=-
EDS (12-tl) NUr APPUCABLEIN STRATIFILI)
SOILS.~vALmSoFS,s€E

o .. ..
..:-.:-
FOR+(W) FIGURE 13.

( B) CASED HOLE, SOIL USED FCR EWEABILITY

3
FLUSH WITH BOTTOM. #TERMINATION AT.-
K= 2rR- MPTHS BEUW THE WMER
IIR 2 In 2 TABU. MAY YIELD UNRELYLIE
F= 7 RESULTS IN FALLING HEAD
a" FOR 6 " i ~ ~ 6 0 "
W W TEST WITH SILTING OF
BOTTOM OF HOLE.

( C) CASED HOLE,UNCASED 7 8 USED KlR PERMUSILITY

DETERMINATIONSAT
%sa OR PERFORATED
EXTENSIONOF LENGTH
I'L.
"
' R2
I&)k(!h-) GREATER DEPTHS BELOW
WAER TABLE.
l
A k
.. F = - 2 rL
-{: cT
:. . .:-.
!
; ;1: 4
1w
. FOR
Lp3
20
- *-: -.*.

' ( D l CASED HOLE,OWYN PRlNClRPL USE IS FOR PER-

I? OF SOIL INSIDE CASING MEABILITY IN VERTICAL
v, TO HEIGHT"^' DIRECTION IN ANISOTROPIC
m
o F= -
l l r ~ ~ K=
2rR+IIL SOILS.
2rR+IIL 11(t2-tl)

..: ::::::
 TABLE 15 (continued)
Shape F a c t o r s f o r Computation of P e r m e a b i l i t y From V a r i a b l e Head T e s t s

SHAPE PERMEABILITY, K
CONDITION DIAGRAM BY VARIABLE APPLICABILITY
FACTOR, F
HEAD TEST

( FOR OBSERVATION WELL OF CONSTANT CROSS SECTION)

( E l CASED HOLE,OP€NING

I
USED FOR PERMEABILITY
FWSH WITH UPPER DETERMINATK)N WHEN
a BOUNDARY OF AQUIFER SURFACE IMPERVIOUS LAYER
w OF INFINITE DEPTH. IS RELATIVELY THIN.
L!!
-
LL K=*
4(t2-tl ) ln(H2) MAY YIELD UNRELIABLE
RESULTS IN FALLING HEAD
TEST WITH SILTING OF
BUrTOM OF HOLE.

''
8'u>
( F) CASED HOLE,UNCASED
OR PERFORATED EX-
TENSIONINK)
AQUIFER OF FINITE
USED FOR PERMEABILITY
DETERMINATIONS AT
DEPTHS GREATER THAN
ABOUT 5FT FOR VALUES
THICKNESS: Of Cs, SEE FIGURE 13.

USED FOR PERMEABILITY DE-

~ ~ l n TERMINATIONS AT GREATER
K= DEPTHS AND FOR FINE
2L2(t2-tl ln'%' GRAINED SOILS USING

EFFECTIVE RADIUS TO
I FOR =)8
I POROUS INTAKE POINT Of
PIEZOMETER .

V)
SOURCE AT CONSTANT
(3)
ASSUME VALUE OFF ;

m HEAD. 200 FOR ESTIMATES UN-

2L3(t2-t1) in($)
LESS OBSERVATION WELLS
ARE MADE TO DETERMINE
ACTUAL VALUE OF Ro .
 PLASTIC TUBING

TION,CAS€DABOVE RR)RATED TEST SOMI

NOTES : I ;HEIGHT OF GRAVEL AT BOTTOM OF TEST SECTION MAY HAVE TO BE INCREASEDTO PREVENT PPWG AND
BU~W-WT'OFTHE BOTTOM.
2-HEIGHT OF GRAVELWITHIN BOREHOLE MUST BE BELDW MAXIMUM

LASTIC TUBING

SEVERAL-INCHES

(Dl UNLINED TEST SOCTW, (€1 OPEN-END BLANK CASING,

FIGURE 14
Test Zone Isolation Methods
7.1-107
 ( 2 ) R i s i n g Head Test. I n a s a t u r a t e d zone w i t h s u f f i c i e n t l y per-
meable m a t e r i a l s , t h i s t e s t i s more a c c u r a t e than a c o n s t a n t o r a f a l l i n g head
t e s t . Plugging of t h e pores by f i n e s o r by a i r bubbles i s l e s s a p t t o occur
i n a rising head'test. I n an u n s a t u r a t e d zone, t h e r i s i n g head t e s t i s
inapplicable.

( 3 ) F a l l i n g Head Test. I n zones where t h e flow r a t e s a r e v e r y h i g h

o r v e r y low, t h i s t e s t may be more a c c u r a t e than a c o n s t a n t head t e s t . In a n
a r e a of unknown p e r m e a b i l i t y t h e c o n s t a ~ l thead t e s t should be attempted b e f o r e
a f a l l i n g head t e s t .

( 4 ) Pumping Test. In l a r g e s c a l e seepage i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o r ground-

water r e s o u r c e s t u d i e s , t h e expense of a q u i f e r o r pumping t e s t s may be j u s t i -
f i e d a s t h e y provide more u s e f u l d a t a t h a n any o t h e r type of t e s t . Pump t e s t s
r e q u i r e a t e s t w e l l , pumping equipment, and l e n g t h y t e s t times. Obser-
v a t i o n w e l l s a r e necessar'y. A v a s t number of i n t e r p r e t i v e techniques have
been published f o r s p e c i a l c o n d i t i o n s .

( 5 ) G r a v i t y and P r e s s u r e Tests. In a b o r i n g , g r a v i t y and p r e s s u r e

t e s t s a r e appropriate. The segment of t h e boring t e s t e d i s u s u a l l y 5 t o 10
f e e t , b u t may be l a r g e r . A l a r g e number of t e s t s must be conducted t o a c h i e v e
an o v e r a l l view of t h e seepage c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e m a t e r i a l s . The zone of
i n f l u e n c e of each t e s t i s s m a l l , u s u a l l y a few f e e t o r perhaps a few inches.
These methods can d e t e c t changes i n pekmeabili t y over r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t
d i s t a n c e s i n a b o r i n g , which conventional pump o r a q u i f e r t e s t s cannot.
Exploration b o r i n g ( a s opposed t o "well") methods a r e t h e r e f o r e u s e f u l i n
g e o t e c h n i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s where inhomogeneity and a n i s o t r o p y may be of
c r i t i c a l importance. R e s u l t s from p r e s s u r e t e s t s using packers i n f r a c t u r e d
rock may provide an i n d i c a t i o n of s t a t i c heads, i n f l o w c a p a c i t i e s , and f r a c -
t u r e deformation c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , b u t conventional i n t e r p r e t a t i o n methods d o
n o t g i v e a t r u e p e r m e a b i l i t y i n t h e sense t h a t i t i s measured i n porous
media.

c. P e r c o l a t i o n Test. The p e r c o l a t i o n t e s t i s used t o a s c e r t a i n t h e

a c c e p t a b i l i t y of a s i t e f o r s e p t i c t a n k systems and a s s i s t i n t h e d e s i g n of
s u b s u r f a c e d i s p o s a l of r e s i d e n t i a l waste.. Generally, t h e l e n g t h of time
required f o r percolation t e s t v a r i e s with d i f f e r i n g s o i l s . Test holes a r e
o f t e n kept f i l l e d with water f o r a t l e a s t f o u r hours, p r e f e r a b l y o v e r n i g h t ,
b e f o r e t h e t e s t i s conducted. I n s o i l s t h a t s w e l l , t h e soaking period should
be a t l e a s t 24 hours t o o b t a i n v a l i d t e s t r e s u l t s .

( 1 ) Type of Test. The p e r c o l a t i o n t e s t method most commonly used,

u n l e s s t h e r e a r e s p e c i f i e d l o c a l requirements, i s t h e t e s t developed by t h e
Robert A. T a f t S a n i t a r y Engineering Center a s o u t l i n e d i n t h e Reference 18,
P u b l i c Health S e r v i c e H e a l t h Manual of S e p t i c Tank P r a c t i c e , by HUD. A
s p e c i f i e d hole i s dug ( g e n e r a l l y 2 f e e t s q u a r e ) , o r d r i l l e d ( 4 i n c h e s mini-
mum) t o a d e p t h of t h e proposed a b s o r p t i o n t r e n c h , cleaned of l o o s e d e b r i s ,
f i l l e d with c o a r s e sand o r f i n e g r a v e l over t h e bottom 2 i n c h e s , and s a t u r a -
t e d f o r a s p e c i f i e d time. The p e r c o l a t i o n r a t e measurement i s obtained by
f i l l i n g t h e hole t o a prescribed l e v e l ( u s u a l l y 6 i n c h e s ) and t h e n measuring
t h e drop over a s e t time l i m i t ( u s u a l l y 30 minutes). I n sandy s o i l s t h e time
l i m i t may be o n l y 10 minutes. The p e r c o l a t i o n r a t e i s used i n e s t i m a t i n g t h e
r e q u i r e d l e a c h i n g f i e l d a r e a a s d e t a i l e d i n Reference 18.
5. IN-PLACE DENSITY. In-place s o i l d e n s i t y can be measured on t h e s u r f a c e
by displacement methods t o o b t a i n volume and weight, and by n u c l e a r d e n s i t y
meters. Density a t depth can be measured o n l y i n c e r t a i n s o i l s by t h e d r i v e
c y l i n d e r (sampling tube) method.

a. D i s ~ l a c e m e n tMethods. -
D i r e c t methods of measurinn i n c l u d e sand d i s -
placement and water b a l l o o n methods. See Reference 19, E v a l u a t i o n of R e l a t i v e
Density and i t s Role i n Geotechnical P r o j e c t s I n v o l v i n g Cohesionless S o i l s ,
ASTM STP 523. The sand displacement and water balloon methods a r e t h e most
widely used methods because of t h e i r a p p l i c a b i l i t y t o a wide range of m a t e r i a l
t y p e s and good performance. The sand displacement method (ASTM Standard
D1556, Density of S o i l i n P l a c e by t h e Sand Cone Method) i s t h e most f r e q u e n t -
l y used s u r f a c e t e s t and i s t h e r e f e r e n c e t e s t f o r a l l o t h e r methods. A pro-
cedure f o r t h e water o r rubber b a l l o o n method i s given i n ASRl Standard D2167,
Density of S o i l i n P l a c e by t h e Rubber Balloon Method.

b. Drive-Cylinder Method. The d r i v e c y l i n d e r (ASTM Standard D2937,

Density of S o i l i n Place by t h e Drive-Cylinder Method) i s u s e f u l f o r o b t a i n i n g
s u b s u r f a c e samples from which t h e d e n s i t y can be a s c e r t a i n e d , b u t i t i s l i m i t L
ed t o moist, cohesive s o i l s c o n t a i n i n g l i t t l e o r no g r a v e l and m o i s t , f i n e
sands t h a t e x h i b i t apparent cohesion.

c . Nuclear Moisture-Density Method. Use ASTM Standard D2922, Density of

S o i l and Soil-Aggregate i n Place by Nuclear Methods (Shallow Depth). Before
n u c l e a r density-methods a r e used on t h e job, r e s u l t s . must be compared w i t h
d e n s i t y and water c o n t e n t s determined by displacement methods. Based on t h i s
comparison, c o r r e c t i o n s may be r e q u i r e d t o t h e f a c t o r y c a l i b r a t i o n c u r v e s o r a
new c a l i b r a t i o n curve may have t o be developed. Safety regulations pertaining
t o t h e use of n u c l e a r gages a r e contained i n Reference 20, R a d i o l o g i c a l
S a f e t y , U.S. Corps of Engineers ER 385-1-80.

6. DETECTION OF COMBUSTIBLE GASES. Methane and o t h e r combustible g a s e s may

be p r e s e n t i n a r e a s near s a n i t a r y l a n d f i l l s , o r a t s i t e s near o r over p e a t
bogs, marshes and swamp d e p o s i t s . Commercially a v a i l a b l e i n d i c a t o r s a r e used
t o d e t e c t combustible g a s e s o r vapors and sample a i r i n b o r i n g s above t h e
water t a b l e . The d e t e c t o r i n d i c a t e s t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of g a s e s a s a percent-
age of t h e lower e x p l o s i v e l i m i t from 0 t o 100 on the gage. The lower explo-
s i v e l i m i t r e p r e s e n t s t h e l e a n e s t mixture which w i l l explode when i g n i t e d .
The gage s c a l e between 60% and 100% i s colored red t o i n d i c a t e very dangerous
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . I f c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e judged t o be s e r i o u s , a l l p o s s i b i l i t i e s
of s p a r k g e n e r a t i o n (e.g., p i l e d r i v i n g , e s p e c i a l l y mandrel d r i v e n s h e l l s )
should be precluded, and a v e n t i n g system o r vented crawl space should be
considered. The system could be c o n s t r u c t e d a s follows:

( a ) P l a c e a 6-inch l a y e r of' crushed s t o n e (314-inch s i z e ) below t h e

f l o o r s l a b ; t h e crushed s t o n e should be o v e r l a i n by a polyethylene vapor
barrier.

( b ) I n s t a l l 4-inch diameter p e r f o r a t e d pipe i n t h e s t o n e l a y e r below

t h e s l a b ; t h e top of t h e pipe should be immediately below t h e bottom of t h e
slab.
 ( c ) The p i p e s should be l o c a t e d such that gas r i s i n g v e r t i c a l l y t o
t h e underside of t h e f l o o r s l a b does not have t o t r a v e l more t h a n 25 f e e t
l a t e r a l l y through t h e s t o n e t o r e a c h a pipe.

( d ) The p i p e s can be connected t o a s i n g l e , non-perforated pipe of

6-inch diameter, and vented t o t h e atmosphere a t roof l e v e l .

F u r t h e r d e t a i l s on gas d e t e c t i o n and v e n t i n g can be found i n

References 21, S a n i t a r y L a n d f i l l Design Handbook, by Noble, and 22, P r o c e s s
Design Manual, Municipal Sludge L a n d f i l l s , by t h e EPA.

S e c t i o n 10. FIELD INSTRUMENTATION

1. UTILIZATION. F i e l d i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n i s used t o measure l o a d and d i s p l a c e -

ment and t o monitor changes during and a f t e r c o n s t r u c t i o n . T h i s a l l o w s v e r i -
f i c a t i o n of d e s i g n assumptions and performance monitoring, which could i n d i -
c a t e t h e need f o r implementation of contingency p l a n s o r d e s i g n changes. For
a d d i t i o n a l guidance on planning and per forming g e o t e c h n i c a l monitoring s e e
Reference 23, Geotechnical I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n f o r Monitoring F i e l d Performance,
by D u n n i c l i f f . See Reference 24, Equipment f o r F i e l d Deformation Measure-
ments, by D u n n i c l i f f , f o r i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n d e v i c e s i n c u r r e n t use. See F i g u r e
1 5 f o r an example of i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n a d j a c e n t t o a b u i l d i n g and diaphragm
wall.

a . Survey Technique. The most common u s e s of o p t i c a l survey t e c h n i q u e s

a r e f o r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of changes i n e l e v a t i o n , o r l a t e r a l displacement.
The l a s e r geodimeter provides a s i g n i f i c a n t r e d u c t i o n i n time a s w e l l a s in-
c r e a s e d accuracy i n monitoring of slopes. Survey techniques can be used
e f f e c t i v e l y t o monitor s u r f a c e movement of b u i l d i n g and a d j a c e n t ground move-
ment of s l o p e s and excavation walls. Figure 15 shows an a p p l i c a t i o n of
o p t i c a l surveys.

b. Monitoring of S e t t l e m e n t and Heave. Many d e v i c e s a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r

monitoring s e t t l e m e n t and heave, i n c l u d i n g a number which w i l l permit measure-
ment of t h e compression of t h e s e p a r a t e s o i l l a y e r s . V e r t i c a l movement can
a l s o be measured by remote s e t t l e m e n t gages u t i l i z i n g c l o s e d f l u i d systems,
and by extensometers embedded beneath foundations i n an incompressible l a y e r .
These d e v i c e s a r e a l s o w e l l s u i t e d t o measuring heave. For a more d e t a i l e d
d e s c r i p t i o n of f i e l d i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n equipment s e e Reference 22, and t h e
l a t e s t brochures of g e o t e c h n i c a l i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n companies.

c. H o r i z o n t a l 'and Slope Movements. I n a d d i t i o n t o c o n v e n t i o n a l survey-

i n g techniques, h o r i z o n t a l movement can be measured by h o r i z o n t a l movement
gauges, i n c l i n o m e t e r s , and extensometers. I n c l i n o m e t e r s a r e e s p e c i a l l y u s e f u l
f o r monitoring h o r i z o n t a l s o i l displacement along t h e v e r t i c a l f a c e of a cof-
ferdam o r bulkhead, o r a s i n Figure 15, a d j a c e n t t o an excavation. T i l t m e t e r s
c a n provide very p r e c i s e measurements of s l o p e changes i n s o i l and rock forma-
tions o r i n structures.
.

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 d. Loads and Temperature. See Table 16 (Reference 25, L a t e r a l Support
System and Underpinning, Volume 11, Design Fundamentals, by Goldberg, e t a l . )
f o r l o a d and temperature monitoring d e v i c e s commonly used i n walled excava-
tions.

Load and Temperature Devices i n Walled Excavation Elements
Parameter
Load and S t r e s s i n
S t r u t s , Soldier
P i l e s , Sheet P i l e s ,
Wales and Diaphragm
Walls.
Load i n Tieback
Anchors.
TABLE 16
Instrument
Mechanical s t r a i n
gage
Vibrating wire s t r a i n
gage
Electrical resistance
s t r a i n gage.
T e l l t a l e load c e l l .
Mechanical load c e l l .
Advantages
Inexpensive, simple.
Easy t o i n s t a l l . Mini-
mum damage p o t e n t i a l .
Remote readout. Read-
o u t can be automated.
P o t e n t i a l f o r accuracy
and r e l i a b i l i t y . Fre-
quency s i g n a l p e r m i t s
d a t a t r a n s m i s s i o n over
long d i s t a n c e s . Gages
can be re-used.
Inexpensive. Remote
readout. Readout can
be automated. Poten-
t i a l f o r accuracy and
r e l i a b i l i t y . Most
limitations listed
o p p o s i t e can be over-
come i f proper techni-
ques a r e used.
Inexpensive. Simple.
C a l i b r a t e d in-place.
D i r e c t reading.
Accurate and r e l i a b l e .
Rugged and durable.
Limitations
Access problems. Many
temperature c o r r e c t i o n s
required. Limited accu-
subjective .
racy. Readings a r e
Expensive. S e n s i t i v e t o
temperature, c o n s t r u c t i o n
damage. Requires sub-
s t a n t i a l s k i l l t o in-
s t a l l . Risk of z e r o
d r i f t . Risk of c o r r o s i o n
i f not hermetically
sealed.
S e n s i t i v e t o temperature,
moisture, c a b l e length
change i n connect i o n s ,
c o n s t r u c t i o n damage. Re-
quires substantial s k i l l
t o i n s t a l l . Risk of z e r o
drift.
Access problems. Cannot
be used with a l l proprie-
t a r y anchor systems.
 TABLE 16 (continued)
Load and Temperature Devices i n Walled Excavation Elements

Parameter Instrument Advantages Limitations

Electrical resistance Remote readout. Read- Expensive. S e n s i t i v e t o

s t r a i n gage load out can be automated. temperature, moisture,
cell. c a b l e l e n g t h change.

Vibrating wire s t r a i n Remote readout. Read- Expensive. S e n s i t i v e t o

gage load c e l l . out can be automated. temperature. Risk of
Frequency s i g n a l per- zero d r i f t .
m i t s d a t a transmission
over long d i s t a n c e s .

P h o t e l a s t i c load Inexpensive. Limited capacity. Access

cell. problems. Requires s k i l l
t o read.

Temperature Thermistor Precise D e l i c a t e , hence

s u s c e p t i b l e t o damage.
Sensitive to cable
length.

Thermocouple Robust. Insensitive to Less p r e c i s e than

c a b l e length. Avail- t h e r m i s t o r , but premium
a b l e i n p o r t a b l e ver- grade can g i v e 2 1OF.
s i o n a s "surface
pyrometer".
 REFERENCES

. - 1. Naval F a c i l i t i e s Engineering Command, H.Q., Geotechnical Data R e t r i e v a l

System, 1980.

2. Glass, C.E. and Slemmons, D.B., Imagery i n Earthquake A n a l y s i s , Misc.

paper S-73-1, State-of-the-Art f o r Assessing Earthquake Hazards i n t h e
United S t a t e s , USCE, Waterways Experiment S t a t i o n , Vicksburg, MS.,
1978.

3. Way, S.G., T e r r a i n A n a l y s i s , A Guide t o S i t e S e l e c t i o n Using A e r i a l

Photographic I n t e r p r e t a t i o n , Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, Inc.,
Stroudsburg, PA., 1973.

4. Hvorslev, M . J . , Subsurface E x p l o r a t i o n and Sampling f o r C i v i l

Engineering Purposes, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment S t a t i o n ,
Vicksburg, MS., 1949.

5. Higginbottom, I.E., The Use of Geophysical Methods i n Engineering

Geology, P a r t 11, E l e c t r i c a l R e s i s t i v i t y , Magnetic and G r a v i t y Methods,
Ground Engineering, Vol. 9, No. 2 , 1976.

6. M i l l e t , R. A. and Morehouse, D. C. , Bedrock V e r i f i c a t i o n Program f o r

Davis-Besse Nuclear Power S t a t i o n , Proceedings of t h e S p e c i a l t y
Conference on S t r u c t u r a l Design of Nuclear P l a n t F a c i l i t i e s , ASCE,
1973.

7. Brenner, R.P. and P h i l l i p s o n , H.B., Sampling of Residual S o i l s i n Hong

Kong
-9
Proceedings of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Symposium of S o i l Sampling,
Singapore, 1979.

8. ASRl STP 501, Underwater S o i l Sampling, T e s t i n g and C o n s t r u c t i o n

Control. 1972.

9. Lee, H.J. and Clausner, J.E., S e a f l o o r S o i l Sampling and Geotechnical

Parameter Determination -
Handbook, C i v i l Engineering Laboratory,
Department of t h e Navy, August, 1979.

10. Marcuson, W.F. 111, and Bieganouski, W.A., SPT and R e l a t i v e Density i n
Coarse Sands, J o u r n a l of Geotechnical Engineering D i v i s i o n , ASCE, Vol.
103, No. GT 1 1 , 1977.

11. Lacroix, Y. and Horn, H.M., D i r e c t Determination and I n d i r e c t

Evaluation of R e l a t i v e D e n s i t y and Earthwork C o n s t r u c t i o n P r o j e c t s ,
AS'IM STP 523, 1973.

12. Ohsaki, Y., and Iwasaki, R., On Dynamic Shear Moduli and P o i s s o n ' s
R a t i o s of S o i l Deposits, S o i l s and Foundations Vol. 13, No. 4, 1973.

13. Canadian Geotechnical S o c i e t y , P r o p e r t i e s of S o i l and Rock, Canadian

Foundation Engineering Manual, P a r t 1, Canadian Geotechnical S o c i e t y ,
1978.
Federal Highway Administration, Guidelines for Cone Penetration Tests
Performance and Design, FHWA Report TS-28-209, 1977.

Acker Soil Sampling Catalog, Acker Drill Company, Inc., Scranton, PA.

Baguelin, F. and Jezequel, J.F.,.French Self-Boring Pressuremeter, PAF

68-PAF 72 and PAF 76, Report No. FHWA-TS-80-202, Federal Highway
Administration, Washington, D. C. , 1980.

Wroth, C.P., Cambridge In-Situ Probe, PAF 68-PAF 72 and PAF 76, Report
No. FHWA-TS-80-202, Federal Highway Administration, Washington, D.C.,
1980. ,

HUD, Public Health Service Health Manual of Septic Tank Practice, NTIS
PB 218226.

ASTM STP 523, Evaluation of Relative Density and Its Role in

Geotechnical Projects Involving Cohesionless Soils, 1972.
U.S. Corps of Engineers, Radiological Safety, ER385-1-80.

Noble, G., Sanitary Landfill Design Handbook, Technamic Publishing Co.,

westport, CT., 1976.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Process Design
Manual, Municipal Sludge Landfills, EPA-625 11-78-010, SW 705, 1978.

Dunnicliff, C.J., Geotechnical Instrumentation for Monitoring Field

Performance, National Cooperative Highway Research Program, Synthesis
of Highway Practice, Transportation Research Board, to be published
1981.

Dunnicliff, C.J., Equipment for Field Deformation Measurements,

Proceedings of the Fourth Panamerican Conference, SMFE, Vol. 11, San
Juan, Puerto Rico, January 1973.
Goldberg, D.T., Jaworski, W.E., and Gordon, M.D., Lateral Support
Systems and Underpinning, Volume I1 Design Fundamentals, Report No.
FHWA-RD-75-129, Federal Highway Administration, 1976.
 CHAPTER 3. LABORATORY TESTING

S e c t i o n 1. INTRODUCTION

1. SCOPE. T h i s c h a p t e r c o v e r s l a b o r a t o r y t e s t p r o c e d u r e s , t y p i c a l t e s t
p r o p e r t i e s , and t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of t e s t r e s u l t s t o d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n .
Symbols and terms r e l a t i n g t o t e s t s and s o i l p r o p e r t i e s conform, g e n e r a l l y , t o
d e f i n i t i o n s g i v e n i n AS'IM S t a n d a r d D653, S t a n d a r d D e f i n i t i o n s of Terms and
Symbols R e l a t i n g t o S o i l and Rock Mechanics found i n R e f e r e n c e 1, Annual Book
of ASTM S t a n d a r d s , by t h e American S o c i e t y f o r T e s t i n g and M a t e r i a l s .

2. RELATED CRITERIA. For a d d i t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g l a b o r a t o r y

t e s t s f o r highway and a i r f i e l d d e s i g n , s e e t h e f o l l o w i n g :

Subject Source

A i r f i e l d Pavements........................................NAVFAC DM-21
Out of Date and
DM-21.3

Pavements, S o i l E x p l o r a t i o n , and Subgrade Testing.........NAVFAC DM-5.4

3. LABORATORY EQUIPMENT. For l i s t s of l a b o r a t o r y equipment f o r performance

of t e s t s , s e e Reference 2 , S o i l T e s t i n g f o r E n g i n e e r s , by Lambe, R e f e r e n c e 3 ,
The Measurement of S o i l P r o p e r t i e s i n t h e T r i a x i a l T e s t , by Bishop and Henkel,
and o t h e r c r i t e r i a s o u r c e s .

4. TEST SELECTION FOR DESIGN. S t a n d a r d (ASTM) o r s u g g e s t e d t e s t p r o c e d u r e s ,

v a r i a t i o n s t h a t may be a p p r o p r i a t e , and t y p e and s i z e of sample a r e i n c l u d e d
i n T a b l e s 1, 2, 3 , and 4. T a b l e 5 l i s t s s o i l p r o p e r t i e s determined from s u c h
t e s t s , and o u t l i n e s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of s u c h p r o p e r t i e s t o d e s i g n . ASTM proce-
d u r e s a r e found i n Reference 1.

a. Sample S e l e c t i o n . Samples t o be t e s t e d should be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e ,

i . e . t h e y should be s i m i l a r i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o most of t h e s t r a t u m from
which t h e y come, o r be an a v e r a g e of t h e r a n g e of m a t e r i a l s p r e s e n t . If t h i s
a p p e a r s d i f f i c u l t because of v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e s t r a t u m , i t may be n e c e s s a r y t o
c o n s i d e r s u b d i v i s i o n s of t h e s t r a t u m f o r sampling, t e s t i n g , and d e s i g n pur-
poses. I n g e n e r a l , t e s t s on samples of mixed o r s t r a t i f i e d m a t e r i a l , s u c h a s
varved c l a y , should be avoided; u s u a l l y such r e s u l t s a r e n o t i n d i c a t i v e of
m a t e r i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ; and b e t t e r d a t a f o r a n a l y s i s can be o b t a i n e d by
testing t h e d i f f e r e n t materials separately. Undisturbed samples f o r s t r u c -
t u r a l p r o p e r t i e s t e s t s must be t r e a t e d w i t h c a r e t o avoid d i s t u r b a n c e ; a n
" u n d i s t u r b e d " sample found t o be d i s t u r b e d b e f o r e t e s t i n g n o r m a l l y should n o t
be t e s t e d . Fine-grained c o h e s i v e samples n a t u r a l l y m o i s t i n t h e ground s h o u l d
n o t be allowed t o d r y b e f o r e t e s t i n g , a s i r r e v e r s i b l e changes can o c c u r ;
organic s o i l s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y s e n s i t i v e . S o i l s w i t h chemical s a l t s i n t h e
pore water may change i f water i s added, d i l u t i n g t h e s a l t c o n c e n t r a t i o n , o r
i f w a t e r i s removed, c o n c e n t r a t i n g o r p r e c i p i t a t i n g t h e s a l t . Organic s o i l s

.
r e q u i r e long-term low t e m p e r a t u r e (60°C) d r y i n g t o avoid s e v e r e o x i d a t i o n
( b u r n i n g ) of t h e o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l
 TABLE 1
Requirements f o r Index P r o p e r t i e s T e s t s and T e s t i n g S t a n d a r d s

Reference f o r V a r i a t i o n s from Stan- S i z e o r Weight of

Standard Test dard T e s t Procedures, Sample f o r
Test ~rocedures(a) Sample Requirements ~ e s t ( b )( c )

Moisture ( 1 , AS'IM D2216) None. (Test requires As l a r g e a s

c o n t e n t of unaltered natural convenient.
soil moisture content.)

Moisture, a s h , ( 1 , AS'IM ~ 2 9 7 4 ) None.

and o r g a n i c
m a t t e r of p e a t
materials

Dry u n i t None. Determine t o t a l d r y As l a r g e as

weight weight of a sample of convenient.
measured t o t a l volume.
(Requires undisturbed
sample).

Specific
gravity:

Material ( 1 , ASP4 D854) Volumetric f l a s k 25 t o 50 gm f o r

smaller p r e f e r a b l e ; vacuum fine-grained
t h a n No. 4 preferable for s o i l ; 150 gm f o r
sieve size de-airing. coarse-grained
soils.

Material (1, AS'IM C127) None. 500 gm.

l a r g e r than
No. 4 s i e v e
size

A tterberg Use f r a c t i o n p a s s i n g
Limits: No. 40 s i e v e ; m a t e r i a l
s h o u l d n o t be d r i e d
before t e s t i n g .

Liquid l i m i t ( 1 , ASP4 D423) None. 100 t o 500 gm.

Plastic ( 1 , ASTM D424) Ground g l a s s p l a t e 15 t o 20 gm.

limit preferable for rolling.

Shrinkage. (4) I n some c a s e s a trimmed 30 gm.

limit specimen of u n d i s t u r b e d
m a t e r i a l may be used
r a t h e r t h a n a remolded
sample.
*
 TABLE 1 ( c o n t i n u e d )
Requirements f o r Index P r o p e r t i e s T e s t s and T e s t i n g S t a n d a r d s

Reference f o r V a r i a t i o n s from Stan- S i z e o r Weight of

-
Standard Test dard T e s t Procedures, Sample f o r
~rocedures(a) Sample Requirements T e s t ( b ) ,( c )

Gradat ion :

Sieve ( 1 , ASlM D422) S e l e c t i o n of s i e v e s t o 500 gm f o r s o i l

analysis be u t i l i z e d may v a r y with grains t o
f o r samples of d i f f e r - 3/8"; t o 5,000 gm
e n t gradation. f o r s o i l with
g r a i n s t o 3".

Hydrometer ( 1 , ASlM D422) F r a c t i o n of sample f o r 65 gm f o r f i n e -

analysis hydrometer a n a l y s i s may g r a i n e d s o i l ; 115
be t h a t p a s s i n g No. 200 gm f o r sandy s o i l .
s i e v e . For f i n e -
grained s o i l e n t i r e
sample may be used. A l l
m a t e r i a l must be
s m a l l e r than No. 10
sieve.

Corrosivity:

Sulphate (5) Several a l t e r n a t i v e S o i l / w a t e r solu-

content procedures i n r e f e r - t i o n prepared, see
ence. reference.

Chloride (5) Several a l t e r n a t i v e S o i l / w a t e r solu-

content procedures i n r e f e r - t i o n prepared, s e e
ence. reference.

( 1 , ASTM D1293) Reference i s f o r pH of

water. For mostly
s o l i d s u b s t a n c e s , solu-
t i o n made w i t h d i s t i l l -
ed water and f i l t r a t e
tested; standard not
available.

Resistivity None. Written standard n o t

(laboratory) a v a i l a b l e . Follow
g u i d e l i n e s provided by
manufacturers of test-
ing apparatus.

Resistivity I n s i t u test procedure.

(f i e l d )
 TABLE 1 (continued)
Requirements for Index Properties Tests and Testing Standards

(a) Number i n parenthesis indicates Reference number.

(b) Samples for t e s t s may e i t h e r be disturbed or undisturbed;

a l l samples must be representative and non-segregated;
exceptions noted.

(c) Weights of samples for t e s t s on air-dried b a s i s .


Test
Permeability:
Constant head procedure
f o r moderately permeable
soil
V a r i a b l e head procedure
Constant head procedure
f o r coarse-grained s o i l s
C a p i l l a r y head
Consolidation:
Consolidation
TABLE 2
Requirements f o r S t r u c t u r a l P r o p e r t i e s
Reference f o r Variations- from
Suggested T e s t Suggested T e s t
procedures( a ) Procedures
(2) ,(4)
(2),(4) Generally a p p l i c a b l e t o
f ine-grained s o i l s .
( 4 ) ,( 1, ASTM D2434) Limited t o s o i l s contain-
i n g l e s s than 10% passing
No. 200 s i e v e s i z e . For
c l e a n coarse-grained s o i l
t h e procedure i n ( 4 ) i s
preferable.
(2) C a p i l l a r y head f o r cer-
t a i n fine-grained s o i l s
may have t o be determined
indirectly.
(2 To i n v e s t i g a t e secondary
compression, i n d i v i d u a l
l o a d s may be maintained
f o r more than 24 hours.
S i z e o r Weight of Sample
f o r Test (undisturbed,
remolded, o r compacted)
Sample s i z e depends on
max. g r a i n s i z e , 4 cm d i a .
by 35 cm h e i g h t f o r s i l t
and f i n e sand.
S i m i l a r t o c o n s t a n t head
sample.
Sample diameter should be
t e n times t h e s i z e of t h e
largest s o i l particle.
200 t o 250 gm d r y weight.
Diameter p r e f e r a b l y 2-112
i n o r l a r g e r . R a t i o of
diameter t o t h i c k n e s s of 3
t o 4.
 TABLE 2 (continued)
Requirements f o r S t r u c t u r a l P r o p e r t i e s

Reference f o r V a r i a t i o n s from S i z e o r Weight of Sample '

Suggested T e s t Suggested T e s t f o r Test (undisturbed,
Test ~rocedures(~) Procedures remolded, o r compacted)

Swell ( 7 , AASHTO T258) - Diameter p r e f e r a b l y 2-1 12

i n or larger. Ratio of
diameter t o t h i c k n e s s of
3 t o 4.

Collapse p o t e n t i a l (8) 2 specimens f o r each

t e s t , with diameter 2-112
i n o r l a r g e r . Diameter
t o h e i g h t r a t i o 3 t o 4.

Shear S t r e n g t h :

Direct shear ( 2 ) , ( 1 , ASTMD3080) Limited t o t e s t s on Generally 0.5 i n t h i c k , 3

cohesionless s o i l s or t o i n by 3 i n o r 4 i n by 4
consolidated shear t e s t s i n i n plan, o r equivalent
on fine-grained s o i l s . c i r c u l a r cross section.

Unconfined compression ( 2 ) , ( 1 , ASTM D2166) A l t e r n a t i v e procedure Similar t o t r i a x i a l t e s t

given i n Reference 4. samples.
 TABLE 2 ( c o n t i n u e d )
Requirements f o r S t r u c t u r a l P r o p e r t i e s

Reference f o r V a r i a t i o n s from S i z e o r Weight of Sample

Suggested T e s t Suggested T e s t f o r Test (undisturbed,
Test ~rocedures(~) Procedures remolded, o r compacted)

T r i a x i a l compression:

Unconsolidated - (1, ASRl D2850) R a t i o of h e i g h t t o dia-

undrained (Q o r UU) meter should be l e s s than
3 and g r e a t e r t h a n 2.
Consolida ted-undrained (2) ,(4) Consolidated-undrained Common s i z e s a r e : 2.8 i n
(R o r CU) t e s t s may run with o r d i a . , 6.5 i n high. Larger
without pore p r e s s u r e s i z e s a r e appropriate f o r
Consolida ted-drained ( 2 ) ,(4) measurements, according g r a v e l l y m a t e r i a l s t o be
(S o r CD) t o b a s i s f o r design. used i n e a r t h embankments.

Vane Shear Block of undisturbed s o i l

a t l e a s t t h r e e times
dimensions of vane.

( a ) Number i n p a r e n t h e s i s i n d i c a t e s Reference number.

 TABLE 3
Requirements f o r Dynamic T e s t s

Reference f o r T e s t V a r i a t i o n s from Standard S i z e o r Weight o f

Test s (b) T e s t Procedure Sample f o r T e s t m

C y c l i c Loading

Triaxial (9 Same a s f o r s t r u c t u r a l proper-

compression ties triaxial.

Simple s h e a r (9)

Torsional (10) Can use hollow specimen.

shear

Resonant Column (10) & (11) Can use hollow specimen. Same a s f o r s t r u c t u r a l
properties t r i a x i a l ; length
sometimes g r e a t e r .

Ultrasonic pulse

Soil (12) Same a s f o r s t r u c t u r a l

properties t r i a x i a l .

Rock ( 1 , ASTM D2845) Prism, l e n g t h less t h a n 5 t i m e s

l a t e r a l dimension; l a t e r a l
dimension a t l e a s t 5 t i m e s
l e n g t h of compression wave.

(a) Number i n p a r e n t h e s i s i n d i c a t e s Reference number.

(b) Except f o r t h e u l t r a s o n i c p u l s e t e s t on rock, t h e r e a r e no recognized s t a n d a r d procedures f o r

dynamic t e s t i n g . References a r e t o d e s c r i p t i o n s of t e s t s and t e s t requirements by recognized
a u t h o r i t i e s i n those areas.
7.1-125 Change 1, September 1986
Change 1, September 1986 7.1-126
 TABLE 5
S o i l P r o p e r t i e s f o r Analysis and Design

Property Symbol How Obtained Direct Applications

Volume-weight ~ h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( b )

Moisture Content D i r e c t from test C l a s s i f i c a t i o n and

volume-weight r e l a t i o n s .

Unit Weights D i r e c t l y from t e s t C l a s s i f i c a t i o n and p r e s s u r e

o r from volume- computations.
weight r e l a t i o n s

Porosity Computed from

volume-weight
relations Parameters used t o r e p r e s e n t
r e l a t i v e volume of v o i d s w i t
Void R a t i o Computed from r e s p e c t t o t o t a l volume of
volume-weight s o i l o r volume of s o l i d s .
relations

S p e c i f i c Gravity D i r e c t l y from test Volume computations.

P l a s t i c i t y Characteristics:

Liquid Limit D i r e c t l y from t e s t

C l a s s i f i c a t i o n and p r o p e r t i e
P l a s t i c Limit D i r e c t l y from test correlation.

P l a s t i c i t y Index LL-PL
 TABLE 5 (continued)
S o i l P r o p e r t i e s f o r Analysis and Design

Property Symbol How Obtained D i r e c t Applications

-- -
Shrinkage l i m i t D i r e c t l y from t e s t . C l a s s i f i c a t i o n and
computation of swell.
Shrinkage index PL-SL

Activity PI
% <2 microns miner a 1 .
I d e n t i f i c a t i o n of c l a y

L i q u i d i t y index Estimating degree, of

p r e c o n s o l i d a t i o n , and s o i l
consistency.

Gradation C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s :

E f f e c t i v e diameter From g r a i n s i z e
curve.

Percent g r a i n s i z e From g r a i n s i z e Classification, estimating

curve. permeability and u n i t
weight, f i l t e r design,
g r o u t s e l e c t i o n , and
C o e f f i c i e n t of uniformity evaluating potential f r o s t
heave and l i q u e f a c t i o n .

C o e f f i c i e n t of c u r v a t u r e
I

, Clay s i z e f r a c t i o n From g r a i n s i z e
curve, X f i n e r than
i 0.002 mm.
 TABLE 5 ( c o n t i n u e d )
S o i l P r o p e r t i e s f o r Analysis and Design

Property symbol unit(a] How Obtained Direct Applications

Drainage C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s :

C o e f f i c i e n t of p e r m e a b i l i t y k LT' I D i r e c t l y from per- Drainage, seepage, and

meability t e s t o r consolidation analysis.
computed from
consolidation test
data.

C a p i l l a r y head hc L D i r e c t l y from t e s t . Drainage and drawdown

analysis.
Effective porosity "c D D i r e c t l y from t e s t
f o r volume of
d r a i n a b l e water.

Consolidation C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s :

C o e f f i c i e n t of compressi- L ~ F - ~ Determined from Computation of u l t i m a t e

b i l ity n a t u r a l p l o t of e s e t t l e m e n t o r heave i n
VS. p curve. consolidation analysis.

C o e f f i c i e n t of volume com- L~F-I av

m~
pressibility l + e

Compression index c D

Determined from e Computation of u l t i m a t e

Recompression index Cr D ' v s . l o g p curve. settlement o r swell i n
consolidation analysis.

S w e l l i n g index cs D
 TABLE 5 ( c o n t i n u e d )
S o i l P r o p e r t i e s f o r A n a l y s i s and Design

Property Symbol How Obtained Direct Applications

C o e f f i c i e n t of secondary C D Determined from

compression semilog t i m e - Computation of time r a t e
consolidation settlement.
C o e f f i c i e n t of c o n s o l i d a t i o n cv LZT-~ curve.

Preconsolidation pressure FL-2 E s t i m a t e from e vs. Settlement a n a l y s i s .

*
P~
l o g p curve.

Overconsolidation r a t i o OCR D B a s i s f o r normalizing

behavior of c l a y .

Shear S t r e n g t h C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s :

Apparent a n g l e of s h e a r i n g 0 A Determined from Mohr

resistance c i r c l e p l o t of s h e a r
test data for total
stress.

Cohesion i n t e r c e p t c FL'~

E f f e c t i v e a n g l e of s h e a r i n g 0' A Determined from Mohr

resistance c i r c l e p l o t of
effective stress
E f f e c t i v e cohesion C' FL'~ s h e a r test d a t a
(drained t e s t s with
pore p r e s s u r e
measurements).
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 TABLE 5 (continued)
S o i l P r o p e r t i e s f o r Analysis and Design

Property Symbol How Obtained Direct Applications

. .
Relative density Dr D Determined from Compaction c o n t r o l , proper-
r e s u l t s of max. and t i e s correlation, liquefac-
min. d e n s i t y t e s t s . t i o n studies.

C a l i f o r n i a Bearing R a t i o CBR D D i r e c t l y from t e s t . - Pavement d e s i g n , compaction

control.

Dynamic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s :

Shear modulus G FL'~ Determined from

r e s o n a n t column,
c y c l i c simple s h e a r ,
ultrasonic pulse, o r
dynamic t r i a x i a l
tes'ts.
Analysis of foundation and
- s o i l behavior under dynamic
Damping r a t i o s
Rod ( l o n g i t u d i n a l )
Shear ( t o r s i o n a l )
D~
D Determined from
r e s o n a n t column
t e s t , dynamic
loading .
DT
triaxial, or cyclic
simple s h e a r t e s t .

Re sonant frequency - T - ~ Determined from

longitudinal L r e s o n a n t column
torsional f~ test.

(a) Units F = Force o r weight; L = Length; T = Time; D = Dimensionless; A = Angular Measure

(b) For complete l i s t of volume - weight r e l a t i o n s h i p s , s e e Table 6 .
 b. Index P r o p e r t i e s T e s t s . Index p r o p e r t i e s a r e used t o c l a s s i f y s o i l s ,
t o group s o i l s i n major s t r a t a , t o o b t a i n estimates of s t r u c t u r a l p r o p e r t i e s
( s e e c o r r e l a t i o n s i n t h i s Chapter), and t o c o r r e l a t e t h e r e s u l t s of s t r u c t u r a l
p r o p e r t i e s tests on one p o r t i o n of a s t r a t u m w i t h o t h e r p o r t i o n s - o f t h a t
s t r a t u m o r o t h e r s i m i l a r d e p o s i t s where o n l y index t e s t d a t a are a v a i l a b l e .
Procedures f o r most index tests a r e s t a n d a r d i z e d (Table 1). E i t h e r r e p r e s e n -
t a t i v e d i s t u r b e d o r undisturbed samples a r e u t i l i z e d . T e s t s a r e a s s i g n e d
a f t e r review of boring d a t a and v i s u a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of samples recovered.
For a simple p r o j e c t w i t h 4 t o 6 b o r i n g s , a t l e a s t 3 g r a d a t i o n and/or
A t t e r b e r g tests should be made per s i g n i f i c a n t s t r a t u m (5 t o 15 f e e t t h i c k ) .
For complex s o i l c o n d i t i o n s , t h i c k s t r a t a , o r l a r g e r s i t e s w i t h more b o r i n g s ,
a d d i t i o n a l t e s t s should be made. Moisture c.ontent tests should be made
l i b e r a l l y on samples of fine-grained s o i l . I n g e n e r a l , t h e t e s t program
should be planned so t h a t s o i l p r o p e r t i e s and t h e i r v a r i a t i o n can be d e f i n e d
a d e q u a t e l y f o r t h e l a t e r a l and v e r t i c a l e x t e n t of t h e p r o j e c t concerned.

c . T e s t s f o r C o r r o s i v i t y . The l i k e l i h o o d of s o i l a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t i n g
foundation elements o r u t i l i t i e s ( c o n c r e t e and metal elements) can be evalu-
a t e d on a p r e l i m i n a r y b a s i s from t h e r e s u l t s of t h e t e s t s r e f e r e n c e d i n Table
1. The t e s t s should be run on samples of s o i l which w i l l be i n c o n t a c t w i t h
t h e f o u n d a t i o n s a n d / o r u t i l i t i e s i n q u e s t i o n ; t y p i c a l l y t h e s e w i l l be o n l y
near-surface m a t e r i a l s . For a simple p r o j e c t with uni form c o n d i t i o n s , t h r e e
s e t s of t e s t s may be adequate. Usually t h e chemical tests a r e run o n l y i f
t h e r e i s r e a s o n t o s u s p e c t t h e presence of t h o s e i o n s . (See DM-5.7 f o r
a p p l i c a t i o n of test r e s u l t s and p o s s i b l e m i t i g a t i n g measures.)

d. S t r u c t u r a l P r o p e r t i e s T e s t s . These must be planned f o r p a r t i c u l a r

design problems. Rigid s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n of t e s t programs -
-
is inappropriate.
Perform t e s t s o n l y on undisturbed samples o b t a i n e d a s s p e c i f i e d - i n c h a p t e r 2
o r on compacted specimens prepared by s t a n d a r d procedures. In c e r t a i n cases,
completely remolded samples a r e u t i l i z e d t o e s t i m a t e t h e e f f e c t of d i s t u r a n c e .
Plan tests t o determine t y p i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of major s t r a t a r a t h e r t h a n a r b i -
t r a r i l y d i s t r i b u t i n g tests i n p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e number of u n d i s t u r b e d samples
obtained. A l i m i t e d number of high q u a l i t y tests on c a r e f u l l y s e l e c t e d r e p r e -
s e n t a t i v e u n d i s t u r b e d samples i s p r e f e r r e d . In general, selecting design
v a l u e s r e q u i r e s a t l e a s t t h r e e test v a l u e s f o r simple s i t u a t i o n s of l i m i t e d
a r e a l e x t e n t ; l a r g e r and more complex c o n d i t i o n s r e q u i r e s e v e r a l times t h e s e
numbers.

Where i n s t a n t a n e o u s deformation c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of s o i l s a r e t o b e
e v a l u a t e d , c o n s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s of t h e m a t e r i a l s i n q u e s t i o n must a l s o
be e s t a b l i s h e d . For i n i t i a l estimates of Young's modulus, Es, see Chapter
5, and f o r KO v a l u e , s e e DM-7.2, Chapter 3.

e. Dynamic T e s t s . Dynamic t e s t i n g of s o i l and rock i n v o l v e s t h r e e

r a n g e s : low frequency ( g e n e r a l l y l e s s t h a n 10 h e r t z ) c y c l i c t e s t i n g , r e s o n a n t
column h i g h frequency t e s t i n g , and u l t r a s o n i c p u l s e t e s t i n g . The dynamic
t e s t s a r e used t o e v a l u a t e foundation s u p p o r t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s under r e p e a t e d
l o a d i n g s such a s a drop f o r g e , t r a f f i c , o r earthquake; a primary concern i s
o f t e n l i q u e f a c t i o n . Young's modulus (Es), s h e a r modulus (G), and damping
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e determined by c y c l i c t r i a x i a l and simple s h e a r t e s t s .
Resonant column can be used t o determine Es, G, and damping.
From t h e resonant frequency of t h e m a t e r i a l i n l o n g i t u d i n a l , t r a n s v e r s e , and
t o r s i o n a l modes, Poisson's r a t i o ( u ) can be computed f r m test data. Founda-
t i o n response t o dynamic l o a d i n g , and t h e e f f e c t of wave energy on i t s sur-
roundings i s s t u d i e d i n t h e l i g h t of t h e s e t e s t r e s u l t s . The u l t r a s o n i c p u l s e
t e s t a l s o e v a l u a t e s t h e two moduli and P o i s s o n ' s r a t i o , b u t t h e t e s t r e s u l t s
a r e more r e l i a b l e f o r rocks than f o r s o i l s .

Dynamic t e s t s can be run on undisturbed o r compacted samples, b u t

should be run o n l y i f t h e p a r t i c u l a r p r o j e c t r e a l l y r e q u i r e s them. The number
of t e s t s depends on p r o j e c t circumstances. E s t i m a t e s of dynamic parameters
can be obtained from c o r r e l a t i o n s w i t h o t h e r p r o p e r t i e s ( s e e r e f e r e n c e s i n
S e c t i o n 6 of t h i s c h a p t e r ) .

f. Compaction Tests. In prospecting f o r borrow m a t e r i a l s , index tests

o r compaction t e s t s may be required i n a number p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e volume of
borrow involved o r t h e number of samples obtained. S t r u c t u r a l p r o p e r t i e s
t e s t s a r e assigned a f t e r borrow m a t e r i a l s have been grouped i n major cate-
g o r i e s . b y index and compaction p r o p e r t i e s . S e l e c t sampLes f o r s t r u c t u r a l
t e S t s t o r e p r e s e n t t h e main s o i l groups and probable compacted c o n d i t i o n . . A t
l e a s t one compaction o r r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y t e s t i s r e q u i r e d f o r each s i g n i f i -
c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t m a t e r i a l (based on g r a d a t i o n o r p l a s t i c i t y ) . Numbers of
o t h e r t e s t s depend on p r o j e c t requirements.

g. T y p i c a l T e s t P r o p e r t i e s . Various c o r r e l a t i o n s between index and

s t r u c t u r a l p r o p e r t i e s a r e a v a i l a b l e showing t h e probable range of t e s t v a l u e s
and r e l a t i o n of parameters. In t e s t i n g f o r s t r u c t u r a l p r o p e r t i e s , c o r r e l a -
t i o n s can be used t o extend r e s u l t s t o s i m i l a r s o i l s f o r which index v a l u e s
o n l y a r e a v a i l a b l e . C o r r e l a t i o n s a r e of varying q u a l i t y , expressed by s t a n -
dard d e v i a t i o n , which i s t h e range above and below t h e average t r e n d , w i t h i n
which about two-thirds of a l l v a l u e s occur. These r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e u s e f u l i n
p r e l i m i n a r y a n a l y s e s b u t must not s u p p l a n t c a r e f u l t e s t s of s t r u c t u r a l proper-
t i e s . The r e l a t i o n s h i p s should never be a p p l i e d i n f i n a l a n a l y s e s without
v e r i f i c a t i o n by t e s t s of t h e p a r t i c u l a r m a t e r i a l concerned.

S e c t i o n 2. INDEX PROPERTIES TESTS

1. MOISTURE CONTENT, UNIT WEIGHT, SPECIFIC GRAVITY. Index p r o p e r t i e s t e s t s

a r e used t o compute s o i l volume and weight components (Table 6). O r d i n a r i l y ,
determine moisture c o n t e n t f o r a l l t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e samples ( d i s t u r b e d o r
u n d i s t u r b e d ) f o r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and grouping of m a t e r i a l s i n p r i n c i p a l s t r a t a .
See Table 1 f o r t e s t s t a n d a r d s .

a . Unsaturated Samples. Measure m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t , d r y weight, s p e c i f i c

g r a v i t y , and t o t a l volume of specimen t o compute volume-weight r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

b. S a t u r a t e d Samples. I f moisture c o n t e n t and d r y weight a r e measured,

a l l volume-weight parameters may be computed by assuming a s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y .
I f moisture c o n t e n t and s p e c i f i c g r a v i t y a r e measured, a l l volume-weight
parameters may be computed d i r e c t l y . Volume-weight of fine-grained s o i l s
below t h e water t a b l e may be determined w i t h s u f f i c i e n t accuracy by assuming
saturation.
 TABLE 6
. .
Volume and Weight Relationships
WEIGHTS FOR
UNIT WWME OF SOlL I

-VOLUME COMPONENTS --*y~E--w~~~~~ COMPOIIEWT. C

PROPERTY
~~~~
( ws ,Ww, G,
UNSATURATED
SAMPLE
SUPPLEMENTARY FORMULAS RELATING MEASURED AND COMWTED FACTORS
(Ws,Ww, G,V,
KN(IWN)
ARE KNOWN)
VOLUME OF ws V-(Va +Vw) V ( l -n) v -
vv
e
vs SOLIDS GYw (I+el

VOLUME OF ww sve
Vv -Va S Vv SVs e
Vw WATER Yw (1 + a )

+
V)
ZERO V-(Vs+Vw) V" - vw (I-S)VV
(I-S)Ve
(I-S) Vs e
6
z 1
AIR OR GAS (I + e l
0
a VOLUME OF wW ws
v- - v -vs Vs n Ve
'
o v~
0 ,
VOIDS YW GYW I-n (I + e l
Vs
.
TCrrAL VOLUME vs vv(l+e)
vs + v w MEASURED Vs +Vo +Vw Vs ( 1 + e l e
OF SAMPLE I-n
W '
I
3
n POROSITY vv I-
vs
- I- -ws e
0
> v v GVYw I +e

e VOID RATK) Vv v -I
- 9 3- ~ WwG -
n -
WG
Vs Vs Ws Ws S I-n S
*
2. GRADATION. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e i r use i n c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , g r a i n - s i z e
a n a l y s e s may be a p p l i e d t o seepage and d r a i n a g e problems, f i l t e r and g r o u t
d e s i g n , and e v a l u a t i o n of f r o s t heave. See Table 1 f o r t e s t s t a n d a r d s .

a. Grain-Size Parameters. C o e f f i c i e n t of u n i f o r m i t -y ,- C..,

u-
and c o e f f i -
c i e n t of c u r v a t u r e , C,, a r e computed from D60, D30, and D10, which a r e
p a r t i c l e s i z e diameter corresponding r e s p e c t i v e l y t o 60%, 30%, and 10% p a s s i n g-
on t h e cumulative p a r t i c l e size d i s t r i b u t i o n curves. Cu and CZ i n d i c a t e
t h e r e l a t i v e broadness o r narrowness of g r a d a t i o n . Dl0 i s a n approximate
measure of t h e s i z e of t h e void s p a c e s i n coarse-grained s o i l s . See Chapter
1.

b. T e s t i n g Program. Gradations of a l a r g e number of samples u s u a l l y a r e

not required for i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . Samples should be grouped i n p r i n c i p a l
s t r a t a by v i s u a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n b e f o r e performing g r a i n - s i z e a n a l y s e s on
specimens of major s t r a t a .

3. ATTERBERG LIMITS. For c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of t h e f i n e - g r a i n e d s o i l s by

A t t e r b e r g L i m i t s , s e e Chapter 1. I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e i r use i n s o i l c l a s s i f i -
c a t i o n , A t t e r b e r g L i m i t s a l s o a r e i n d i c a t o r s of s t r u c t u r a l p r o p e r t i e s , a s
shown i n the c o r r e l a t i o n s i n t h i s c h a p t e r . A t t e r b e r g Limit t e s t s should be
performed d i s c r i m i n a t e l y , and should be r e s e r v e d f o r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e samples
selected a f t e r evaluating subsoil pattern. Determine A t t e r b e r g L i m i t s of each
c o n s o l i d a t i o n t e s t sample and each s e t of samples grouped f o r t r i a x i a 2 s h e a r
tests. For s e l e c t e d b o r i n g s , determine A t t e r b e r g L i m i t s on samples a t r e g u l a r
v e r t i c a l i n t e r v a l s f o r a p r o f i l e of L i m i t s and corresponding n a t u r a l w a t e r
content. See Table 1 f o r t e s t s t a n d a r d s .

S e c t i o n 3. PERMEABILITY TESTS

1. APPLICATIONS. P e r m e a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t i s used t o compute t h e q u a n t i t y

and r a t e of water flow through s o i l s i n d r a i n a g e and seepage a n a l y s i s .
Laboratory t e s t s a r e a p p r o p r i a t e f o r undisturbed samples of fine-grained mate-
r i a l s and compacted nzaterials i n dams, f i l t e r s , o r d r a i n a g e s t r u c t u r e s . See
Table 2 f o r t e s t s t a n d a r d s and recommended procedures.

a . Fine-Grained S o i l s . P e r m e a b i l i t y of fine-grained s o i l s ( u n d i s t u r b e d
o r compacted) g e n e r a l l y i s computed from c o n s o l i d a t i o n t e s t d a t a o r by d i r e c t
measurement on c o n s o l i d a t i o n o r t r i a x i a l s h e a r specimens. For s o i l s w i t h
p e r m e a b i l i t y l e s s t h a n 1 0 ' ~ cm/sec, a s e a l a n t must be used between t h e
specimen and t h e w a l l of t h e permeameter.

b. Sand Drain Design. Sand d r a i n d e s i g n may r e q u i r e complete perme-

a b i l i t y d a t a f o r s o i l s t o be s t a b i l i z e d , i n c l u d i n g d e t e r m i n a t i o n of perme-
a b i l i t i e s i n both v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n .

c. F i e l d Permeability Tests. The secondary s t r u c t u r e of i n s i t u s o i l s ,

s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , and c r a c k s have a g r e a t i n f l u e n c e on t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y .
R e s u l t s of l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s should be i n t e r p r e t e d w i t h t h i s i n mind, and f i e l d
p e r m e a b i l i t y t e s t s (Chapter 2 ) should be performed where warranted.
2. TYPICAL VALUES. C o e f f i c i e n t of p e r m e a b i l i t y i s a p r o p e r t y h i g h l y s e n s i -
t i v e t o sample d i s t u r b a n c e , and shows a wide range of v a r i a t i o n due t o d i f f e r -
ences i n s t r u c t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . See Reference 14, S o i l Mechanics i n
Engineering P r a c t i c e , Terzaghi and Peck, f o r c o r r e l a t i o n s of p e r m e a b i l i t y w i t h
s o i l type. P e r m e a b i l i t y of c l e a n , coarse-grained samples i s r e l a t e d t o D1O
s i z e ( F i g u r e 1).

S e c t i o n 4. CONSOLIDATION TESTS

1. UTILIZATION. One-dimensional c o n s o l i d a t i o n tests with complete l a t e r a l

confinement a r e used t o determine t o t a l compression of fine-grained s o i l under
an a p p l i e d l o a d and t h e time r a t e of compression caused by g r a d u a l volume
d e c r e a s e t h a t accompanies t h e squeezing of pore water from t h e s o i l . See
Figure 2 f o r test r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

2. TESTING PROGRAM. Consolidat ion t e s t s r e q u i r e undisturbed samples of

highest quality. S e l e c t samples r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of p r i n c i p a l compressible
s t r a t a . Determination of c o n s o l i d a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a s t r a t u m r e q u i r e s
from two t o about e i g h t t e s t s , depending on t h e complexity of c o n d i t i o n s .
S e l e c t l o a d i n g program t o b r a c k e t a n t i c i p a t e d f i e l d l o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n s .

a. I n c r e m e n t a l Loading (IL) With S t r e s s Control. Ordinarily, apply

l o a d s s t a r t i n g a t 114 t s f and i n c r e a s e them by doubling 112, 1 , 2 , 4 , 8 , e t c . ,
tsf. For s o i l s with pronounced s w e l l i n g tendency, i t may be n e c e s s a r y t o
r a p i d l y i n c r e a s e l o a d i n g t o 112 t s f o r h i g h e r , perhaps t o overburden pres-
s u r e , t o prevent i n i t i a l swell. For s o f t , normally c o n s o l i d a t e d s o i l s , s t a r t
l o a d i n g a t 1/16 o r 1/32 t s f and i n c r e a s e l o a d s by doubling t h e previous value.
(See Reference 2.) To e s t a b l i s h t h e r e c o n s o l i d a t i o n index Cr, and s w e l l i n g
index Cs, i n c l u d e an unload-reload c y c l e , a f t e r PC has been reached.
Unload must be t o 118 t h e e x i s t i n g l o a d , o r p r e f e r a b l y l e s s . Reloads should
be a p p l i e d i n t h e same manner a s f o r t h e i n i t i a l curve.

b. Constant Rate of S t r a i n (CRS). The specimen i s s u b j e c t e d t o a con-

s t a n t l y changing l o a d while maintaining a c o n s t a n t r a t e of s t r a i n . Pore pres-
s u r e i s c o n t i n u o u s l y monitored t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e primary c o n s o l i d a t i o n i s
completed a t t h e a p p l i e d s t r a i n r a t e . These tests can be performed i n s h o r t e r
time than IL t e s t s and y i e l d more a c c u r a t e v a l u e s of p r e c o n s o l i d a t i o n p r e s s u r e
PC. C o e f f i c i e n t of c o n s o l i d a t i o n cv v a l u e s can be determined f o r v e r y
s m a l l load increments, b u t t h e t e s t equipment i s more complicated and r e q u i r e s
t h a t e s t i m a t e s of s t r a i n r a t e and PC be made p r i o r t o t h e s t a r t of t h e t e s t .
See Reference 15, C o n s o l i d a t i o n a t Constant Rate of S t r a i n , by Wissa, eiz a l . ,
f o r guidance.

c. Gradient C o n t r o l l e d T e s t (GC). Drainage i s permitted a t t h e upper

porous s t o n e while pore p r e s s u r e i s measured a t t h e lower porous s t o n e . A
l o a d i n g c o n t r o l system r e g u l a t e s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of l o a d so t h a t a p r e d e t e r -
mined h y d r o s t a t i c e x c e s s p r e s s u r e i s maintained a t t h e bottom of t h e specimen.
T h i s method a s w e l l a s CRS h a s s i m i l a r advantages over I L , b u t does n o t
r e q u i r e a p r i o r e s t i m a t e of s t r a i n r a t e . However, t h e equipment i s more
complex t h a n f o r CSR. See Reference 16, New Concepts i n C o n s o l i d a t i o n and
S e t t l e m e n t A n a l y s i s , by Lowe, f o r guidance.
 0.4 06 0.8 1.0
GRAIN SIZE, (DD),mm

FIGURE 1
Permeability of Sands and Sand-Gravel Mixtures
 PRESSURE (NATURAL SCALE)

4.BISECT W L E C A D (AB)

TIME (UX SCALE)

C

FIGURE 2
Consolidation Test Relationships
3. PRECONSOLIDATION PRESSURE. This p r e s s u r e v a l u e , PC, forms t h e boun-
dary between recompression and v i r g i n compression r a n g e s and i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y
t h e maximum normal e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s t o which t h e material i n s i t u has been
c o n s o l i d a t e d by a previous loading. D e s i c c c a t i o n produces a similar e f f e c t .
The p r e c o n s o l i d a t i o n p r e s s u r e cannot be determined p r e c i s e l y , b u t can be
estimated £ran c o n s o l i d a t i o n t e s t s on high q u a l i t y undisturbed samples.

a. Graphical Determination. Estimate p r e c o n s o l i d a t i o n p r e s s u r e from

semilogarithmic pressure-void r a t i o curve using t h e procedure given i n t h e
c e n t r a l panel of Figure 2. A l t e r n a t i v e methods a r e given i n Reference 17,
Foundation Engineering, by Leonards, and Reference 18, The Undisturbed
Consolidation of Clay, by Schmertmann. Maximum t e s t p r e s s u r e s should exceed
p r e c o n s o l i d a t l o n by an amount s u f f i c i e n t t o d e f i n e t h e s l o p e of v i r g i n com-
pression. Generally, t h i s r e q u i r e s a p p l i c a t i o n of t h r e e o r more l o a d i n c r e -
ments exceeding t h e p r e c o n s o l i d a t i o n value.

b. Approximate Values. See Figure 3 f o r a r e l a t i o n s h i p between precon-

s o l i d a t i o n p r e s s u r e and l i q u i d i t y index. For samples with n a t u r a l m o i s t u r e a t
t h e l i q u i d l i m i t ( l i q u i d i t y index of l ) , p r e c o n s o l i d a t i o n r a n g e s between about
0.1 and 0.8 t s f depending on s o i l s e n s i t i v i t y . For n a t u r a l m o i s t u r e a t t h e
p l a s t i c l i m i t ( l i q u i d i t y index e q u a l t o z e r o ) , p r e c o n s o l i d a t i o n r a n g e s from
about 12 t o 25 t s f .
4,/2
A l t e r n a t e l y e s t i m a t e : PC = 0.11 + 0.0037 pI , i n which qu i s
t h e unconfined compressive s t r e n g t h , and P I i s t h e s o i l p l a s t i c i t y index.

4. V I R G I N COMPRESSION. V i r g i n compression i s deformation caused by l o a d i n g

i n t h e range of p r e s s u r e s exceeding t h a t t o which t h e sample has been s u b j e c t -
ed i n the p a s t .

a . Compression Index. The semilogarithmic, pressure-void r a t i o c u r v e i s

roughly l i n e a r i n t h e v i r g i n range. The semilogarithmic, s t r a i g h t l i n e s l o p e
f o r v i r g i n compression i s expressed by t h e compression index Cc. (See
Figure 2.)

b. Approximate Values. The compression index of s i l t s , c l a y s , and

o r g a n i c s o i l s has been c o r r e l a t e d with t h e n a t u r a l water c o n t e n t , i n i t i a l void
r a t i o and t h e l i q u i d l i m i t . Approximate c o r r e l a t i o n s a r e given i n Chapter 5.
The approximate v a l u e s of Cc f o r uniform sands i n t h e load range of 1 t o 4
t s f may vary from 0.05 t o 0.06 ( l o o s e c o n d i t i o n ) , and from 0.02 t o 0.03 (dense
condition).

5. RECOMPRESSION AND SWELL. Depending on the magnitude of p r e c o n s o l i d a t i o n ,

p r e s s u r e s a p p l i e d by new c o n s t r u c t i o n may l i e p a r t l y o r wholly i n t h e recom-
p r e s s i o n range. 'I£ t h e load i s decreased by excavation, fine-grained s o i l
w i l l undergo a volumetric expansion i n t h e s t r e s s range below preconsolida-
tion.

a . Swelling Index. The s l o p e of s t r a i g h t - l i n e rebound of t h e semi-

l o g a r i t h m i c pressure-void r a t i o curve i s defined by C, ( s e e Figure 2). The
s w e l l i n g index i s g e n e r a l l y o n e - f i f t h t o one-tenth o f - t h e compression index
except f o r sails with very high s w e l l p o t e n t i a l . For t y p i c a l v a l u e s of Cs,
s e e Chapter 5.
 a.

+I.$,

-
#I

PRWNSOLIDATION PRESSURE (TSF)

4 i

FIGURE 3
Preconsolidation Pressure vs. ~ i ~ u i d Index
i t ~
 b. Recompression Index. The s l o p e of t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e i n t h e recom-
p r e s s i o n range of t h e semilogarithmic p r e s s we-void r a t i o curve i s d e f i n e d by
Cr, where Cr i s e q u a l t o o r less than Cs. (See Figure 2).

6. COMPRESSION OF COLLAPSIBLE SOILS. Such s o i l s r e q u i r e a s p e c i a l test f o r

determining t h e i r c o l l a p s e p o t e n t i a l . See Chapter 1 f o r t e s t d e t a i l s .

7. COEFFICIENT OF CONSOLIDATION (c,) .

Those s o i l p r o p e r t i e s t h a t c o n t r o l
t h e drainage r a t e of pore water d u r i n g c o n s o l i d a t i o n a r e combined i n t h e
c o e f f i c i e n t of c o n s o l i d a t i o n .

a. Determination. Compute cv from t h e semilogarithmic time-compres-

s i o n curve f o r a given load increment (bottom panel of Figure 2). C o r r e c t t h e
o r i g i n f o r compression f o r t h e e f f e c t of a i r o r g a s i n void s p a c e s by t h e
procedure given i n Reference 2.

b. Approximate Values. F i g u r e 4 may be used t o determine approximate

v a l u e s of c,.

8. SECONDARY COMPRESSION. A f t e r completion of primary c o n s o l i d a t i o n under a

s p e c i f i c l o a d , t h e semilogarithmic time-compression curve c o n t i n u e s approxi-
mately a s a s t r a i g h t l i n e . T h i s i s termed secondary compression ( F i g u r e 2 ) .
It occurs when t h e r a t e of compression i s no l o n g e r p r i m a r i l y c o n t r o l l e d by
t h e r a t e a t which pore water can e s c a p e ; t h e r e a r e no excess pore p r e s s u r e s
remaining .
a. Organic M a t e r i a l s . I n o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l s , secondary compression may
dominate t h e t ime-compres s i o n c u r v e , accounting f o r more t h a n one-half of t h e
t o t a l compression, o r even o b l i t e r a t i n g t h e change i n s l o p e used t o e s t a b l i s h
t h e l i m i t of primary compression.

b. Approximate Values. The c o e f f i c i e n t of secondary compression CQ i s

a r a t i o of d e c r e a s e i n sample h e i g h t t o i n i t i a l sample h e i g h t f o r one c y c l e of
time on l o g s c a l e . See bottom panel of F i g u r e 4 f o r t y p i c a l values.

9. SAMPLE DISTURBANCE. Sample d i s t u r b a n c e s e r i o u s l y a f f e c t s t h e v a l u e s

o b t a i n e d from c o n s o l i d a t i o n tests a s shown i n Figure 2 and below.

a . Void R a t i o . Sample d i s t u r b a n c e lowers t h e void r a t i o reached under

any a p p l i e d p r e s s u r e and makes t h e l o c a t i o n of t h e p r e c o n s o l i d a t i o n stress
less distinct.

b. P r e c o n s o l i d a t i o n P r e s s u r e . Sample d i s t u r b a n c e t e n d s t o lower t h e
compression index (Cc) and t h e p r e c o n s o l i d a t i o n p r e s s u r e (PC) o b t a i n e d
from t h e t e s t curve.

c. Recompression and Swelling. Sample d i s t u r b a n c e i n c r e a s e s t h e recom-

p r e s s i o n and s w e l l i n g i n d i c e s .

d. C o e f f i c i e n t of Consolidstion. Sample d i s t u r b a n c e d e c r e a s e s c o e f f i c i -
e n t of c o n s o l i d a t i o n f o r both recompression and v i r g i n compression. For a n
undisturbed sample, cv u s u a l l y d e c r e a s e s a b r u p t l y a t p r e c o n s o l i d a t i o n
stress. T h i s t r e n d i s not p r e s e n t i n badly d i s t u r b e d samples.
 COEFFICIENT OF CONSOLIDATION
9-

LIQUID LIMIT (LL)

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 400

NATURAL WATER CONTENT (%)

FIGURE 4
Approximate Correlations for Consolidation Characteristics
of S i l t s and Clays

7.1-144
 e . C o e f f i c i e n t of Secondary Compression. Sample d i s t u r b a n c e t e n d s t o
decrease t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of secondary compression i n v i r g i n compression
l o a d i n g range.

S e c t i o n 5. SHEAR STRENGTH TESTS

1. UTILIZATION. The shear s t r e n g t h of s o i l i s r e q u i r e d f o r t h e a n a l y s i s of

a l l foundation and earthwork s t a b i l i t y problems. Shear s t r e n g t h can be d e t e r -
mined by l a b o r a t o r y and f i e l d t e s t s , and by approximate c o r r e l a t i o n s w i t h
g r a i n s i z e , water c o n t e n t , d e n s i t y , and p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e .

2. TYPES OF SHEAR TESTS. Many t y p e s and v a r i a t i o n s of s h e a r t e s t s have been

developed. I n most of t h e s e t e s t s t h e r a t e of deformation i s c o n t r o l l e d and
t h e r e s u l t i n g l o a d s a r e measured. I n some t e s t s t o t a l s t r e s s parameters a r e
determined, w h i l e i n o t h e r s e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s s t r e n g t h parameters a r e o b t a i n e d .
See Chapter 4 f o r a d i s c u s s i o n of t o t a l and e f f e c t i v e stress concepts. The
following a r e t h e most widely used t e s t i n g procedures:

a . D i r e c t Shear Test. A t h i n s o i l sample i s placed i n a s h e a r . box con-

s i s t i n g of two p a r a l l e l blocks. The lower block i s f i x e d while t h e upper
block i s moved p a r a l l e l t o i t i n a h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n . The s o i l f a i l s by
s h e a r i n g along a plane assumed t o be h o r i z o n t a l .

This t e s t i s r e l a t i v e l y e a s y t o per form. Consolidated-drained t e s t s

c a n be performed on s o i l s of low p e r m e a b i l i t y i n a s h o r t period of time as
compared t o t h e t r i a x i a l t e s t . However, t h e stress, s t r a i n , and d r a i n a g e con-
d i t i o n s d u r i n g s h e a r a r e not a s a c c u r a t e l y understood o r c o n t r o l l e d a s i n t h e
triaxial test.

b. Unconfined Compression Test. A c y l i n d r i c a l sample i s loaded i n com-

p r e s s i o n . Generally f a i l u r e occurs along diagonal p l a n e s where t h e g r e a t e s t
r a t i o of s h e a r s t r e s s t o shear s t r e n g t h occurs. Very s o f t m a t e r i a l may n o t
show d i a g o n a l planes of f a i l u r e b u t g e n e r a l l y i s assumed t o have f a i l e d when
t h e a x i a l s t r a i n h a s reached a value of 20 percent. The unconfined compres-
s i o n test i s performed o n l y on cohesive s o i l samples. The cohesion ( c ) i s
taken a s one-half t h e unconfined compressive s t r e n g t h .

c. T r i a x i a l Compression Test. A c y l i n d r i c a l sample i s confined by a

membrane and l a t e r a l p r e s s u r e i s a p p l i e d ; pore water d r a i n a g e i s c o n t r o l l e d
throLgh t u b i n g connected t o porous- d i s c s - a t t h e ends of the-sample. The
t r i a x i a l t e s t ( F i g u r e 5 ) permits t e s t i n g under a v a r i e t y of l o a d i n g and
d r a i n a g e c o n d i t i o n s and a l s o a l l o w s measurement of pore water pressure. For
d e t a i l s on t e s t i n g procedures, s e e Reference 2. T r i a x i a l shear t e s t
r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e shown g r a p h i c a l l y i n Figure 6.

( 1 ) Unconsolidated-Undrained (UU) o r Quick T e s t (Q). I n t h e UU test

t h e i n i t i a l water c o n t e n t of t h e t e s t specimen i s n o t permitted t o change
during s h e a r i n g of t h e specimen.
 PORE WATER
PRESSURE u

CHAMBER
PRESSURE I)
=3

I
PORE*
WATER
=I PRESSURE u

DEVIATOR PRESSURE (DEVELOPED

CONSOL1DATED TESTS
I I I
UNCONSOLIDATED
UNDRAINED TEST
CONSOLIDATION
PHASE 1 -
HELD CONSTANT HELD CONSTANT HELD CONSTANT HELD CONSTANT

GRADUALLY
INCREASED
FROM Us
EWAL Tt) c3*
1 GRADUALLY
INCREASED
VERY GRADUALLY
INCREASED
FROM Us

DRAINAGE LINES DRAINAGE LINES 1 NO WATER DRAINAGE LINES

CLOSED OPEN rrt* PERMITTED TO OPEN
I ESCAPE.
PORE PRESSURE
MEASURED FOR
1 EFFECTIVE
STRESS TESTS.

* UNLESS ANISOTROPIC CONSOLIDATION IS TO BE EFFECTED

**IN BACK PRESSURED TESTS, PRESSURE IS SUPPLIED TO
PORE LINES, BUT DRAINAGE IS PERMITTED

FIGURE 5
Triaxial Apparatus Schematic
. >

b
MOHR PLOT OF UU f ESTS

MWR ENVELOPE UU TESTS

NORMAL STRESS (u)

MOHR PLDT OF CU TEST

(WITHOUT PORE PRESSUREM A )

u3~ Oh Use NORMAL STRESS ( U )

A MOHR P U T OF CU TEST MOHR EFFECTWE SS-
(WITH PORE PRESSURE DATA) ENVEWE FOR CU TEST
C (ALSO REPRESENTATIVE
OF CD TEST DATA
APPROXIMATE

-
NORMAL STRESS ( a
rn
W
rn
rn
W K t LINE FOR EFFECTIVE
m
k, I STRESSES. SIN +'=TAN6"
-J STRESS- PATH PLDT OF
i-
T
0 a!xsI
z (WITH POk PRESSURE DATA)

W 0

-
AVERAGE EFFECTIVE PRINCIPAL STRESS
p= %3
2
t

FIGURE 6
Triaxial Shear T g s t Relationships
7.1-147
 The s h e a r s t r e n g t h of s o i l a s determined i n UU t e s t s cor-
responds t o t o t a l s t r e s s , and i s a p p l i c a b l e o n l y t o s i t u a t i o n s where l i t t l e
c o n s o l i d a t i o n o r d r a i n a g e can occur d u r i n g shearing. It i s a p p l i c a b l e
p r i m a r i l y t o s o i l s having a p e r m e a b i l i t y l e s s t h a n 1 0 ' ~ cm per sec.

( 2 ) Consolidated-Undrained (CU) o r R Test. In t h e CU t e s t , complete

c o n s o l i d a t i o n of t h e t e s t specimen i s permitted under t h e c o n f i n i n g p r e s s u r e ,
but no d r a i n a g e i s permitted d u r i n g shear. A minimum of t h r e e t e s t s i s
r e q u i r e d t o d e f i n e s t r e n g t h parameters c and 0 , though four test specimens
a r e p r e f e r a b l e with one s e r v i n g a s a check. Specimens must a s a g e n e r a l r u l e
be completely s a t u r a t e d b e f o r e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e d e v i a t o r s t r e s s . F u l l
s a t u r a t i o n i s achieved by back pressure. Pore water p r e s s u r e i s measured
d u r i n g t h e CU t e s t , t h u s p e r m i t t i n g d e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s
parameters c' and 0'. In t h e absence of pore p r e s s u r e measurements CU t e s t s
can provide o n l y t o t a l stress v a l u e s c and 0.

( 3 ) Consolidated-Drained (CD) o r S T e s t . In t h e CD t e s t , complete

c o n s o l i d a t i o n of t h e t e s t speciman i s permitted under t h e c o n f i n i n g p r e s s u r e
and d r a i n a g e i s p e r m i t t e d during s h e a r . The r a t e of s t r a i n i s c o n t r o l l e d t o
prevent t h e build-up of pore p r e s s u r e i n t h e specimen. A minimum of t h r e e
t e s t s a r e r e q u i r e d f o r c' and 0' d e t e r m i n a t i o n . CD tests a r e g e n e r a l l y
performed on w e l l d r a i n i n g s o i l s . For slow d r a i n i n g s o i l s , s e v e r a l weeks may
b e r e q u i r e d t o perform a CD t e s t .

( 4 ) F a c t o r s A f f e c t i n g T e s t s . T r i a x i a l t e s t r e s u l t s must be
a p p r o p r i a t e l y c o r r e c t e d f o r membrane s t i f f n e s s , p i s t o n f r i c t i o n , and f i l t e r
d r a i n s , whenever a p p l i c a b l e . The s h e a r s t r e n g t h of s o f t s e n s i t i v e s o i l s i s
g r e a t l y af f e c t e d by sample d i s t u r b a n c e . The l a b o r a tory-measured s h e a r
s t r e n g t h of d i s t u r b e d samples w i l l be lower than t h e in-place s t r e n g t h i n t h e
c a s e of UU tests. In t h e c a s e of CU o r CD t e s t s , t h e s t r e n g t h may be h i g h e r
because of t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n permitted.

d. Other Procedures. In c e r t a i n i n s t a n c e s , more s o p h i s t i c a t e d tests a r e

warranted. These may i n c l u d e t r i a x i a l s with zero l a t e r a l s t r a i n c o n d i t i o n s ,
simple s h e a r t e s t s , and t e s t s inducing a n i s o t r o p i c s t r e s s c o n d i t i o n s .

3. TEST SELECTION. I n determining t h e type of test t o be employed, consid-

e r a t i o n s must be given t o s o i l type and t h e a p p l i c a t i o n s f o r which t h e t e s t
d a t a is required. (See Chapter 4 f o r a d i s c u s s i o n of t o t a l and e f f e c t i v e
stress concepts.)

a. S o i l Type.

( 1 ) Clean Sands and Gravels. Undisturbed samples a r e very d i f -

f i c u l t t o o b t a i n and test p r o p e r l y , t h e r e f o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d s h e a r t e s t s a r e
usually impractical. For simple f o u n d a t i o n problems, t h e a n g l e of i n t e r n a l
f r i c t i o n can be s a t i s f a c t o r i l y approximated by c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h p e n e t r a t i o n
r e s i s t a n c e , r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y , and s o i l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ( F i g u r e 7 ) . Conf irma-
t i o n of t h e p o t e n t i a l range of t h e a n g l e of i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n can be o b t a i n e d
from s h e a r tests on t h e sample a t l a b o r a t o r y d e n s i t i e s b r a c k e t i n g c o n d i t i o n s
a n t i c i p a t e d i n t h e f i e l d . For e a r t h dam and high embankment work where t h e
s o i l w i l l be placed under c o n t r o l l e d c o n d i t i o n s , t r i a x i a l compression tests
a r e warranted.
 _I

ANGLE OF INTERNAL FRICTION

VS DENSITY
(FOR COARSE GRAINED SOILS )

EFFECTIVE STRESS
FAILURE ENVELOPES
APPROXIMATE CORRELATION
IS FOR C0HESK)NLESS
y 25- MATERIALS WITHOUT -
(3 PLASTIC FINES
z
4

20 -
75 80 90 100 110
1

120 130 140

b

!!XI
. DRY UNIT WEIGHT (yD), PCF

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 1 I 1 1 I 1 1 1
1.2 1.1 10
. 0.9 Q 8 0 7 5 0 . 7 5 5 0 5 0 5 5 a5 0116 0.4 Q35 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15
VOID RATl0,t
1 I I I I I I 1 J
0.55 0.5 045 0.4 0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15
POROSITY, n
(6-2.68)

FIGURE 7
Correlations of Strength Characteristics for Granular Soils
 ( 2 ) Clays. For simple t o t a l stress a p p l i c a t i o n s where t h e immediate
s t a b i l i t y of f o u n d a t i o n s o r embankments i s of concern, t h e unconfined compres-
s i o n t e s t o r UU t r i a x i a l t e s t i s o f t e n adequate (Chapter 1 ) . For v e r y s o f t o r
s e n s i t i v e s o i l s , d i f f i c u l t t o sample, t h e f i e l d vane t e s t (Chapter 2 ) i s use-
f u l . For long-term s t a b i l i t y problems r e q u i r i n g e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s a n a l y s i s ,
such a s l a n d s l i d e s , CU t r i a x i a l tests with pore p r e s s u r e measurements should
be used. Long-term s t a b i l i t y problems i n some h i g h l y o v e r c o n s o l i d a t e d c l a y s
may r e q u i r e t h e CD t e s t ( s e e Reference 19, S t a b i l i t y of N a t u r a l S l o p e s and
Embankment Foundations State-of-the-Art Report, by Skempton and Hutchinson).

( 3 ) S i l t s and Mixed S o i l s . The c h o i c e of t e s t i s governed by

whether t o t a l stress a n a l y s i s o r e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s a n a l y s i s i s a p p l i c a b l e . In
c a s e s of v e r y s o f t s i l t s , such a s i n marine d e p o s i t s , t h e in-place vane s h e a r
t e s t i s e s p e c i a l l y h e l p f u l i n e v a l u a t i n g t h e s h e a r s t r e n g t h and i t s i n c r e a s e
w i t h depth. For some t h i n l y l a y e r e d s o i l s , such a s varved c l a y , d i r e c t s h e a r
t e s t s o r simple s h e a r t e s t s a r e w e l l s u i t e d f o r determining t h e s t r e n g t h of
t h e i n d i v i d u a l l a y e r s . Where p a r t i a l d r a i n a g e i s a n t i c i p a t e d , use CU tests
with pore water p r e s s u r e measurements t o o b t a i n e f f e c t i v e s t r e n g t h parameters.

( 4 ) Overconsolidated S o i l s . F r e q u e n t l y o v e r c o n s o l i d a t e d s o i l s have
d e f e c t s such a s j o i n t i n g , f i s s u r e s , e t c . The l a b o r a t o r y v a l u e s of s t r e n g t h
which a r e o b t a i n e d from a small t e s t specimen a r e g e n e r a l l y h i g h e r than t h e
f i e l d s t r e n g t h v a l u e s which a r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e e n t i r e s o i l mass.

The r e l e a s e of stress due t o e x c a v a t i o n and exposure t o weather-

ing reduces s t r e n g t h over a long period of t i m e . This e f f e c t cannot be
a s s e s s e d by any of t h e l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s c u r r e n t l y i n use. Most over-
c o n s o l i d a t e d c l a y s a r e a n i s o t r o p i c and t h e degree of a n i s o t r o p y may a l s o b e
i n f l u e n c e d by t h e i r age. E f f e c t of a n i s o t r o p y can be determined i n t h e
laboratory.

I n h i g h l y overconsolidated s o i l which may n o t be f u l l y s a t u r a t -

e d , u n u s u a l l y h i g h back p r e s s u r e may be n e c e s s a r y t o a c h i e v e f u l l s a t u r a t i o n ,
t h u s making i t d i f f i c u l t t o perform CU t e s t s . CD t e s t s a r e more a p p r o p r i a t e .

( 1 ) T o t a l S t r e s s Analysis. It i s a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e immediate
( d u r i n g and end of c o n s t r u c t i o n ) s a f e t y of f o u n d a t i o n s and s t r u c t u r e s (embank-
ments) c o n s i s t i n g of o r r e s t i n g on c l a y s where p e r m e a b i l i t y i s low. It i s
a l s o a p p l i c a b l e t o embankment s t a b i l i t y where r a p i d drawdown can occur. Use of
unconfined compression tests o r UU t e s t i s a p p r o p r i a t e . Sample d i s t u r b a n c e
h a s s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on shear s t r e n g t h i n t h e s e t y p e s of tests.

( 2 ) E f f e c t i v e S t r e s s Analysis. E v a l u a t i o n of long-term s t a b i l i t y of
s l o p e s , embankments, and e a r t h s u p p o r t i n g s t r u c t u r e s i n c o h e s i v e s o i l r e q u i r e s
t h e use of e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s s t r e n g t h parameters, and t h e r e f o r e CU t e s t s w i t h
pore water p r e s s u r e measurements o r CD t e s t s a r e a p p r o p r i a t e . T e s t s must b e
run a t a slow enough s t r a i n r a t e so t h a t pore p r e s s u r e s a r e e q u a l i z e d during
t h e CU t e s t o r a r e d i s s i p a t e d throughout t h e CD t e s t . E s s e n t i a l l y a l l
a n a l y s e s of g r a n u l a r s o i l s a r e made using e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s .
 ( 3 ) S t r e s s P a t h Method. The s t r e s s p a t h method i s based on model-
l i n g t h e g e o l o g i c a l and h i s t o r i c a l s t r e s s c o n d i t i o n s a s t h e y a r e known t o
i n f l u e n c e s o i l behavior. To apply t h e method, s t r e s s h i s t o r y i s determined
and f u t u r e s t r e s s e s a r e computed based on a c t u a l c o n s t r u c t i o n plans. The
s t r e s s e s a r e modelled i n a s e t of t r i a x i a l o r ;imilar s t r e n g t h t e s t s ( s e e
Figure 61. Details of t h i s procedure a r e found i n ~ e f e r e n c e20, S t r e s s P a t h
Method, Second E d i t l o n , by Lambe and Marr.

S e c t i o n 6. DYNAMIC TESTING

.l. UTILIZATION. C a p a b i l i t i e s of dynamic s o i l t e s t i n g methods and t h e i r

s u i t a b i l i t y f o r v a r i o u s motion c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e shown i n Table 7 (from
Reference 10). Dynamic t e s t i n g i s needed f o r l o o s e g r a n u l a r s o i l s and s o f t
s e n s i t i v e c l a y s i n earthquake a r e a s , f o r machine foundation d e s i g n , and f o r
impact loadings. Only a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i o n of t e s t s follows. For f u r t h e r
guidance on t e s t i n g procedures, s e e References 10 and 11.

2. RESONANT COLUMN TEST. The r e s o n a n t column t e s t c o n s i s t s of t h e a p p l i c a -

t i o n of s i n u s o i d a l v i b r a t i o n t o one end (termed t h e a c t i v e end) of a s o l i d o r
hollow c y l i n d r i c a l s o i l specimen. The o t h e r end i s known as t h e p a s s i v e end.
Compression waves o r shear waves a r e propagated through t h e s o i l specimen t o
determine e i t h e r Young's modulus (Es) o r s h e a r modulus (G). Moduli a r e
computed from t h e resonant frequency of t h e c y l i n d e r . For example, i n t h e
c a s e where p a s s i v e end p l a t e n i s f i x e d , t h e lowest frequency f o r which t h e
e x c i t a t i o n f o r c e i s i n phase with t h e v e l o c i t y a t t h e a c t i v e end i s termed t h e
resonant frequency. Damping i s determined by t u r n i n g o f f t h e e x c i t a t i o n a t
r e s o n a n t frequency and recording t h e decaying v i b r a t i o n .

3. CYCLIC TESTS. C u r r e n t l y , t h e s e a r e t h e most commonly used methods of

e v a l u a t i n g t h e Young's modulus, s h e a r modulus, damping, and l i q u e f a c t i o n
p o t e n t i a l of coarse-grained s o i l s .

a. C y c l i c T r i a x i a l Compression Test. I n t r i a x i a l t e s t i n g of s a t u r a t e d
s o i l s , c e l l p r e s s u r e i s maintained c o n s t a n t while t h e a x i a l s t r e s s i s v a r i e d .

b. C y c l i c Simple Shear Test. Simple s h e a r equipment has a l s o found wide

use i n c y c l i c t e s t i n g . The non-uniform s t r e s s c o n d i t i o n s i n simple s h e a r may
cause f a i l u r e a t a lower s t r e s s than t h a t which would cause f a i l u r e i n s i t u .
Measurement o r c o n t r o l of l a t e r a l p r e s s u r e i s d i f f i c u l t i n simple s h e a r t e s t s .

c. C y c l i c T o r s i o n a l Shear. Cyclic t o r s i o n a l simple s h e a r t e s t s on hol-

low samples o f f e r t h e c a p a b i l i t y of measuring l a t e r a l c o n f i n i n g pressure. I n
hollow c y l i n d e r s s t r e s s e s w i t h i n t h e specimen a r e more uniform, though t h e
specimens a r e d i f f i c u l t t o produce. Also, tapered hollow c y c l i n d e r s have been
used i n t o r s i o n a l c y c l i c t e s t s .
 TABLE 7
Capabilities of Dynamic Testing Apparatus
- 9

SHEARING STRAIN AMPLITUDE(O/OI

K)-4 ~)'3 (42 0-1 I
1 I I
I
pESQNANT COUIMNlF..D SAMPLE)

, RESONANT COUlMN (HOLLOW SAMPLE)

ULlUAqNK: PULSE
CYCLIC TRlAXlAL

CYCLIC SlMPLE SHEAR

-

1 I I I I I J
TYPICAL M(mON -RISTK;S X INDICATE THE PROPERTIES
STRONG C-IN T HAT CAN BE DETERMINED.

10-4 10-3 10-2 0-1 I

 d. F a c t o r s A f f e c t i n g T e s t s . Various t e s t i n g and m a t e r i a l f a c t o r s t h a t
may a f f e c t c y c l i c s t r e n g t h a s determined i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y a r e method o f
specimen p r e p a r a t i o n , d i f f e r e n c e between r e c o n s t i t u t e d and i n t a c t specimens,
p r e s t r e s s i n g , l o a d i n g wave form, g r a i n s i z e and g r a d a t i o n , e t c . For d e t a i l s
on c y c l i c t e s t i n g , s e e Reference 21, A Review of F a c t o r s A f f e c t i n g C y c l i c
T r i a x i a l T e s t s , by Townsend. For t h e n a t u r e of s o i l behavior under v a r i o u s
t y p e s of dynamic t e s t i n g s e e Reference 22, The Nature of S t r e s s - S t r a i n
Behavior f o r S o i l s , by Hardin.

4. EMPIRICAL INDICATORS. The e m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s given h e r e a r e t o b e

used o n l y a s i n d i c a t o r s and n o t i n f i n a l design. Design i n v o l v i n g dynamic
p r o p e r t i e s pf s o i l must be done o n l y under t h e d i r e c t i o n of experienced per-
sonnel.

a. Shear Modulus. I n t h e absence of dynamic tests i n i t i a l e s t i m a t e s of

s h e a r modulus, G , may be made using t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s found i n Reference 23,
Shear Modulus and Damping i n S o i l s : Design Equations and Curves, by Hardin
and Drnevich, and Reference 24, S o i l Moduli and Damping F a c t o r s f o r Dynamic
Response Analyses, by Seed and I d r i s s .

b. P o i s s o n ' s Ratio. Values of P o i s s o n ' s r a t i o (V ) a r e g e n e r a l l y d i f -

f i c u l t t o e s t a b l i s h a c c u r a t e l y . For most p
- rojects,
-
t h e v a l u e does n o t a f f e c t
t h e response of t h e s t r u c t u r e s u f f i c i e n t l y t o warrant a g r e a t d e a l of e f f o r t
i n t h e i r determination. For c o h e s i o n l e s s s o i l s , V = 0.25 and f o r c o h e s i v e
s o i l s V = 0.33 a r e considered reasonable assumptions. See Reference 25,
Foundation V i b r a t i o n , by Richart.

c. L i q u e f a c t i o n of Coarse-Grained S o i l s . L i q u e f a c t i o n has u s u a l l y
occurred i n r e l a t i v e l y uniform m a t e r i a l w i t h D1O ranging between 0.01 and
0.25 mm, Cu between 2 and 10, and s t a n d a r d p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e l e s s t h a n
25 blows per f o o t . L i q u e f a c t i o n i s more l i k e l y t o be t r i g g e r e d by h i g h e r
v e l o c i t y t h a n by higher a c c e l e r a t i o n . These c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s may be used as a
guide i n determining t h e need f o r dynamic t e s t i n g . The p o t e n t i a l i n f l u e n c e of
l o c a l s o i l . c o n d i t i o n s ( d e p t h of s t r a t u m , d e p t h of groundwater t a b l e , v a r i a t i o n
i n s o i l d e n s i t y , e t c . ) on shaking and damage i n t e n s i t y must be c a r e f u l l y
evaluated. See References 26, Earthquake E f f e c t s on S o i l Foundation Systems,
by Seed, and Reference 27, A P r a c t i c a l Method f o r Assessing S o i l L i q u e f a c t i o n
P o t e n t i a l Based on Case S t u d i e s a t Various S i t e s i n Japan, by Iwasaki, e t al.
A surcharge reduces t h e tendency of a d e p o s i t t o l i q u e f y .

S e c t i o n 7. TESTS ON COMPACTED SOILS

1. UTILIZATION. Compaction i s used t o d e n s i f y s o i l s d u r i n g placement t o

minimize post-construction c o n s o l i d a t i o n and t o improve s t r e n g t h c h a r a c t e r i s -
t i c s . Compaction c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e determined by m o i s t u r e d e n s i t y t e s t i n g ;
s t r u c t u r a l and s u p p o r t i n g c a p a b i l i t i e s a r e evaluated by a p p r o p r i a t e t e s t s on
samples of compacted s o i l .

2. MOISTURE-DENSITY RELATIONSHIPS. The P r o c t o r t e s t o r a v a r i a t i o n i s

employed i n determining t h e moisture-density r e l a t i o n s h i p . For c o h e s i o n l e s s
s o i l s , R e l a t i v e Density methods may be more a p p r o p r i a t e .
 a. S t a n d a r d P r o c t o r T e s t . Use s t a n d a r d P r o c t o r t e s t s f o r o r d i n a r y
embankment compaction c o n t r o l . I n preparing f o r c o n t r o l , o b t a i n a family of
compaction c u r v e s r e p r e s e n t i n g p r i n c i p a l borrow m a t e r i a l s .

b. Modified P r o c t o r T e s t . S p e c i a l l y a p p l i c a b l e t o e i t h e r a h e a v i l y com-
pacted b a s e c o u r s e o r a subgrade f o r a i r f i e l d pavement and may a l s o be u s e d
f o r mass earthwork.

c . R e l a t i v e D e n s i t y of C o h e s i o n l e s s S o i l s . P r o c t o r t e s t s a r e o f t e n d i f -
f i c u l t t o c o n t r o l f o r f r e e - d r a i n i n g c o h e s i o n l e s s s o i l s and may g i v e e r r a t i c
compaction c u r v e s o r d e n s i t y s u b s t a n t i a l l y l e s s t h a n t h o s e p r o v i d e d by o r d i -
n a r y compaction i n t h e f i e l d ( s e e Referepce 28, S o i l Mechanics, by Lambe a n d
Whitman). Thus, r e l a t i v e d e n s i t y methods may be p r e f e r r e d . T e s t s f o r maximum
and minimum d e n s i t i e s should be done i n accordance w i t h AS'IM'Standard D2049,
R e l a t i v e D e n s i t y of C o h e s i o n l e s s S o i l s ( T a b l e 3 ) .

3. STRUCTURAL PROPERTIES. S t r u c t u r a l p r o p e r t i e s of c o m p a c t e d - f i l l mate-

r i a l s c l a s s i f i e d i n t h e U n i f i e d System a r e l i s t e d i n DM-7.2, Chapter 2, T a b l e
1.

4. CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO (CBR).. T h i s t e s t procedure c o v e r s t h e evalua-

t i o n of s u b g r a d e , s u b b a s e , and b a s e c o u r s e m a t e r i a l s f o r pavement d e s i g n f o r
highways and a i r f i e l d s . The r e s i s t a n c e of a compacted s o i l t o t h e g r a d u a l
p e n e t r a t i o n of a c y l i n d r i c a l p i s t o n w i t h 3 s q u a r e i n c h e s i n a r e a i s measured.
The l o a d r e q u i r e d t o c a u s e e i t h e r 0.1 i n c h o r 0.2 i n c h p e n e t r a t i o n of t h e
p i s t o n i s compared t o t h a t e s t a b l i s h e d f o r a s t a n d a r d compacted c r u s h e d s t o n e
t o o b t a i n t h e b e a r i n g r a t i o . ( S e e DM-21.3 f o r approximate r e l a t i o n s h i p s
between s o i l t y p e and CBR.) For guidance f o r d e s i g n of s u b b a s e and b a s e s , s e e
DM-5 and DM-21.3.

S e c t i o n 8. TESTS ON ROCK

1. STRUCTURAL TESTS. Standard methods of t e s t i n g r o c k i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y f o r

s t r u c t u r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e o n l y f o r i n t a c t rock. See T a b l e 8 f o r t e s t i n g
procedures. Behavior of i n s i t u r o c k , which t y p i c a l l y h a s bedding p l a n e s ,
j o i n t s , e t c . , and may c o n t a i n d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s f i l l e d w i t h weaker m a t e r i a l , i s
found t o be v e r y d i f f e r e n t from t h a t of i n t a c t r o c k , I n s i t u t e s t s of j o i n t
s t r e n g t h s and c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y a r e , t h e r e f o r e , more a p p r o p r i a t e . See C h a p t e r s
1 and 2 f o r rock and r o c k j o i n t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s and i n s i t u measurements of
t h e i r properties. The u s e of d a t a from l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s f o r b e a r i n g and
s e t t l e m e n t c a l c u l a t i o n s of s h a l l o w and deep f o u n d a t i o n s i s shown i n DM-7.2,
C h a p t e r s 4 and 5. F a c t o r s which c o r r e l a t e i n t a c t r o c k sample p a r a m e t e r s t o
r e a l i s t i c f i e l d p a r a m e t e r s a r e RQD (Rock Q u a l i t y D e s i g n a t i o n ) o r t h e r a t i o s of
f i e l d v a l u e s t o l a b o r a t o r y v a l u e s of compression o r s h e a r wave v e l o c i t i e s ( s e e
C h a p t e r s 1 and 2 ) .

F-7References
3n This Pagc
 TABLE 8
Test Procedures f o r I n t a c t Rock

Reference
for
Standard
Test ~rocedure(a) S i z e of Sample f o r T e s t

Unconfined compressive ( 1 , ASTM D2938) Right c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r w i t h

s t r e n g t h of c o r e l e n g t h t o diameter r a t i o of 2
specimen t o 2.5, and a diameter n o t l e s s
than 2 inches.

E l a s t i c c o n s t a n t s of c o r e ( 1 , ASTM D3148) Right c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r w i t h

specimen l e n g t h t o diameter r a t i o of 2
t o 2.5.

Direct t e n s i l e strength ( 1 , ASTM D2936) Right c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r w i t h

of i n t a c t rock c o r e l e n g t h t o diameter r a t i o of 2
specimen t o 2.5.

T r i a x i a l s t r e n g t h of ( 1 , ASTM D2664) Right c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r w i t h

c o r e specimen l e n g t h t o diameter r a t i o of 2
t o 2.5.

Dynamic p r o p e r t i e s of ( 1 , ASTM D2845) V a r i a b l e , dependent on proper-

c o r e specimen a t small t i e s of specimen and test
strains apparatus.

(a) Number i n p a r e n t h e s i s i n d i c a t e s Reference number.

2. ROCK QUALITY TESTS.

a . Standards. Q u a l i t y i s normally e v a l u a t e d by v i s u a l examination of

t h e s t a t e of weathering and number and c o n d i t i o n of d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s . RQD
provides the best c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e b a s i s f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g o v e r a l l rock
q u a l i t y . See Chapter 1 f o r a d d i t i o n a l guidance r e g a r d i n g t h e e v a l u a t i o n of
r o c k q u a l i t y using RQD. R e l a t i v e measurements of rock q u a l i t y can be made by
comparing r a t i o s of f i e l d v a l u e s of compression o r s h e a r wave v e l o c i t i e s t o
l a b o r a t o r y v a l u e s ( s e e Chapters 1 and 2 ) .

b. Aggregate Tests. While i n t e n d e d f o r roadway c o n s t r u c t i o n and a s p h a l t

and c o n c r e t e a g g r e g a t e s , t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l s t a n d a r d tests which provide
methods f o r m e a s u r i n g c e r t a i n a s p e c t s of rock q u a l i t y ( s e e Table 9 ) .
 TABLE 9
T e s t Procedures f o r Aggregate

Reference
for
Standard
Test ~rocedure(a) A p p l i c a b i l i t y t o Rock Cores

Weathering r e s i s t a n c e . ( 1 , ASTM C88) Applicable i n p r i n c i p l e , c a n be

used d i r e c t l y by f r a c t u r i n g
core.

V i s u a l e v a l u a t i o n of rock ( 1 , ASTM C295) Direct.

quality.

Resistance t o f r e e z i n g . ( 1 , ASTM C666) Applicable i n p r i n c i p l e ; b u t

o n l y w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t procedure
changes.

Hardness . ( 1 , ASTM C851) .Direct.

(a) Number i n p a r e n t h e s i s i n d i c a t e s Reference number.

 REFERENCES

1. American S o c i e t y f o r T e s t i n g and M a t e r i a l s , Annual Book of ASTM -

Standards, P a r t 19 - - -

Natural B u i l d i n g Stone, S o i l and ~ o c k ,P e a t ,

Mosses, and Humus; P a r t 14 - Concrete and Mineral Aggregates; P a r t 4
- S t r u c t u r a l S t e e l , ASTM, P h i l a d e l p h i a , Pennsylvania.

2. Lambe, T.W., S o i l T e s t i n g f o r Engineers, John Wiley, New York, 1951.

3. Bishop, A.W., and Henkel, D.J. The Measurement of S o i l P r o p e r t i e s i n

t h e T r i a x i a l T e s t , Edward Arnold, L t d , London, 1962.

4. O f f i c e of t h e Chief of Engineers, Laboratory S o i l s T e s t i n g , Department

of the Army, Engineering Manual EM 1110-2-1906, Washington, D.C., 1970.

5. American S o c i e t y of Agronomy and t h e American S o c i e t y f o r T e s t i n g ' a n d

M a t e r i a l s , Methods of S o i l Analysis, Chemical and M i c r o b i o l o g i c a l
P r o p e r t i e s , P a r t 2, Black, C.A., ed., American S o c i e t y of Agronomy,
Inc., Mailison, W I , 1965.

6. National ,Bureau of Standards, Underground Corrosion, C i r c u l a r C450,

United S t a t e s Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e .

7. American A s s o c i a t i o n of S t a t e Highway and T r a n s p 6 r t a t i o n O f f i c i a l s ,

Standard S p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r ~ r a n s ~ o r t a t i oMna t e r i a l s and Methods of
Sampling and T e s t i n g , P a r t 11, AASHTO, Washington, D.C., 1978.

8. Jennings, J.E. and Knight, K., A Guide t o C o n s t r u c t i o n on o r w i t h

M a t e r i a l s E x h i b i t i n g A d d i t i o n a l S e t t l e m e n t Due t o Collapse of Grain
S t r u c t u r e s , S i x t h Regional Conference f o r A f r i c a on S o i l Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering, 1975.

9. S i l v e r , Marshal L., Laboratory T r i a x i a l T e s t i n g Procedures t o Determine

t h e C y c l i c S t r e n g t h of S o i l s , prepared under c o n t r a c t t o US NRC,
( c o n t r a c t No. WRC-E(l1-1)-2433), Report No. NUREG-31, 1976.

10. Wood, Richard D., Measurement of Dynamic S o i l P r o p e r t i e s , ASCE

Geotechnical D i v i s i o n S p e c i a l Conference on Earthquake Engineering and
S o i l Dynamics, 197 8.

11. Drnevich, V.P., Hardin, B.O., and Shippy, D.J., Modulus and Sampling of
S o i l s by t h e Resonant Column Method, ASTM, STP 654, 1978

12. Stephenson, R.W., U l t r a s o n i c ~ e s t i n gf o r Determining Dynamic S o i l

Modulus, ASTM, STP 654, 1978.

13. Bureau of Reclamation, P e r m e a b i l i t y and Settlement of S o i l s , E a r t h

Manual, Designation E-13, United S t a t e s Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e ,
1974.

14. Terzaghi, K. and Peck, R.B., S o i l Mechanics i n Engineering P r a c t i c e ,

2nd E d i t i o n , John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1967.
15. Wissa, A.E.Z., C h r i s t i a n , J.T., Davis, and H e i b e r t , S., Consolidation
a t Constant Rate of S t r a i n , J o u r n a l of S o i l Mechanics and Foundation
Division, ASCE, Vol. 97, No. SM10, 1971.

16. Lowe, J., New Concepts i n C o n s o l i d a t i o n and S e t t l e m e n t A n a l y s i s ,

Journal of Geotechnical Engineering D i v i s i o n , ASCE, Vol. 101, No. GT6,
1975.

17. Leonards, G.A., E d i t o r , Foundation Engineering, McGraw H i l l , 1962.

18. Schmertmann, J.M., The Undisturbed C o n s o l i d a t i o n of Clay, T r a n s a c t i o n s ,

American S o c i e t y of C i v i l Engineers, Vol. 120, p 1201, 1955.

19. Skempton, A.W. and Hutchinson, J., S t a b i l i t y of N a t u r a l S l o p e s and

Embankment Foundations State-of-the-Art Report, Proceedings, Seventh
I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference on S o i l Mechanics and Foundation E n g i n e e r i n g ,
Mexico, 1969.

20. Lambe; T.W. and Marr, A.W., S t r e s s P a t h Method, Second E d i t i o n , J o u r n a l

of t h e Geotechnical Engineering Division, ASCE, Vol. 105, No. GT6,
1979.

21. Townsend, F.L., A Review of F a c t o r s A f f e c t i n g C y c l i c T r i a x i a l T e s t s ,

Dynamic Geotechnical T e s t i n g , ASTM, STP 654, pp 356-383, 1978.

22. Hardin, B.O., The Nature of S t r e s s - S t r a i n Behavior f o r S o i l s ,

Earthquake Engineering and S o i l Dynamics, Proceedings of t h e ASCE
Geotechnical Enginering D i v i s i o n S p e c i a l t y Conference, Pasadena,
C a l i f o r n i a , pp 3-90, 1978.

23. Hardin, B.O. and Drnevich, V.P., Shear Modulus and Damping i n S o i l s :
Design Equations and Curves, J o u r n a l of t h e S o i l Mechanics and
Foundation D i v i s i o n , ASCE, Vol. 98, No. SM7, 1972.

24. Seed, H.B. and I d r i s s , I.M., S o i l Moduli and Damping F a c t o r s f o r

Dynamic Response Analyses, Report No. EERC 70-10, U n i v e r s i t y of
C a l i f o r n i a , 1970.

25. R i c h a r t , F.E., Foundation V i b r a t i o n , Foundation Engineering Handbook,

H.F. Winterkown and H.Y. Fang, eds., Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New
York, Chapter 24, 1975.

26. Seed, H.B., Earthquake E f f e c t s on S o i l Foundation Systems, Foundation

Engineering Handbook, H.F. Winterkorn and H.Y. Fang, eds., Van Nostrand
Reinhold Company, New York, Chapter 25, 1975.

27. Iwasaki, R., Tatsuoka, F., Tokida, K. and Yasuda, S., A P r a c t i c a l

Method f o r Assessing S o i l L i q u e f a c t i o n P o t e n t i a l Based on Case S t u d i e s
a t Various S i t e s i n J a - ~ a n..Proceedings of the Second I n t e r n a t i o n a l
Conference on Microzonation f o r safe; Construction-Research and
A p p l i c a t i o n , Vol. 11, San Francisco, pp 885-896, 1978.

28. Lambe, T.W. and Whitman, R.V., S o i l Mechanics, John Wiley & Sons, New
York, 1969.
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 CHAPTER 4. DISTRIBUTION OF STRESSES

S e c t i o n 1. INTRODUCTION

1. SCOPE. T h i s c h a p t e r c o v e r s t h e a n a l y s i s of s t r e s s c o n d i t i o n s a t a p o i n t ,
s t r e s s e s b e n e a t h s t r u c t u r e s and embankments, and e m p i r i c a l methods f o r e s t i -
mating l o a d s on b u r i e d p i p e s , c o n d u i t s , s h a f t s , and t u n n e l s .

2. RELATED CRITERIA. For c e r t a i n c r i t e r i a n o t covered i n t h i s p u b l i c a t i o n ,

b u t c o n c e r n i n g t h e d e s i g n of b u r i e d p i p e s and c o n d u i t s and o t h e r underground
s t r u c t u r e s , see the following sources :

Subject Source

Out
Out of
ufDate
...NAVDOCKS P-81
B l a s t P r e s s u r e s Buried S t r u c t u r e s . . .
A i r f i e l d Pavements..................
Drainage Systems.. ...................... C Date .....NAVFAC DM-2 1
I . . ...NAVFAC DM-5.3

3. STATE OF STRESS. S t r e s s e s i n e a r t h masses a r e a n a l y z e d u s i n g two b a s i c

and d i f f e r e n t assumptions. One assumes e l a s t i c c o n d i t i o n s , and t h e o t h e r
assumes f u l l m o b i l i z a t i o n of s h e a r s t r e n g t h ( p l a s t i c e q u i l i b r i u m ) . E l a s t i c
s o l u t i o n s a p p l y t o problems f o r which s h e a r f a i l u r e i s u n l i k e l y . If the
s a f e t y f a c t o r a g a i n s t s h e a r f a i l u r e exceeds about 3 , s t r e s s e s a r e r o u g h l y
e q u a l t o v a l u e s computed from e l a s t i c t h e o r y . P l a s t i c equilibrium applies i n
problems of f o u n d a t i o n o r s l o p e s t a b i l i t y ( s e e Chapter 7 ) and w a l l p r e s s u r e s
where s h e a r s t r e n g t h may be c o m p l e t e l y m o b i l i z e d ( s e e DM-7.2, Chapter 3 ) .

S e c t i o n 2. STRESS CONDITIONS AT A POINT

1. MOHR'S CIRCLE OF STRESS. I f normal and s h e a r s t r e s s e s a t one o r i e n t a t i o n

on an element i n an e a r t h mass a r e known, s t r e s s e s a t a l l o t h e r o r i e n t a t i o n s
may be determined from Mohr's c i r c l e . Examples of s t r e s s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a r e
g i v e n i n F i g u r e 1.

a. P l a s t i c Equilibrium. The u s e of Mohr's c i r c l e f o r p l a s t i c e q u i l i b -

rium i s i l l u s t r a t e d by a n a l y s i s of t r i a x i a l s h e a r t e s t r e s u l t s ( s e e F i g u r e 5
of Chapter 3 ) .

2. STRESSES I N SOILS. The normal s t r e s s a t any o r i e n t a t i o n i n a s a t u r a t e d

s o i l mass e q u a l s t h e sum of two e l e m e n t s : ( a ) p o r e water p r e s s u r e c a r r i e d by
f l u i d i n v o i d s p a c e s , and ( b ) e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s c a r r i e d by t h e g r a i n s k e l e t o n
of t h e s o i l .

a. T o t a l Stress. The t o t a l s t r e s s a t any p o i n t i s produced by t h e over-

burden p r e s s u r e p l u s any a p p l i e d l o a d s .

b. P o r e Water P r e s s u r e . Pore water p r e s s u r e may c o n s i s t of ( a ) hydro-

s t a t i c p r e s s u r e , ( b ) c a p i l l a r y p r e s s u r e , ( c ) seepage o r ( d ) p r e s s u r e r e s u l t i n g..
from a p p l i e d l o a d s t o soils which d r a i n slowly.
 c. E f f e c t i v e S t r e s s . E f f e c t i v e stress e q u a l s t h e t o t a l s t r e s s minus t h e
pore water p r e s s u r e , o r t h e t o t a l f o r c e i n t h e s o i l g r a i n s d i v i d e d by t h e
g r o s s c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a over which t h e f o r c e a c t s .

d. Overburden P r e s s u r e . D i v i s i o n of weight of o v e r l y i n g s o i l and water

i n t o e f f e c t i v e stress and pore water p r e s s u r e depends on t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e
groundwater t a b l e o r t h e flow f i e l d induced by seepage. For s t a t i c water con-
d i t i o n , e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s e s a t any p o i n t below t h e groundwater l e v e l may be
computed using t h e t o t a l u n i t weight of s o i l above t h e water l e v e l and buoyant
u n i t weight below t h e water l e v e l . Pore water p r e s s u r e i s e q u a l t o t h e s t a t i c
head times t h e u n i t weight of water. I f t h e r e i s s t e a d y seepage, pore pres-
s u r e i s equal t o t h e piezometric head times t h e u n i t weight of w a t e r , and t h e
e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s i s obtained by s u b t r a c t i n g t h e pore water p r e s s u r e from t h e
t o t a l stress.

e. Applied Load. D i v i s i o n of a p p l i e d l o a d between pore p r e s s u r e and

e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s i s a f u n c t i o n of t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n s , t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n
p r o p e r t i e s , and t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y of t h e s t r e s s e d and surrounding s o i l s . When
d r a i n a g e of pore water i s i n h i b i t e d , l o a d i s compensated f o r by i n c r e a s e d pore
water p r e s s u r e s . These p r e s s u r e s may d e c r e a s e with time, a s pore water i s
d r a i n e d and load i s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e s o i l s k e l e t o n , t h e r e b y i n c r e a s i n g
e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s . Guidance on e s t i m a t i n g changes i n pore water p r e s s u r e i s
g i v e n i n Chapter 5.

f . E f f e c t s of S t r e s s e s on a S o i l Mass. Analysis of a s o i l system (e.g.,

s e t t l e m e n t , s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s e s ) a r e performed e i t h e r i n terms of t o t a l
s t r e s s e s o r e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s e s . The c h o i c e between t h e two a n a l y s i s methods
i s governed by t h e p r o p e r t i e s of t h e surrounding s o i l s , pore water b e h a v i o r ,
and t h e method of loading. (See Chapters 5, 6 , and 7 f o r f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n . )

S e c t i o n 3. STRESSES BENEATH STRUCTURES AND EMBANKMENTS

1. SEMI-INFINITE, ELASTIC FOUNDATIONS.

a . Assumed Conditions. The following s o l u t i o n s assume e l a s t i c i t y , con-

t i n u i t y , s t a t i c e q u i l i b r i u m , and completely f l e x i b l e l o a d s so t h a t t h e pres-
s u r e s on t h e foundation s u r f a c e a r e e q u a l t o t h e a p p l i e d l o a d i n t e n s i t y . For
l o a d s of i n f i n i t e l e n g t h o r where t h e l e n g t h i s a t l e a s t 5 times t h e width,
t h e s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n can be considered plane s t r a i n , i . e . , deformation
o c c u r s o n l y i n planes perpendicular t o t h e long a x i s of t h e load. I n t h i s c a s e
s t r e s s e s depend only on d i r e c t i o n and i n t e n s i t y of load and t h e l o c a t i o n of
p o i n t s being i n v e s t i g a t e d and a r e n o t a f f e c t e d by e l a s t i c p r o p e r t i e s .

Shearing s t r e s s e s between an embankment and i t s foundation a r e

neglected.

b. S t r e s s D i s t r i b u t i o n Formulas. Figure 2 p r e s e n t s formulas based on

t h e Boussinesq e q u a t i o n s f o r s u b s u r f a c e s t r e s s e s produced by s u r f a c e l o a d s on
s e m i - i n f i n i t e , e l a s t i c , i s o t r o p i c , homogeneous foundations. Below a d e p t h of
t h r e e times t h e width of a s q u a r e f o o t i n g o r t h e diameter of a c i r c u l a r f o o t -
i n g , t h e s t r e s s e s can be approximated by c o n s i d e r i n g t h e f o o t i n g t o be a p o i n t
l o a d . A s t r i p l o a d may a l s o be t r e a t e d a s a l i n e l o a d a t d e p t h s g r e a t e r t h a n
t h r e e times t h e width of t h e s t r i p .

c. V e r t i c a l S t r e s s e s Beneath Regular Loads. C h a r t s f o r computations o f

v e r t i c a l s t r e s s based on t h e Boussinesq e q u a t i o n s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e s 3
through 7. Use of t h e i n f l u e n c e c h a r t s i s explained by examples i n F i g u r e 8.
Computation procedures f o r common l o a d i n g s i t u a t i o n s a r e a s f o l l o w s :

( 1 ) Square and S t r i p Foundations. Quick e s t i m a t e s may be o b t a i n e d

from t h e stress c o n t o u r s of F i g u r e 3. For more a c c u r a t e computations, u s e
F i g u r e 4 (Reference 1 , S t r e s s e s and D e f l e c t i o n s i n Foundations and Pavements,
by t h e Department of C i v i l Engineering, U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a , Berkeley).

( 2 ) Rectangular Mat Foundation. For p o i n t s beneath t h e mat, d i v i d e

t h e mat i n t o f o u r r e c t a n g l e s w i t h t h e i r common c o r n e r above t h e p o i n t t o be
investigated. Obtain i n f l u e n c e v a l u e s I f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l r e c t a n g l e s from
F i g u r e 4, and sum t h e v a l u e s t o o b t a i n t h e t o t a l I. For p o i n t s o u t s i d e t h e
a r e a covered by t h e mat, use s u p e r p o s i t i o n of r e c t a n g l e s and add o r s u b t r a c t
a p p r o p r i a t e I v a l u e s t o o b t a i n t h e r e s u l t a n t I. ( S e e example i n Figure 9.)

( 3 ) Uniformly Loaded C i r c u l a r Area. Use F i g u r e 5 (Reference 2,

S t r e s s e s and D e f l e c t i o n s Induced by Uniform C i r c u l a r Load, by F o s t e r and
Ahlvin) t o compute s t r e s s e s under c i r c u l a r f o o t i n g s .

(-4 ). Embankment of I n f i n i t e Length. - Use F i g u r e 6 (Reference 3 ,

I n f l u e n c e Values f o r V e r t i c a l S t r e s s e s i n a semi-infinite Mass Due t o a n
Embankment Loading, by Osterberg) f o r embankments of simple c r o s s s e c t i o n .
For f i l l s of more complicated c r o s s s e c t i o n , add o r s u b t r a c t p o r t i o n s of t h i s
b a s i c embankment load: For a symmetrical t r i a n g u l a r f i l l , set dimension b
e q u a l t o zero and add t h e i n f l u e n c e v a l u e s f o r two r i g h t t r i a n g l e s .

( 5 ) Sloping F i l l of F i n i t e Dimension. Use F i g u r e 7 (Reference 1 )

f o r s t r e s s beneath t h e c o r n e r s of a f i n i t e s l o p i n g f i l l load.

d. V e r t i c a l S t r e s s e s Beneath I r r e g u l a r Loads. Use F i g u r e 10 (Reference

4, S o i l P r e s s u r e Computations: A M o d i f i c a t i o n of Newmark's Method, by Jimenez
S a l a s ) f o r complex l o a d s where o t h e r i n f l u e n c e diagrams do n o t s u f f i c e .
Proceed a s follows:

( 1 ) Draw a c i r c l e of convenient s c a l e and t h e c o n c e n t r i c c i r c l e s

shown w i t h i n i t . The s c a l e f o r t h e c i r c l e may be s e l e c t e d so t h a t when t h e
foundation plan i s drawn using a s t a n d a r d s c a l e ( s a y l " = l O O t ), i t w i l l l i e
within the outer circle.

( 2 ) P l o t t h e loaded a r e a t o s c a l e on t h i s t a r g e t w i t h t h e p o i n t t o
be i n v e s t i g a t e d a t t h e c e n t e r .

( 3 ) Estimate t h e p r o p o r t i o n A of t h e a n n u l a r a r e a between a d j a c e n t
r a d i i which i s covered by t h e load.
4-00 ST- DETERMINED FROM ELASTK:
1 1 1 1 FOR 131JT#)QK: SEMI-INFINITE

MOHRS ClllCLES
R)R STIW3SES

EMBANKMENT UMD

FIGURE 1
Examples of Stress Conditions a t a Point
 UMDING CONDITION STRESS DIAGRAM STRESS
COMPONENT EQUATION
VERTICAL

POINT U)r90 HORIZONTAL

SHEAR f r z = *3P rz2

2n F
VERTICAL cz= *.
U
-
z3
R4
UNIFORM LINE LOAD + &.A%
HORIZONTAL U R4
OF INFINITE LENGTH
SHEAR k.&
T ~ ~ = T
R4

VERTICAL
UNIFORMLY LOAMD ( BENEATH
P(PERUHT
RECTANGULAR AREA OFAREA) ORNmOF
(FIGURE 4) RECTANGLE)

VERTICAL = -
UNIFORMLY LCWED
D +

HORlZONTAL
CIRCULAR AREA
(FIGURE 5) (STRESS COMFONENTS Cz, q,Tn
SHEAR rrz =O
ENEATH CENTER OF CRCLE)

X
IRREGULAR LOAD VERTICAL COMWTED FROM INFLUENCE CHART
OF FIGURE 0

ASSUMED COIYDIMS: APPLIED LDAOS ARE PZRFECTLY FLEXIBLE. FMJNMTlON IS SEMI-INFINITE ELASIK: ISOTROPIC 90LID.
* L

FIGURE 2
Formulas for Stresses i n Semi-Inf i n i t e Elas t i c Foundation '
SQUARE FOOTING
t
(FT)
-
Z
B
=t
TSF
GIVEN
FOOTING SIZE = 2 0 ' 20'
~
UNIT PRESSURE P=2TSF

FIND
PROFILE OF STRESS INCREASE
BENEATH CENTER OF FOOTING
DUE TO APPLIED LOAD

FIGURE 3
Stress Contours and Their Application
 -
6 8 I0 2 3 4 5 6 8 10.0

LOADpPERUNlTOFAREA 24

OF n
V~LUE

VALUE OF n
-- - - -. -
4-
FIGURE
Influence Value for Vertical Stress Beneath a Corner of a
Uniformly Loaded Rectangular Area (Boussinesq Case)
 . .

FIGURE 5
Influence Value for Vertical Stress Under Uniformly Loaded Circular Area
(Boussinesq Case)
 VALUE OF
a
7

0.01 2 3 4 5 6 801 2 3 4 5 6 81.0

VALUE OF
z
-
FIGURE 6
Influence Value f o r V e r t i c a l S t r e s s Under Embankment Load of I n f i n i t e Length
(Boussinesq Case)
h
nECMNOULAR YAf -
1 ION l Y F m T O ~ 4 F O R ~ ~ I r O l l v E R n c M ~
I UNDER OF UNIFORMLY UIAMD RECTANGULAR AREA. IFOR

I - Lm' - I I OF4 ADJOtNING ROCTANWLAR AMLLS.

z r
"
.
FT. I
I#IcT:4 4k0!2w
---- 5
I0
20
10
10
5
0.250
0.249
1.000
0.996
1.200
1.195
20 5 2.5 0.244 0.976 1.171
x = loo'
30 3.33 167 0.232 0.928 1.113
Y =so'
40 2.50 1.25 0.26 0.664 1.037

;.';"' 60 1.67 063 0.W2 0.728 0.674

urn1AREA W
"=
=
:I

(WL.MAT)=2lSF, l M T WEX3hAlED=.8TSF
+ loo
80 1.25
1.00
0.63
0.50
0.149
0.126
05%
0.504
0.715
0.605

WET AREA W = 1.2TSF. DETERMINE M I L E OFAPPLIED STRESS

WNEATM CZNTER OF MAT
I

m T E COLUMN fOUlINGS REFER 70 FWRE 5 FOR INFLUX€ VALUES IFOR VERTICAL STRESS
I -
OUTSIDE OF UNlRHlMLY W E D CIRCULAR AREA. SQUARE M N G
ASSUMED EQUIVALENT 70CIRCULAR AREA.

EOUIVALUUT r : 12/4 I 3 / 4
, a(+)* =1m6~
Z
FT -zr I1
'x / r ~W:RS W E 5
=I S
F
:
'X1.p

p =3.oTsF
2 1.18 0.64 0 0 0.640 1.720

-
xDmANcE:
4 236 0.22 0 0 0.220 0.660
col.B2=0 (4)
' -
- - =s*2.c2,Bl,
BS =~S
I()'
6
I0
3.54 all0 0
5.90 0.012 QOOQ 0
0 0.110
0.050
0.330
0.1-
15 8.05 ws 0- a001 0.- 0.m
COLS.AI,M,CI, 20 11.m 0.011 OXXW 0- an5
cs =21.2'(1~) a 14.74 aoar o m o m 2 a027 aoe~
#TOIIYIISE PRWUQAPPUEDSTRSSEENEATHBZ. ' I

EMBANKMENT UMD I
I
REFER 1D FlOWIE 6 FOR INFLUENCE VALUES IFOR VERTICAL !3lRESS
UNDER EMBANKMENT W OF INFINITE LENGTH. IFOR 1/2 OF
EMBANKMENT UMD.
-
+
J
t
z b q=21-p
so' l-h=4d-I-0~50~ -- , FT. 7 1 21
TSF
I I ' I L
7

5 I0 4 QSOO I.000 1.200

0 = 50l 10 5 2 0.4% 0992 1.190
b = 20' 20 2.5 1.0 0.415 0.- I.HO
p =1.2mF 30 1.67 0.67 4444 0.808 ID66
40 1.25 QSO 0.4K) 0.820 0.-
DETERMINE Pmrrm OFAPPUED STRESS q BENEATH 60 0.83 033 0.344 0- a826
80 0.63 0.25 0.294 a588 0.706
OF WWKMEIST OF INFINITE LENOTtl.
100 0.50 420 0.ZW 0.504 0.60s
J

A
FIGURE 8
Examples of Camputation of Vertical Stress
 UNIFORMLY UNIFORMLY
LOADED AREA
LOADED AREA . .-

6 F
b

STRESS B ELCW POINT

A CALCULATED FROM THE
2

E
D m.
E

C B
STRESS BELCW POINT
A CALCULATED FROM THE
ALGEBRAIC SUM OF THE
A

SUM OF THE STRESSES

FOR THE RECTA~GLES AS STRESSES FOR THE
FOLLaJ S RECTANGLES AS FOLLOWS

ABCD+ADEF+AFGH+AHJB ACEG-AR VC -ACDH+AB JH

FIGURE 9
Determination of Stress Below Corner o f
Uniformly Loaded Rectangular Area
 DEFINITIONS:

R= RAMUSOF-mI
(CQNCENTRIC~RCLES
ARE SHOWN WITH M I
CRO#WITK)IYK TO 1,2,4,
6,8,K),I2,16AND 20).

EXAMRE:W p =2X)TSFWER
THIS AREA.

IFOR W D AREA BETWEEN Wl IW2

DETERMINE VERTICAL STRESS

qATEPTHOF24n.ENEKrll
CORNER OF LOAD SHOYJN ABOVE:

FIGURE 10
Influence Chart for Vertical Stress Beneath Irregular Load
 ( 4 ) See t h e bottom c h a r t of Figure 10 f o r i n f l u e n c e v a l u e s f o r
stresses a t v a r i o u s d e p t h s produced by t h e l o a d s w i t h i n e a c h a n n u l a r s p a c e .
The product I x A m u l t i p l i e d by t h e l o a d i n t e n s i t y e q u a l s v e r t i c a l stress.

( 5 ) To determine a p r o f i l e of v e r t i c a l s t r e s s e s f o r v a r i o u s d e p t h s
b e n e a t h a p o i n t , t h e t a r g e t need n o t be redrawn. Obtain i n f l u e n c e v a l u e s f o r
d i f f e r e n t o r d i n a t e s Z/R from t h e i n f l u e n c e c h a r t .

e. H o r i z o n t a l S t r e s s e s . . E l a s t i c a n a l y s i s i s u t i l i z e d t o d e t e r m i n e h o r i -
z o n t a l s t r e s s e s on u n y i e l d i n g w a l l s from s u r c h a r g e l o a d s ( s e e Chapter 7.2,
Chapter 3 ) , and p r e s s u r e s on r i g i d b u r i e d s t r u c t u r e s . (See b a s i c f o r m u l a s f o r
simple l o a d s i n F i g u r e 2.) For more i n f o r m a t i o n , see Reference 5, E l a s t i c
S o l u t i o n s f o r S o i l and Rock Mechanics, by Poulos and Davis.

f . Shear S t r e s s e s . E l a s t i c s o l u t i o n s g e n e r a l l y are n o t a p p l i c a b l e when

s h e a r s t r e s s e s a r e c r i t i c a l , a s i n s t a b i l i t y problems. To determine i f a
s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s i s r e q u i r e d , determine the-maximum s h e a r s t r e s s from e l a s -
t i c formulas and compare t h i s stress with t h e s h e a r s t r e n g t h of t h e s o i l . For
embankment l o a d s i n F i g u r e 2, maximum s h e a r stress i n t h e f o u n d a t i o n i s e x a c t -
l y o r approximately e q u a l t o p/p depending upon t h e shape of t h e l o a d and
p o i n t i n question. I f t h e maximum s h e a r s t r e s s e q u a l s s h e a r s t r e n g t h , p l a s t i c
c o n d i t i o n s p r e v a i l a t some p o i n t i n t h e foundation s o i l and i f t h e l o a d i s
i n c r e a s e d , a l a r g e r and l a r g e r p o r t i o n of t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o i l p a s s e s i n t o
p l a s t i c equilibrium. I n t h i s c a s e , f a i l u r e i s p o s s i b l e and o v e r a l l s t a b i l i t y
must be evaluated.

2. LAYERED OR ANISOTROPIC FOUNDATIONS. Actual foundation c o n d i t i o n s d i f f e r

froin t h e homogeneous i s o t r o p i c , s e m i - i n f i n i t e mass assumed i n t h e Boussinesq
expressions. The modulus of e l a s t i c i t y u s u a l l y v a r i e s from l a y e r t o l a y e r ,
and s o i l d e p o s i t s f r e q u e n t l y a r e more r i g i d i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n t h a n
i n . the vertical.

a. Westergaard Analysis. The Westergaard a n a l y s i s i s based on t h e

assumption t h a t t h e s o i l on which l o a d i s a p p l i e d i s r e i n f o r c e d by c l o s e l y
spaced h o r i z o n t a l l a y e r s which prevent h o r i z o n t a l displacement. The e f f e c t
of t h e Westergaard assumpt,ion i s t o reduce t h e stresses s u b s t a n t i a l l y below
t h o s e o b t a i n e d by t h e Boussinesq e q u a t i o n s . The Westergaard a n a l y s i s i s
a p p l i c a b l e t o s o i l p r o f i l e s c o n s i s t i n g of a l t e r n a t e l a y e r s of s o f t and s t i f f
m a t e r i a l s , such as s o f t c l a y s w i t h f r e q u e n t h o r i z o n t a l l a y e r s of sand having
greater s t i f f n e s s i n the horizontal direction. F i g u r e s 11 (Reference l ) , 12
(Reference 6 , An Engineering Manual f o r S e t t l e m e n t S t u d i e s , by Duncan and
Buchignani), and 13 (Reference 1 ) can be used f o r c a l c u l a t i n g v e r t i c a l
stresses i n Westergaard m a t e r i a l f o r t h r e e l o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n s . Computations
f o r F i g u r e s 11, 1 2 , and 1 3 a r e made i n a manner i d e n t i c a l t o t h a t f o r F i g u r e s
3 , 4, and 7 , which a r e based on t h e Boussinesq e q u a t i o n s . For i l l u s t r a t i c n
s e e F i g u r e 8.

b. Layered Foundations. When t h e foundation s o i l c o n s i s t s of a number

of l a y e r s of s u b s t a n t i a l t h i c k n e s s , having d i s t i n c t l y d i f f e r e n t e l a s t i c pro-
p e r t i e s , t h e v e r t i c a l and o t h e r stresses a r e markedly d i f f e r e n t from t h o s e
o b t a i n e d by u s i n g t h e Boussinesq equation. (See F i g u r e 14, Reference 7.
S t r e s s e s and Displacement i n Layered Systems, by ~ e h t aand^ V e l e t s o s , £0;
i n f l u e n c e v a l u e s of v e r t i c a l s t r e s s e s i n a two-layer f o u n d a t i o n w i t h v a r i o u s
r a t i o s of modulus of e l a s t i c i t y . See Figure 15 f o r an example.)
 >

a. INFINITELY LON8 FOOTINO b. S O U A R E FOOTING

EXAMPLE :
FIND THE PRESSURE INCREASE DUE TO A STRIP FOOTING OF WIDTH B,
AT A POINT LOCATED 6 8 BELOW ITS BASE AND 38 FROM THE
CENTER OF THE FOOTING. SURFACE LOAD ON THE FOOTING IS P PER-
UNIT AREA. FROM THE LEFT PANEL, PRESSURE INCREASE = a 0 5 P

FIGURE 1 1
Vertical Stress Contours for Square and Strip Footings
(Westergaard Case)
 VALUE OF n

LOAD P PER UNIT OF AREA

m=- X
2
" = 1z
m AND n ARE INTERCHANGEABLE
uz= I x p .

0.01 2 4 6 80.1 2 4 6 81.0 2 4 6 8 1 0

VALUE OF n
FIGURE 12
Influence Value for Vertical Stress Beneath a Corner of a
Uniformly Loaded Rectangular Area (Westergaard Case)
 BENEATH CORNER 0

0.1 1.0 VALUESOFm I0

BENEATH CORNER 0
- - -

FIGURE 13
Influence Value for Vertical Stress Beneath Triangular Load
(Westergaard Case)
 EFFECT OF RELATIVE RIGIDITY F#CTOR, k ,ON e
z
CIRCULAR AREA

.
. -.
I
FIGURE 14
Influence Values for Vertical Stresses Beneath Uniformly Loaded
Circular Area (Two-Laye-r Foundation)
7.1-179
 4

DEPTH
FT.
-
z
H
I -'= I- p
TSF
5 0.5 0.M 0.70

10 LO 0.21 0.42

15 1.5 0.b 0 .SO

I. DETERMINE PROFILE OF
STRESS INCREASE DUE TO 20 2.0 0 .I2 024
APPLIED LOAD BELOW
THE EDGES. 25 2.5 0 .I0 0 -20
- , b
Q

P = 10
10
- --
JQSI

I
k=10

USE RIGHT HAND GRAPH

OF LQmR #NEL OF FIGURE 14
. 30 3.0 0.07 0.14
1

,
FIGURE 1 5
Stress Profile i n a Two-Layer Soil Mass
 ( 1 ) R i g i d S u r f a c e Layer Over Weaker Underlying Layer. I f t h e sur-
f a c e l a y e r i s t h e more r i g i d , i t a c t s a s a d i s t r i b u t i n g m a t and t h e v e r t i c a l
s t r e s s e s i n t h e underlying s o i l l a y e r a r e l e s s t h a n Boussinesq values.

( 2 ) Weaker S u r f a c e Layer Over S t r o n g e r Underlying Layers. If the

s u r f a c e l a y e r i s less r i g i d t h a n t h e underlying l a y e r , t h e n v e r t i c a l stresses
i n both l a y e r s exceed t h e Boussinesq v a l u e s . For i n f l u e n c e diagrams f o r ver-
t i c d s t r e s s e s beneath r e c t a n g u l a r loaded a r e a s , s e e Reference 8, S t r e s s and
Displacement C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a Two-Layer Rigid Base S o i l System: I n f l u -
ence Diagrams and P r a c t i c a l A p p l i c a t i o n s , by Burmister. Use t h e s e i n f l u e n c e
diagrams t o determine v e r t i c a l s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r s e t t l e m e n t a n a l y s i s
i n v o l v i n g a s o f t s u r f a c e l a y e r u n d e r l a i n by s t i f f m a t e r i a l .

( 3 ) Multi-Layer (Three o r More) Systems. See Reference 6 f o r a

d i s c u s s i o n of t h e use of v a r i o u s approximate s o l u t i o n s f o r m u l t i - l a y e r
systems.

c. C r i t i c a l Depth. I f t h e r e i s no d i s t i n c t change i n t h e c h a r a c t e r o f
subsurface s t r a t a , within the c r i t i c a l depth, e l a s t i c s o l u t i o n s f o r layered
foundations need n o t be considered. C r i t i c a l d e p t h i s t h e d e p t h below t h e
f o u n d a t i o n w i t h i n which s o i l compression c o n t r i b u t e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o s u r f a c e
s e t t l e m e n t s . For fine-grained compressible s o i l s , t h e c r i t i c a l d e p t h e x t e n d s
t o t h a t p o i n t where a p p l i e d stress d e c r e a s e s t o 10 p e r c e n t of e f f e c t i v e over-
burden pressure. I n coarse-grained m a t e r i a l c r i t i c a l d e p t h e x t e n d s t o t h a t
p o i n t where a p p l i e d s t r e s s d e c r e a s e s t o 20 p e r c e n t of e f f e c t i v e overburden
pressure.

3. R I G I D LOADED AREA. A r i g i d foundation must s e t t l e uni formly. When s u c h

a foundation rests on a p e r f e c t l y e l a s t i c m a t e r i a l , i n o r d e r f o r i t t o deform
uniformly t h e l o a d must s h i f t from t h e c e n t e r t o t h e edges, t h u s r e s u l t i n g i n
a p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n which i n c r e a s e s toward t h e edges ( s e e Figure 16).
This i s t h e c a s e f o r c l a y s . In t h e c a s e of sands, t h e s o i l n e a r t h e edges
y i e l d s because of t h e l a c k of confinement, t h u s causing t h e l o a d t o s h i f t
toward t h e c e n t e r .

4. STRESSES INDUCED BY PILE LOADS. E s t i m a t e s of t h e v e r t i c a l stresses

induced i n a s o i l mass by an a x i a l l y loaded p i l e a r e g i v e n i n Figure 17
(Reference 9, I n f l u e n c e S c a l e and I n f l u e n c e Chart f o r - t h e computation of
S t r e s s e s Due, R e s p e c t i v e l y , t o S u r f a c e P o i n t Load and P i l e Load, by G r i l l o )
f o r both f r i c t i o n and end-bearing p i l e s . (See DM-7.2, Chapter 5 f o r f u r t h e r
guidance on p i l e foundations.)

S e c t i o n 4. SHALLOW PIPES AND CONDUITS

1. GENERAL. P r e s s u r e s a c t i n g on shallow b u r i e d pipe and c o n d u i t s a r e

i n f l u e n c e d by t h e r e l a t i v e r i g i d i t y of t h e pipe and surrounding s o i l , d e p t h o f
c o v e r , type of l o a d i n g , span (maximum width) of s t r u c t u r e , method of con-
s t r u c t i o n , and shape of pipe. This s e c t i o n d e s c r i b e s simple procedures f o r
determining p r e s s u r e s a c t i n g on a c o n d u i t i n compressible s o i l f o r use i n
c o n d u i t design. For d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s and design procedures f o r c o n d u i t s i n
b a c k f i l l e d t r e n c h e s and beneath embankments, c o n s u l t one of t h e following:
I

UNIFORM
UNIFORM LOAD
1

3
R101D
FOOTING

#ffQ
UNIFORM REAGTION

CLAY " SAND

FIGURE 16
Contact P r e s s u r e Under ( a ) Rigid Footings
( b ) F l e x i b l e Foundation on an E l a s t i c Half Space
 4

P
XI. x/d
5
o1

0.5

1 .o

1.5

-
z
1
2 .o

2.5

3.0

3.5

( a ) UNIFORM SHAFT RESISTANCE ( b ) POINT RESISTANCE

1 LENGTH OF PILE
P
cz=Iip q = I p . 72
P
*
FIGURE 17
Influence Values for Vertical Stresses Around a P i l e i n an E l a s t i c Solid
Reference 10, Buried S t r u c t u r e s , by Watkins; Reference 11, Design and
C o n s t r u c t i o n of S a n i t a r y and Storm Sewers, by t h e American S o c i e t y of C i v i l
Engineers; Reference 12, Handbook of Drainage and C o n s t r u c t i o n P r o d u c t s , by
Armco Drainage and Metal Products, Inc.; Reference 13, Engineering Handbook,
S t r u c t u r a l Design, by t h e U.S. Department of A g r i c u l t u r e , S o i l Conservation
Service; Reference 14, Concrete P i p e Design Manual, by American Concrete P i p e
Association; o r Reference 15, CANDE User Manual, by Katona and Smith.

2. R I G I D PIPE. P i p e s made from p r e c a s t o r cast-in-place concrete, o r c a s t

i r o n a r e considered r i g i d pipes.

a. V e r t i c a l Loads.

( 1 ) Dead Load. V e r t i c a l s o i l p r e s s u r e e s t i m a t e s f o r dead l o a d s a r e

obtained a s follows: .

EQUATION : W = Cw Yg2 (4-1 )

where W = t o t a l dead load on t h e c o n d u i t p e r u n i t l e n g t h of c o n d u i t

Cw = c o r r e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t ; f u n c t i o n of t r e n c h d e p t h t o width
r a t i o , a n g l e of t r e n c h s i d e s l o p e s , f r i c t i o n a n g l e of
b a c k f i l l and t r e n c h - s i d e s , bedding c o n d i t i o n s

B = width of t r e n c h a t l e v e l of t o p of pipe, o r pipe o u t s i d e

diameter i f buried under an embankment

Y = u n i t weight of b a c k f i l l
W
Dead l o a d p r e s s u r e , PDL = -
B

( a ) Embankment F i l l . Use Figure 18a (Reference 16, Under-

ground Conduits - An A p p r a i s a l of Modern Research, by Spangler) t o determine
embankment dead load. For s o i l s of u n i t weight o t h e r than 100 p c f , ad j u s t
p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y ; e.g., f o r y = 120 p c f , m u l t i p l y c h a r t by 1.20.

(b) Trench B a c k f i l l . Use Figure 18b (Reference 1 0 ) t o d e t e r -

mine v a l u e s of &.
( c ) Jacked o r Driven I n t o Place. Use Figure 18c (Reference 17,
S o f t Ground Tunneling, by Commercial Shearing, Inc.) f o r &. T h i s diagram
may a l s o be used f o r jacked tunnels.

( 2 ) Live Load. V e r t i c a l p r e s s u r e due t o s u r f a c e l o a d , PLL, i s

c a l c u l a t e d by Boussinesq e q u a t i o n ( s e e Figure 2). Impact f a c t o r i s i n c l u d e d
i n t h e l i v e load i f i t c o n s i s t s of t r a f f i c load. For example, an H-20 t r u c k
l o a d i n g c o n s i s t s of two 16,000 l b . l o a d s a p p l i e d t o two 10- by 20-inch a r e a s .
One of t h e s e l o a d s i s placed over t h e p o i n t i n q u e s t i o n , t h e o t h e r i s 6 f e e t
away. The v e r t i c a l s t r e s s e s produced by t h i s l o a d i n g i n c l u d i n g t h e e f f e c t of
impact a r e shown i n Figure 19 f o r v a r i o u s h e i g h t s of cover.
 4

1 0
0

0 0 4 6 8 I0
10 I6 2 0 SO 4 0 6 0 H/B
H,ft. (b) C, FOR CONDUIT nAT R E N ~
(a) EwornKwonr DEAD LOAD W ON A C ~ D U I TBURIED
IN A SOIL EMBANKMENT.

-....
. . . . ................::.
.....
..........
.

..
- ..! :;: . ...:

0 2 4 6 1 0
H/b
(c) Cw F O R JACKED CONDUIT

FIGURE 18
B a c k f i l l Coefficients , Embankment Loads, and Load Factors
for Rigid Conduits
L

(dl THREE EDGE BEARING (el L M D FACTORS Lf FOR RIGID PIPES BASED ON
METHOD. SPECIFIED CLASSES OF BED01NG.
D LOAD

CLASS 0

CLASS A- CONCRETE CRADLE; 8- COMPACTED GRANULAR

MATERIAL; C-COMPACTED GRANULAR MATERIAL OR
DENSELY COMPACTED BACKFILL; 0- FLAT SUWRADE.

CLASS-A CLASS* CLASS-C q&sD

TRENCH^ 4.8 I.9 1.5 1.1

II 3.4
II 2.8
'4.8 FOR 1.0%REINFORCING STEEL; 3.4 FOR 0.4%
REINFORCING STEEL; 2.8 FOR PLAIN.

FIGURE 18 (continued)
Backfill Coefficients, Embankment Loads, and Load Factors
for Rigid Conduits
 i

2 20
-
LL

k 16
a
W
3
2 12
K
W
'
0 8
a
W
>
0
4
0

b 0
0
9 400 800 1200 I600 2000 2400
? VERTICAL PRESSURE ON CULVERT ( P S F)

FIGURE 19
Vertical Pressure on Culvert Versus Height of Cover
 b. Design of R i g i d Conduit. To d e s i g n a r i g i d c o n d u i t , t h e computed
l o a d s (dead and l i v e ) are modified t o account f o r bedding c o n d i t i o n s and t o
r e l a t e maximum a l l o w a b l e load t o t h e three-edge b e a r i n g t e s t l o a d D. (See
Figure 18d.) See AS?M C76, Reinforced Concrete C u l v e r t , Storm Drain, and
Sewer P i p e , f o r t e s t s t a n d a r d s f o r D load.

Bedding c o n d i t i o n s f o r p i p e s i n t r e n c h e s may be accounted f o r by use

of a l o a d f a c t o r , Lf. Determine Lf from F i g u r e 18e (Reference 14).
Determine D from t h e following e q u a t i o n :

EQUATION:

where = Allowable l o a d i n l b / f t of l e n g t h of c o n d u i t
per f o o t of i n s i d e diameter f o r a c r a c k width of 0.01"

Lf = load f a c t o r

N = s a f e t y f a c t o r ( u s u a l l y 1.25)

With t h e s p e c i f i e d D l o a d , t h e s u p p l i e r i s a b l e t o provide adequate pipe.

The s o i l p r e s s u r e a g a i n s t t h e s i d e s of a pipe i n an embankment sig-

n i f i c a n t l y i n f l u e n c e t h e r e s i s t a n c e of t h e pipe t o v e r t i c a l load. The l o a d
f a c t o r f o r such c a s e s c o n s i d e r s n o t o n l y pipe bedding, b u t a l s o pipe shape,
l a t e r a l e a r t h p r e s s u r e , and t h e r a t i o of t o t a l l a t e r a l p r e s s u r e t o t o t a l
v e r t i c a l p r e s s u r e . For f u r t h e r guidance s e e Reference 11.

3. FLEXIBLE STEEL PIPE. Corrugated o r t h i n w a l l smooth s t e e l p i p e s a r e suf-

f i c i e n t l y f l e x i b l e t o develop h o r i z o n t a l r e s t r a i n i n g p r e s s u r e s approximately
e q u a l t o v e r t i c a l p r e s s u r e s i f b a c k f i l l i s w e l l compacted. V e r t i c a l e x t e r i o r
p r e s s u r e a c t i n g a t t h e t o p of t h e p i p e may range from p r e s s u r e s exceeding
overburden p r e s s u r e i n h i g h l y compressible s o i l s t o much l e s s than t h e over-
burden p r e s s u r e i n g r a n u l a r s o i l s because of t h e e f f e c t of "arching", i n which
a p o r t i o n of t h e overburden p r e s s u r e i s supported by t h e surrounding s o i l .

a. V e r t i c a l Loads.

( 1 ) Dead Load. For f l e x i b l e p i p e , t h e dead load p r e s s u r e i s simply

t h e h e i g h t of t h e column of s o i l above t h e c o n d u i t times t h e u n i t weight of
t h e b a c k f i l l , a s follows :.
EQUATION: PDL = Y*H (4-3)

(2) Live Load. Computed by Boussinesq e q u a t i o n s f o r r i g i d pipes.

( 3 ) P r e s s u r e T r a n s f e r C o e f f i c i e n t . The dead load and l i v e load

p r e s s u r e s a r e modified by p r e s s u r e t r a n s f e r c o e f f i c i e n t , Cp, t o y i e l d
a p p a r e n t p r e s s u r e , P, t o be used i n design.

EQUATION :

See F i g u r e 20 (Reference 18, Response of Corrugated S t e e l P i p e

t o E x t e r n a l S o i l P r e s s u r e s , by Watkins and ~ o s e r )f o r t h e v a l u e s of Cp.

7.1-188
 n

0.6 - \ -
0.5 1 I 1 I I I 1
0 I P 3 4 s 6 - 2-2/3 f CORRU6ATlON
0 2 4 6 8 10 -
12 3 8 I GOR'RUOATION
0 4 0 I2 16 20 24-6r2CORRUBATION
DIAMETER OF CORRUGATED P I E S , FT.
L 1 I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 I 2 3 S 6 7 8 S K )

F = ( I / E ) ( D / K ) ~ ~(I2/ExD/t
~ 1'. RNQ FLEXIBILITY. i n 2 / ~ l p

FIGURE 20
Pressure Transfer Coefficients for Corrugated Flexible Conduits
a s a Function of Standard S o i l Density and Ring F l e x i b i l i t y
or Diameter and Corrugation Depth
 b. I n i t i a l Designs. Use t h e f o l l o w i n g d e s i g n procedures:

(1) Determine apparent r i n g compression stress of t h e pipe:

PD
EQUATION : Apparent r i n g comp. s t r e s s = -
2A (4-5

where P = a p p a r e n t v e r t i c a l s o i l p r e s s u r e on t o p of c o n d u i t ,
as determined from Equation (4-4)

D = o u t s i d e diameter of c o n d u i t

A = cross-sectional a r e a of t h e w a l l per u n i t l e n g t h of c o n d u i t

( 2 ) Equate a p p a r e n t r i n g compression stress t o a l l o w a b l e r i n g

compression s t r e n g t h . t o determine r e q u i r e d c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l w a l l a r e a , A, per
u n i t l e n g t h of pipe:
S
EQUATION: Allowable r i n g comp. s t r e n g t h = Y
FS

EQUATION: A = Y-PDS
2%
where Sy = y i e l d p o i n t s t r e n g t h of t h e ' s t e e l ( t y p i c a l l y 33 t o 45 k s i )

FS = s a f e t y f a c t o r ( u s u a l l y 1.5 t o 2 )

( 3 ) S e l e c t a p p r o p r i a t e pipe s i z e t o provide t h e minimum c r o s s -

s e c t i o n a l wall a r e a A a s determined above.

( 4 ) Check r i n g d e f l e c t i o n so t h a t i t does n o t exceed 5% of t h e nomi-

n a l diameter of t h e pipe. Ring d e f l e c t i o n Y, i s governed by t h e t o t a l s o i l
p r e s s u r e Pv = PDL+PLL, diameter D, moment of i n e r t i a I, modulus of e l a s -
t i c i t y of conduit E, and s o i l modulus El. Generally, r i n g d e f l e c t i o n does n o t
govern t h e design. See Figure 21 (Reference 1 0 ) f o r an example.

(5) The Handling F a c t o r i s t h e maximum f l e x i b i l i t y beyond which r i n g

i s e a s i l y damaged. Pipe d e s i g n must c o n s i d e r l i m i t i n g t h e Handling F a c t o r t o
such t y p i c a l v a l u e s a s D ~ / E I = 0.0433 i n l l b f o r 2-213 x 112 c o r r u g a t i o n and
0.0200 i n l l b f o r 6 x 2 c o r r u g a t i o n .

c. S o i l Placement. Great c a r e must be e x e r c i s e d i n s o i l placement.

Ring d e f l e c t i o n and e x t e r n a l s o i l p r e s s u r e s a r e s e n s i t i v e t o s o i l placement.
I f a l o o s e s o i l b l a n k e t i s placed around t h e r i n g and t h e s o i l i s c a r e f u l l y
7
compacted away from i t , s o i l p r e s s u r e i s reduced c o n s i d e r a b l y .

d. D e s i g w o f F l e x i b l e S t e e l Pipe. For a n a l y s i s and d e s i g n procedures

f o r l a r g e s i z e f l e x i b l e pipe of non-circular c r o s s s e c t i o n , s e e Reference 12.

4. CONDUITS BENEATH EMBANKMENTS OF FINITE WIDTH. Design of c u l v e r t s and

c o n d u i t s beneath narrow-crested embankments must c o n s i d e r t h e e f f e c t of t h e
embankment base spread and s e t t l e m e n t on t h e pipe.
I

PROBABLE ERROR IS ABOUT

HALF TME DISTANCE BETWLLW
ADJACENT CURVES
-

6 I 2 3 4 5 6
(a) VERTICAL SOIL STRAIN a , % INCHES / INCH

EXAMPLE
GIVEN FILL HEIGHT = 201, UNIT WEIGHT =
G 125 PCF (COMPACTION 90°/o STANDARD
DENSITY ), PIPE DIA.= 10811, WALL THICK-
NESS = 0.511, E = 3 0 X 106 PSI,
-
I = 1253 = 0.0104 IN.~/IN.

SOLUTION
.VERTICAL PRESSURE425 X20=2500PSF
FROM (01 = 1.3%
-
E'=PVle = 2500
0.013X 144
= 1335 PSI
1335 ~(10833 =
Rs= SOX 1 0 6 ~ 0 . 0 1 0 4

w 50 100 150 to0 250 WO

FROM(b1 Ay/D
Z
- =I
za (b) STIFFNESS RATIO R, MMENSLONLESS
-= < 5% OK
I X 1.3 ~1.3%
0

FIGURE 21
Example of. Ring D e f l e c t i o n
 a. Longitudinal Extension. The maximum h o r i z o n t a l s t r a i n of a c o n d u i t
beneath a n embankment o r e a r t h dam occurs under t h e c e n t e r of t h e f i l l .
Maximum s t r a i n depends on t h e r a t i o s b/h, b / d , and t h e average v e r t i c a l
4
s t r a i n i n t h e foundation beneath c e n t e r of t h e f i l l . (See F i g u r e 22 f o r t h e
d e f i n i t i o n s and t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between v e r t i c a l s t r a i n and h o r i z o n t a l
strain. )

b. J o i n t Rotation. Besides t h e h o r i z o n t a l e x t e n s i o n of t h e c o n d u i t ,
a d d i t i o n a l j o i n t opening may occur a t t h e bottom of t h e pipe because of s e t -
tlement under t h e embankment load. For c o n c r e t e pipe i n s e c t i o n s about 12
f e e t l o n g , compute a d d i t i o n a l j o i n t opening due t o s e t t l e m e n t by Equation
(4-8).

EQUATION: Opening = 8 C r
b

where 8 = s e t t l e m e n t of base of pipe a t embankment c e n t e r l i n e ( i n )

b = embankment base width ( i n )

c = c o n s t a n t , varying from 5 f o r uniform foundation

c o n d i t i o n s t o 7 f o r v a r i a b l e foundation c o n d i t i o n s

r = pipe r a d i u s ( i n )

c. Pipe S e l e c t i o n . Compute t o t a l s e t t l e m e n t below embankment by methods

i n Chapter 5. From t h i s v a l u e , compute maximum j o i n t opening a t pipe mid-
h e i g h t - a s above. Add t o t h i s opening t h e spread a t t h e t o p o r bottom of t h e
p i p e from j o i n t r o t a t i o n computed from Equation (4-8).

S p e c i f y a pipe j o i n t t h a t w i l l accommodate t h i s movement and remain

w a t e r t i g h t . I f t h e j o i n t opening exceeds a s a f e value f o r p r e c a s t c o n c r e t e
p i p e , c o n s i d e r cast-in-place c o n d u i t i n long s e c t i o n s w i t h w a t e r t i g h t expan-
sion joints. Corrugated metal pipe i s g e n e r a l l y a b l e t o lengthen without
r u p t u r e , b u t i t may not be s u f f i c i e n t l y c o r r o s i o n r e s i s t a n t f o r water reten-
tion structures.

5. LONG SPAN METAL CULVERTS. The above methods a r e n o t a p p l i c a b l e t o v e r y

l a r g- e ,- f l e x i b l e metal c u l v e r t s , i.e., widths i n t h e range of 25 t o 45 f e e t .
For a n a l y s i s and design. procedures f o r t h e s e s e e Reference 19, Behavior and
Design of Long Span Metal C u l v e r t s , by Duncan.

Sect i o n 5. DEEP UNDERGROUND OPENINGS

1. GENERAL FACTORS. P r e s s u r e s a c t i n g on underground openings a f t e r t h e i r

completion depend on t h e c h a r a c t e r of t h e surrounding m a t e r i a l s , inward move-
ment permitted during c o n s t r u c t i o n , and r e s t r a i n t provided by t h e t u n n e l
lining.
 Wh

C-ES S IDLE d
SOIL
6 I6 96 36 46
RATIO (O/o)

RATIO OF HORIZWTAL ST RAIN AT GOWDUT m - n a OHT t o rounoATirnm VERTICAL STRAIN^^)

i J

FIGURE 22
Conduits Beneath Embankments of Finite Width
2. OPENINGS I N ROCK. S t r e s s a n a l y s i s d i f f e r s f o r two rock groups: sound,
nonswelling rock t h a t can s u s t a i n c o n s i d e r a b l e t e n s i l e s t r e s s e s , and f r a c t u r e d
blocky, seamy, squeezing, o r s w e l l i n g rock. For d e t a i l e d e x p l a n a t i o n s of
t h e s e rock groups, s e e Chapter 1.

a. Sound Rock. Determine stresses surrounding t u n n e l s o r openings i n

i n t a c t , i s o t r o p i c rock, such a s c r y s t a l l i n e igneous t y p e s , o r homogeneous
sandstone and l i m e s t o n e , by e l a s t i c a n a l y s e s . Use t h e methods of Reference
20, Design of Underground Openings i n Competent Rock, by Obert, e t a l .

For t h e s e m a t e r i a l s , s t r e s s e s i n rock surrounding s p h e r o i d a l c a v i t i e s

a r e lower t h a n t h o s e f o r t u n n e l s with t h e same c r o s s s e c t i o n . Use e l a s t i c
a n a l y s e s t o determine t h e b e s t arrangement of openings and p i l l a r s , providing
s u p p o r t s a s r e q u i r e d a t l o c a t i o n s of s t r e s s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . For i n i t i a l e s t i -
mates of roof p r e s s u r e , Table 1 (Reference 21, Rock Tunneling w i t h S t e e l
S u p p o r t s , by P r o c t o r and White) may be used.

b. Broken and F r a c t u r e d Rock. P r e s s u r e on t u n n e l s i n c h e m i c a l l y o r

mechanically a l t e r e d rock must be analyzed by approximate r u l e s based on
experience. For d e t a i l s , s e e Reference 21.

c. Squeezing and Swelling Rocks. Squeezing rocks c o n t a i n a c o n s i d e r a b l e

amount of c l a y . The c l a y f r a c t i o n may be from non-swelling k a o l i n i t e group o r
from h i g h l y s w e l l i n g montmorillonite group. These rocks a r e preloaded c l a y s
and t h e squeezing i s due t o swelling. The squeeze i s i n t i m a t e l y r e l a t e d t o an
i n c r e a s e i n water c o n t e n t and a d e c r e a s e i n s h e a r s t r e n g t h .

3. LOADS ON UNDERGROUND OPENINGS I N ROCK.

a. V e r t i c a l Rock Load. Table 1 g i v e s t h e h e i g h t of rock above t h e tun-

n e l roof which must be supported by roof l i n i n g .

b. H o r i z o n t a l P r e s s u r e s . Determine t h e h o r i z o n t a l p r e s s u r e Pa on tun-
n e l s i d e s by applying t h e s u r c h a r g e of t h i s v e r t i c a l rock l o a d t o an a c t i v e
f a i l u r e wedge ( s e e diagram i n Table 1). Assume v a l u e s of rock s h e a r s t r e n g t h
( s e e Chapter 3 f o r a range of v a l u e s ) on t h e a c t i v e wedge f a i l u r e plane, which
a l l o w f o r t h e f r a c t u r e d o r broken c h a r a c t e r of t h e rock. Evaluate t h e possi-
b i l i t y of movement of an a c t i v e f a i l u r e plane t h a t c o i n c i d e s with weak s t r a t a
o r bedding i n t e r s e c t i n g the t u n n e l w a l l a t an angle.

c . Support P r e s s u r e s a s Determined From Rock Q u a l i t y . As an a l t e r n a t e

method of a n a l y s i s , use e m p i r i c a l c o r r e l a t i o n s i n Reference 2 2 , Engineering
C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of Rock Masses f o r Tunnel Support, by Barton, e t a l . , t o
determine r e q u i r e d s u p p o r t p r e s s u r e s a s a f u n c t i o n of rock mass q u a l i t y "Q".
The a n a l y s i s i n c o r p o r a t e s rock q u a l i t y d e s i g n a t i o n (RQD) and v a r i o u s j o i n t
p r o p e r t i e s of t h e surrounding m a t e r i a l , and i s a p p l i c a b l e f o r sound o r f r a c -
t u r e d rock. R e s u l t s may be bsed d i r e c t l y f o r e v a l u a t i n g type gf roof o r w a l l
support required.
 TABLE 1
Overburden Rock Load C a r r i e d by Roof Support

Rock Conditions Rock Load Hp i n F e e t Remarks

1. Hard and i n t a c t Zero Sometimes s p a l l i n g o r

popping occurs.

2. Hard s t r a t i f i e d o r 0 t o 0.5 B Light pressures.

schistose
3. Massive, mod- 0 t o 0.25 B Load may change
e r a t e l y jointed e r r a t i c a l l y from p o i n t
t o point.

4. Moderately blocky 0.25 B t o 0.35 (B+H~) No s i d e p r e s s u r e .

and seamy
5. Very blocky and 0.35 t o 1.10 (3+Ht) L i t t l e o r no s i d e
seamy pressure.

6. Completely c r u s h e d 1.10 (B+Ht) Considerable s i d e

but chemically pressure. Sof t e n i n g
intact e f f e c t of seepage
towards h o t t a n of
tunnel.
7. Squeezing r o c k , (1.10 t o 2.10) (B+Ht)
moderate d e p t h Heavy s i d e p r e s s u r e .

8. Squeezing r o c k , (2.10 t o 4.50) (B+H~)

g r e a t depth
9. Swelling rock Up t o 250 f t . i r r e s p e c t i v e Very heavy p r e s s u r e s .
of v a l u e of (B+Ht)
Notes:
ROCK SURFACE
1. Above v a l u e s apply t o t u n n e l s a t
/I
depth g r e a t e r t h a n 1.5 ( B + H ~ ) .
2. The roof of t h e t u n n e l i s assumed t o ti )1.5 (B+H+ )
be l o c a t e d below t h e water t a b l e .
I f i t i s . l o c a t e d permanently above
t h e w a t e r t a b l e , t h e v a l u e s given
f o r r o c k c o n d i t i o n s 4 t o 6 can b e
reduced by f i f t y percent.
3. Some v e r y dense c l a y s which have not
yet a c q u i r e d p r o p e r t i e s of s h a l e
rock may behave a s squeezing o r
s w e l l i n g rock.
4. Where s a n d s t o n e o r limestone c o n t a i n
h o r i z o n t a l l a y e r s of immature s h a l e ,
roof p r e s s u r e s w i l l correspond t o rock
c o n d i t i o n "very blocky and seamy."
-
4. OPENINGS I N SOFT GROUND.

a. Ground Behavior. The method of c o n s t r u c t i o n of t u n n e l s depends upon

t h e response of t h e ground during and a f t e r excavation. The s t a n d up time
depends-upon t h e type of s o i l , t h e p o s i t i o n of groundwater, and t h e s i z e of
opening. Depending upon t h e response d u r i n g i t s movement p e r i o d , t h e ground
i s c l a s s i f i e d as: ( I ) f i r m , ( 2 ) r a v e l i n g , ( 3 ) running, ( 4 ) flowing, (5)
squeezing o r ( 6 ) swelling.

(1) I n f i r m ground, no roof support i s needed during excavation and

t h e r e i s no p e r c e p t i b l e movement.

( 2 ) I n r a v e l i n g ground, chunks o r f l a k e s of m a t e r i a l begin t o f a l l

p r i o r t o i n s t a l l i n g t h e f i n a l ground supports. Stand up time d e c r e a s e s w i t h
i n c r e a s i n g s i z e of excavation. With r i s i n g groundwater, r a v e l i n g ground may
become running ground. Sand with c l a y binder i s one example of t h i s type of
soil.

( 3 ) I n running ground, s t a n d up time i s zero. The roof support must

be i n s e r t e d p r i o r t o excavation. Removal of s i d e s u p p o r t s r e s u l t s i n i n f l o w
of m a t e r i a l which comes t o r e s t a t i t s a n g l e of repose. Dry c o h e s i o n l e s s
s o i l s f a l l i n t o t h i s category.

( 4 ) Flowing ground a c t s a s a t h i c k l i q u i d and i t invades t h e opening

from a l l d i r e c t i o n s i n c l u d i n g t h e bottom. I f support i s n o t provided, f l o w
c o n t i n u e s u n t i l t h e t u n n e l i s completely f i l l e d . Cohesionless s o i l below
groundwater c o n s t i t u t e s flowing ground.

( 5 ) Squeezing ground advances g r a d u a l l y i n t o t h e opening without any

s i g n s of rupture. For slow advancing s o i l , s t a n d up time i s adequate, yet t h e
l o s s of ground r e s u l t s i n s e t t l e m e n t of t h e ground s u r f a c e . S o f t c l a y i s a
t y p i c a l example of squeezing ground.

( 6 ) Swelling ground advances i n t o t h e opening and i s caused by a n

i n c r e a s e i n volume due t o s t r e s s r e l e a s e and/or moisture i n c r e a s e . P r e s s u r e s
on support members may i n c r e a s e s u b s t a n t i a l l y even a f t e r t h e movement i s
restrained.

b. Loss of Ground. As t h e underground excavation i s made, t h e surround-

i n g ground s t a r t s t o move toward t h e opening. Displacements r e s u l t from
stress r e l e a s e , s o i l coming i n t o t h e tunnel from r a v e l i n g , r u n s , f l o w s , e t c .
The r e s u l t i n g l o s s of ground causes s e t t l e m e n t of t h e ground s u r f a c e . The
l o s s of ground a s s o c i a t e d with s t r e s s r e d u c t i o n can be p r e d i c t e d reasonably
w e l l , b u t the' ground l o s s due t o r a v e l i n g , flows, r u n s , e t c . r e q u i r e s a
d e t a i l e d knowledge of the subsurface c o n d i t i o n s t o avoid unacceptable amounts
of s e t t l e m e n t . For a c c e p t a b l e l e v e l s of ground l o s s i n v a r i o u s t y p e s of s o i l s
s e e Reference 23, E a r t h Tunneling w i t h S t e e l Supports, by P r o c t o r and White.
 C* - Loads. The support p r e s s u r e s i n t h e underground openings a r e govern-
ed by t h e u n i t weight of t h e s o i l , groundwater t a b l e , s o i l p r o p e r t i e s , defor-
mations d u r i n g e x c a v a t i o n , i n t e r a c t i o n between s o i l and t h e s u p p o r t s , shape of
t h e opening, and t h e l e n g t h of t i m e t h a t h a s elapsed s i n c e t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f
l i n i n g . Other f a c t o r s such a s t h e presence of a n o t h e r opening a d j a c e n t t o i t ,
e x c a v a t i o n of a l a r g e deep basement near an e x i s t i n g opening, l o a d from neigh-
boring s t r u c t u r e s , and change i n groundwater c o n d i t i o n s , w i l l a l s o a f f e c t t h e
d e s i g n p r e s s u r e s on t h e t u n n e l s u p p o r t s . A schematic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e
l o a d a c t i o n on underground openings i s shown i n F i g u r e 23 (Reference 23).

E s t i m a t e of l o a d f o r temporary s u p p o r t s i n e a r t h t u n n e l s may be
o b t a i n e d from Table 2 (Reference 23). For f u r t h e r guidance see Reference 23
and Reference 24, Tunneling i n S o f t Ground, Geotechnical C o n s i d e r a t i o n s , by
Peck.

5. PRESSURE ON VERTICAL SHAFTS.

a. S h a f t i n Sand. I n t h e e x c a v a t i o n of a v e r t i c a l c y l i n d r i c a l s h a f t
g r a n u l a r s o i l s , p r e s s u r e s surrounding t h e s h a f t approach a c t i v e v a l u e s . If
outward d i r e c t e d f o r c e s from a b u r i e d s i l o move t h e s i l o w a l l s i n t o t h e s u r -
rounding s o i l , p r e s s u r e s approach p a s s i v e v a l u e s a s an upper l i m i t .

( 1 ) P r e s s u r e C o e f f i c i e n t s . See F i g u r e 24 f o r a c t i v e and p a s s i v e
p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r a c y l i n d r i c a l s h a f t of unlimited d e p t h i n g r a n u l a r
soils.

( 2 ) M o d i f i c a t i o n of Active P r e s s u r e s . For r e l a t i v e l y s h a l l o w s h a f t s
( d e p t h less t h a n twice t h e d i a m e t e r ) , r i g i d b r a c i n g a t t h e t o p may prevent
development of a c t i v e c o n d i t i o n s . In t h i s c a s e , h o r i z o n t a l p r e s s u r e s may be
a s l a r g e a s a t - r e s t p r e s s u r e s on a l o n g w a l l with plane s t r a i n i n t h e sur-
rounding s o i l . (See DM-7.2, Chapter 3.)

( 3 ) I f groundwater i s encountered, use submerged u n i t weight of sand

and add h y d r o s t a t i c pressure.

b. S h a f t i n Clay.

( 1 ) P r e s s u r e on Walls of S h a f t s i n S o f t Clay. For a c y l i n d r i c a l

s h a f t , no support i s needed from t h e ground s u r f a c e t o a d e p t h of zo = 9.
To determine t h e approximate v a l u e of u l t i m a t e h o r i z o n t a l e a r t h p r e s s u r e on a
s h a f t l i n i n g a t any d e p t h z , use

ph = Y . z-c

where Y = e f f e c t i v e u n i t weight of c l a y

z = depth

c = cohesion

T h i s p r e s s u r e i s l i k e l y t o occur a f t e r s e v e r a l months.
 TABLE 2
Loads For Temporary Supports i n E a r t h Tunnels a t Depths More Than
1.5 (B + Ht)

Design Load*
Type of Ground Ground Condition Remarks
H~

Running Loose 0.50 (B + Ht)

ground above
water t a b l e Medium 0.04 (B + Ht)
Dense 0.30 (B + Ht)

Running Disregard a i r p r e s s u r e ; Hp e q u a l t o
ground i n t h a t f o r running ground, above w a t e r
compressedair. t a b l e with e q u a l d e n s i t y .
tunnel

Flowing ground H o r 2 (B + Ht)

i n free-air whichever i s s m a l l e r
t unnel

T-t
Raveling Above water (-) Hp (running)
ground table T

Below water
T-t
table (-1 Hp (running)
(free air) T

Below water
T-t
table (-1
T
2Hp -a
Y
(compressed a i r )

Squeezing Homogeneous H - -PC- HqU A f t e r complete

ground Y 2Y(B+2Ht) blowout,
PC = 0
Soft roof, s t i f f H - --
PC Hq"
sides Y 2YB

S t i f f roof, s o f t
sides
 TABLE 2 (continued)
Loads For Temporary Supports i n E a r t h Tunnels a t Depths More Than
1.5 ( B + Ht)

Design Load*
Type of Ground Ground Condition Remarks
H~

Swelling Intact Very s m a l l Permanent roof

ground s u p p o r t should
be completed
F i s s u r e d , above Hp e q u a l t o t h a t f o r w i t h i n a few
water t a b l e r a v e l i n g ground w i t h days a f t e r
same s t a n d up t i m e H mining

F i s s u r e d , below
water t a b l e ,
f r e e - a i r tunnel

pc = a i r p r e s s u r e i n pounds per s q u a r e f o o t

qu = unconfined compressive s t r e n g t h of ground above roof i n pounds

per s q u a r e f o o t

Y = u n i t weight of s o i l i n pounds per c u b i c f o o t

t = s t a n d up time, minutes

T = e l a p s e d time between excavating

--
and completion of permanent
s t r u c t u r e , minutes

H = v e r t i c a l d i s t a n c e between ground s u r f a c e and t u n n e l roof i n f e e t

Hp = d e s i g n l o a d i n f e e t of e a r t h , see Table 1

H t = h e i g h t of t u n n e l , see Table 1

B = width of t u n n e l , see Table 1

* For c i r c u l a r t u n n e l s , Ht = 0, B = Diameter
.
 EFFECTIVEUNIT qo
WEIGHT = Y
FRICTION ANGLE =#

RATIO Z/R
4

FIGURE 24
Coefficients for Active or Passive Pressures on Underground
Cylindrical Shafts or S i l o s
 ( 2 ) P r e s s u r e on Walls of S h a f t s i n S t i f f Clay. On s h a f t s l o c a t e d i n
s t i f f , i n t a c t , o r f i s s u r e d s w e l l i n g c l a y s , i n i t i a l l y t h e p r e s s u r e on t h e s h a f t
l i n i n g i s v e r y small. Over a period of t i m e , t h e p r e s s u r e may i n c r e a s e t o
s e v e r a l t i m e s t h e overburden p r e s s u r e ( i - e . , u l t i m a t e l y t o t h e s w e l l i n g pres-
sure i f shaft lining i s sufficiently rigid). Local e x p e r i e n c e i n t h a t s o i l o r
f i e l d measurements can provide u s e f u l information. For f u r t h e r d e t a i l s of
p r e s s u r e s on s h a f t s , s e e Reference 23.

S e c t i o n 6. NUMERICAL STRESS ANALYSIS

Stre.ss a n a l y s i s u s i n g numerical methods and computers a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r many

simple a s w e l l a s more complex l o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n s . See DM-7.3, Chapter 3 on
a v a i l a b l e computer programs.
 REFERENCES

1. Department of C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g , I n s t i t u t e of T r a n s p o r t a t i o n and T r a f f i c
E n g i n e e r i n g , U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a , B e r k e l e y , S t r e s s e s and
D e f l e c t i o n s i n F o u n d a t- i o n s and Pavements, F a l l , 1965.

2. F o s t e r , C.R., and Ahlvin, P.G., S t r e s s e s and D e f l e c t i o n s Induced by

Uniform C i r c u l a r Load, Highway Research Board P r o c e e d i n g s , Highway
Research Board, Washington, D.C., 1954.

3. Osterberg, J.O., I n f l u e n c e Values f o r V e r t i c a l S t r e s s e s i n a

S e m i - I n f i n i t e Mass Due t o a n Embankment Loading, P r o c e e d i n g s , F o u r t h
I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference on S o i l Mechanics and Foundation E n g i n e e r i n g ,
London, 1957.

4. Jimenez S a l a s , J . A . , S o i l P r e s s u r e Computations: A M o d i f i c a t i o n of
Newmark's Method, P r o c e e d i n g s , Second I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference o n S o i l
Mechanics and Foundation E n g i n e e r i n g , Rotterdam, 1948.

5. ~ o u l o s , H.G.
' and D a v i s , E.H., E l a s t i c S o l u t i o n s f o r S o i l and Rock
Mechariics, John Wiley & Sons, I n c . , New York, 1974.

6. Duncan, J.M., and Buchignani, A.L., An E n g i n e e r i n g Manual f o r S e t t l e m e n t

S t u d i e s , Department of C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g , I n s t i t u t e of T r a n s p o r t a t i o n
and T r a f f i c E n g i n e e r i n g , U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a , B e r k e l e y , J u n e , 1976.

7. Mehta, M.R., and V e l e t s o s , A.S., S t r e s s e s and Displacement i n Layered

Systems, S t r u c t u r a l Research S e r i e s No. 178, U n i v e r s i t y of I l l i n o i s ,
Urbana, IL.

8. B u r m i s t e r , D.M., S t r e s s and Displacement C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a Two-Layer

R i g i d Base S o i l System: I n f l u e n c e Diagrams and P r a c t i c a l A p p l i c a t i o n s ,
P r o c e e d i n g s , Highway Research Board, Washington, D. C. , 1956.

9. G r i l l o , O., I n f l u e n c e S c a l e and I n f l u e n c e C h a r t f o r t h e Computation of

S t r e s s e s Due, R e s p e c t i v e l y , t o S u r f a c e P o i n t Load and P i l e Load,
Proceedings of Second I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference on S o i l Mechanics and
Foundation E n g i n e e r i n g , Rotterdam, Vol. 6 , pp 70-73, 1948.

10. Watkins, R.K., Buried S t r u c t u r e s , Foundation E n g i n e e r i n g Handbook,

Winterkorn H.F. and Fang, F.Y., ed., Chapter 2 3 , Van Nostrand and
Reinhold Co., New York, 1975.

11. American S o c i e t y of C i v i l E n g i n e e r s , Design and C o n s t r u c t i o n of S a n i t a r y

and Storm Sewers, Manuals and R e p o r t s of E n g i n e e r i n g P r a c t i c e , No. 3 7 ,
ASCE, 1976.

12. Armco Drainage and Metal P r o d u c t s , I n c . , Handbook of Drainage and

Construction Products.

13. U. S. Department of A g r i c u l t u r e , S o i l C o n s e r v a t i o n S e r v i c e , E n g i n e e r i n g
Handbook, S t r u c t u r a l Design, S e c t i o n 6.

Out of Date I
14. American Concrete Pipe A s s o c i a t i o n , C o n c r e t e P i p e Design Manual, Vienna,
VA, 1980.

15. Katona, M.G. and Smith, J.M., CANDE User Manual, FHWA-RD-77-6, F'ederbl
Highway A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , O c t o b e r , 1976.

16. S p a n g l e r , M.G, Underground C o n d u i t s -

An A p p r a i s a l o f Modern R e s e a r c h ,
T r a n s a c t i o n s , ASCE, pp 316-373, 1948.

17. Commercial S h e a r i n g , Inc., S o f t Ground T u n n e l i n g (company b r o c h u r e ) ,

C a t a l o g T-1, Youngstown, OH, 1971.

18. Watkins, R.K. and Moser, A.P., Response of C o r r u g a t e d S t e e l P i p e t o

E x t e r n a l S o i l P r e s s u r e s , Highway R e s e a r c h Record Number 373, Highway
Research Board, 1971.

19. Duncan, J . M . , Behavior and Design of Long Span Metal C u l v e r t s , J o u r n a l of

t h e ' G e o t e c h n i c a 1 E n g i n e e r i n g D i v i s i o n , ASCE, Vol. 105, No. GT3, 1979.

20. Obert , L., Duvall , W. I. and Merr ill, R.H. , Design of Underground
Openings i n Competent Rock, B u l l e t i n , U.S. Bureau of Mines.

21. P r o c t o r , R.V. and White, T.L., Rock Tunneling With S t e e l S u p p o r t s ,

Commercial S h e a r i n g I n c . , Youngstown, OH, 1968.

22. Barton, N., L i e n , R. and Lunde, J., E n g i n e e r i n g C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of Rock

Masses f o r Tunnel S u p p o r t , Rock Mechanics, Volume 6 , No. 4 , J o u r n a l
I n t e r n a t i o n a l S o c i e t y of Rock Mechanics, 1974.

23. P r o c t o r , R.V. and White, T.L., E a r t h Tunneling With S t e e l S u p p o r t s ,

Commercial S h e a r i n g , I n c . , Youngstown, OH, 1977.

24. Peck, R.B., Tunneling i n S o f t Ground, G e o t e c h n i c a l C o n s i d e r a t i o n s ,

Seminar on Underground C o n s t r u c t i o n , V a i l , CO, 1976.

Out of Date
Date
 CHAPTER 5. ANALYSIS OF SETTLEMENT AND VOLUME EXPANSION

S e c t i o n 1. INTRODUCTION

1. SCOPE. T h i s c h a p t e r concerns ( a ) immediate s e t t l e m e n t s , ( b ) long-term

s e t t l e m e n t s , ( c ) r a t e of s e t t l e m e n t , ( d ) c r i t e r i a f o r t o l e r a b l e s e t t l e m e n t ,
( e ) methods of reducing o r a c c e l e r a t i n g s e t t l e m e n t s f o r s a t u r a t e d f i n e - g r a i n e d
s o i l s and ( f ) methods f o r . c o n t r o l l i n g and/or e s t i m a t i n g heave i n s w e l l i n g
s o i l s . Procedures g i v e n a r e f o r fine-grained compressible s o i l s a s w e l l a s
f o r coarse-grained s o i l s .

Guidance i n o t h e r s p e c i a l c a s e s such a s c o l l a p s i n g s o i l , s a n i t a r y l a n d
f i l l , e t c . , i s provided i n DM-7.3, Chapter 3. Monitoring of s e t t l e m e n t s i s
d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter 2.

2. OCCURRENCE OF SETTLEMENTS. The s e t t l e m e n t of s a t u r a t e d c o h e s i v e s o i l

c o n s i s t s of t h e sum of t h r e e components; ( 1 ) immediate s e t t l e m e n t o c c u r r i n g a s
t h e load i s applied, (2) consolidation settlement occurring gradually a s
e x c e s s pore p r e s s u r e s generated by l o a d s a r e d i s s i p a t e d , and ( 3 ) secondary
compression e s s e n t i a l l y c o n t r o l l e d by t h e composition and s t r u c t u r e of t h e
s o i l skeleton.

The s e t t l e m e n t of coarse-grained g r a n u l a r s o i l s s u b j e c t e d t o f o u n d a t i o n
l o a d s o c c u r s p r i m a r i l y from t h e compression of t h e s o i l s k e l e t o n due t o re-.
arrangement of p a r t i c l e s . The p e r m e a b i l i t y of coarse-grained s o i l i s l a r g e
enough t o j u s t i f y t h e assumption of immediate excess pore p r e s s u r e d i s s i p a t i o n
upon a p p l i c a t i o n of load. S e t t l e m e n t of coarse-grained s o i l can a l s o be
induced by v i b r a t o r y ground motion due t o e a r t h q u a k e s , b l a s t i n g o r machinery,
o r by soaking and submergence.

3. APPLICABILITY. S e t t l e m e n t e s t i m a t e s d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r a r e a p p l i -
c a b l e t o c a s e s where s h e a r s t r e s s e s a r e well below t h e s h e a r s t r e n g t h of t h e
soil.

S e c t i o n 2. ANALYSIS OF STRESS CONDITIONS

1. MECHANICS OF CONSOLIDATION. See Figure 1. Superimposed l o a d s develop

pore p r e s s u r e s i n compressible s t r a t a exceeding t h e o r i g i n a l h y d r o s t a t i c pres-
s u r e s . A s pore p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t s f o r c e water from a c o m p r e s s i b l e s t r a t u m ,
i t s volume d e c r e a s e s , c a u s i n g s e t t l e m e n t .

2. INITIAL STRESSES. See Figure 2 f o r p r o f i l e s of v e r t i c a l s t r e s s i n a com-

p r e s s i b l e s t r a t u m p r i o r t o c o n s t r u c t i o n . For e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n s w i t h no
excess h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e s , canpute v e r t i c a l e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s a s shown i n
Case 1, F i g u r e 2.
*

VERTICAL STRESS --t

CON DlTlONS BEFORE LOADING

EFFECTIVE STRESS AT

CONDITIONS DURING LOADING

r I

COMPUTATION OF SETTLEMENT COMPUTATDN OF TIME RATE OF CONSOLIDATH

AH = SETTLEMENT FROM CONSOLIDATION fi = AVERAGE PERCENT OF CONSOLIDATION COMPLETED AT
A e = DECREASE IN VOID RATIO CORRESPONDING lD A ANY TIME t AND DEPENDS ON THE DEGREEOF
STRESS INCREASE FROM TO (po+ A P ) AT THE DISSIMTION OF THE INITIAL HYDROSTATIC EXCESS
MID -HEIGHT OF THE LAYER Ht. PORE WATER PRESSURES uo.
IF & IS DETERMINED DIRECTLY ON THE (e-LOGP) U AT ANY TlME IS MEASURED BY THE DIVISION OFTHE AREA
CURVE FROM LABORATORY CONSOLlDATlON UNDER THE INITIAL EXCESS PRESSURE DIAGRAM
TEST, AH IS COMPUTED AS FOLLOWS: BETWEEN EFFECTIVE STRESS AND PORE PRESSURE:
& AH= Ae = k
I+% - Ht I+eo UoHt b+Au
IF COMPRESSION INDEX Cc IS INTERPRETED FROM THIS RELATK)NSHIP IS EVALUATED BY THETHEORY OF
A SERIES OF SEMILOGARITHMIC (e-P) CURVES CONSOLIDATION AND IS EXPRESSED BY THE T I M E M O R
OF CONSOLIDATION TESTS, AH IS COMPUTED .
Tv TO MTERMINE 0 AS A FUNCTION OF TIME FKTOR,
AS FOLLOWS: USE CURVES OF FIGURE 9.
~ ~ ~ (i L 3& W- Ek) Tv= +,
I +eo Po
AH MAY BE COMPUTED FROM Qy THE SLOPE OF H = LENGTH OF LONGEST VERTICAL PATH FOR DRAINAGE
ARITHMETIC (e-PI CURVES,IN THE RANGE OF PORE WATER. FOR DRAINAGE RI PERVIOUS LAYERS
FRoM(%)T0(4tAP): AT TOP AND BOTTOM OF COMPRESSIBLE STRATUM,
AH= a ~ AHPt OV = 0.435 CC H = W/2.
I+eo Po + Ap/2

FIGURE 1
Consolidation Settlement Analysis
 STRESS CONDITION DIAGRAM OF VERTICAL STRESSES DESCRIPTION
(1) /GROUND SURRCE

TOTAL STRESS CziS COMPUTED USING TOTAL

SIMPLE OVERBURDEN PRESSURE UNIT WEIGHT YT
BOTH ABOVE AND BELOW
THE G.W.L. PORE WATER PRESSURE U IS WETO
-
G.W.L. EFFECTIVE STRESS Sz= C-,u .

*
(2) IMMEDIATELY AFTER W E R I N G OF THE
GROUNDWATER TOTAL STRESS IN TOP
LOWERING OF GROUND SAND LAYER REMAINS PRACTICALLY
WATER LEVEL UNCHANGED, BUT THE EFFECTIVE STRESSES
INCREASE. SINCE THE WATER ESCAPES
a SLOWLY FROM THE CLAY LAYER,THE
n .....
......
.... EFFECTIVE STRESS REQUlR ES LONG TIME
LEFFECTIVE
STRESS TO REACH THE NEW EQUILIBRIUMVALUE.
X
W
0 (3 TOTAL STRESSES ON A CLAY LAYER INCREASED
BY THE ADDITION OF SURCHARGE LOAD.
----- INITIALLY THIS LOAD IS CARRIED BY PORE
& UNDER WEIGHT OF INITIAL WATER IN THE FORM OF EXCESS PORE PRESSURE.
P Fl LL AS THE SETTLEMENT PROGRESSES IN THE
CLAY LAYER,THE EFFECTIVE STRESS
..../.: INCREASES TO CORRESPOND TO THE STRESS
EFFECTIVE STRESS FROM SURCHARGE LOAD.

(4 1
RlSE OF GROUND WATER LEVEL DECREASES
RISE OFGRCUND EFFECTIVE PRESSURE OFOVERBURDEN. EFFEC-
WATER LEVEL TlVE STRESS LINE MOVES TO LEFT. THEN PRE-
CONSOLIDATION STRESS EQUALS ORIGINAL
EFFECTIVE STRESS 0VERBURDEN.TOlAL

a STRESS PRACTICALLY UNCHANGED.

n

FIGURE 2
P r o f i l e s of V e r t i c a l S t r e s s e s B e f o r e C o n s t r u c t i o n
 4
smss OONOlTKWJ O ~ O f ~ S T F E S S E S #SQIIQTrn 1

(5)
- - ------- EXCAVATION OF OVERBURDEN MATERIAL
U(cAvATm UNLOADS CLAY LAYER. EFFECTIVE STRESS
PIIMX)IYS#IMl'm m LINE MOVES TOTHE LEFT.THEN PRECONSOL-
IDATION STRESS EQUALS ORIGINAL EFFECTIVE
\"< "z STRESS OF OVERBURDEN.
::..
..-. ~ C n I I I ~
I

(6) PRECONSOLIDATION FROM PAST LWDINGS

PRE#MISOUfmm~ GREATER THAN THE EXISTING OVERBURDEN
6.W.L.
MAY HAVE BEEN CAUSED BY WEIGHT OF
L m N G IN T I E PAST -
GLACIAL ICE, EROSION OF FORMER OVER
BURDEN, LOWER GROUND WATER LEVEL P W S
1 DESSICATION, OR REMOVAL OF FORMER
LEFFECTIVE
STRESS STRUCTURES.

(7)
SAND STRATUM BELOW THE CLAY MAY BE
ARTESIAN PFKSSWK
L SUBJECT TO ARTESIAN HYDRAULIC
PRESSURES THAT DECREASE EFFECTIVE
STRESS AT BASE OFCLAY. TOTAL STRESS
REMAINS UNCHANGED.

.
FIGURE 2 (continued)
P r o f i l e s of Vertical Stresses Before Construction
 a. P r e c o n s o l i d a t i o n . S t r e s s e s exceeding t h e p r e s e n t e f f e c t i v e v e r t i c a l
p r e s s u r e of overburden produce p r e c o n s o l i d a t i o n ( 1) by t h e weight of material
t h a t e x i s t e d above t h e p r e s e n t ground s u r f a c e and t h a t h a s been removed by
e r o s i o n , excavation, o r r e c e s s i o n of g l a c i e r s , (2) by c a p i l l a r y stresses from
d e s i c c a t i o n , and ( 3 ) by lower groundwater l e v e l s a t some t i m e i n t h e p a s t .

b. Underconsolidation. Compressible s t r a t a may be i n c o m p l e t e l y c o n s o l i -

dated under e x i s t i n g l o a d s a s a r e s u l t of r e c e n t lowering of groundwater o r
r e c e n t a d d i t i o n of f i l l s o r s t r u c t u r a l l o a d s . Residual h y d r o s t a t i c e x c e s s
pore p r e s s u r e e x i s t i n g i n t h e compressible s t r a t u m w i l l d i s s i p a t e w i t h t i m e ,
causing settlements.

c. E v a l u a t i o n of E x i s t i n g Conditions. Determine c o n s o l i d a t i o n c o n d i t i o n
a t s t a r t of c o n s t r u c t i o n by t h e following s t e p s :

( 1 ) .Review t h e d a t a a v a i l a b l e on s i t e h i s t o r y and geology t o e s t i -

mate probable p r e c o n s o l i d a t i o n o r u n d e r c o n s o l i d a t i o n .

(2) Compare p r o f i l e of p r e c o n s o l i d a t i o n stress determined from

l a b o r a , t o r y c o n s o l i d a t i o n t e s t s (Chapter 3) with t h e p r o f i l e of e f f e c t i v e over-
burden p r e s s u r e s .

( 3 ) E s t i m a t e p r e c o n s o l i d a t i o n from c/Pc r a t i o , where c i s t h e

cohesion: (q,12) and PC i s t h e p r e c o n s o l i d a t i o n stress, u s i n g l a b o r a t o r y
d a t a from unconfined compression t e s t and A t t e r b e r g l i m i t s ( s e e Chapter 3 ) .

( 4 ) I f u n d e r c o n s o l i d a t i o n i s i n d i c a t e d , i n s t a l l piezometers t o mea-
s u r e t h e magnitude of h y d r o s t a t i c excess pore water p r e s s u r e s .

d. Computation of Added S t r e s s e s . Use t h e e l a s t i c s o l u t i o n s (Chapter 4 )

t o determine t h e v e r t i c a l stress increment from a p p l i e d l o a d s . On v e r t i c a l
l i n e s beneath s e l e c t e d p o i n t s i n t h e loaded a r e a , p l o t p r o f i l e s of e s t i m a t e d
p r e c o n s o l i d a t i o n and e f f e c t i v e overburden s t r e s s p l u s t h e increment of a p p l i e d
stress. See F i g u r e 3 f o r t y p i c a l p r o f i l e s . Lowering of groundwater d u r i n g
c o n s t r u c t i o n o r r e g i o n a l drawdown i n c r e a s e s e f f e c t i v e stress a t t h e b o u n d a r i e s
of t h e compressible s t r a t u m and i n i t i a t e s c o n s o l i d a t i o n . S t r e s s a p p l i e d by
drawdown e q u a l s t h e r e d u c t i o n i n buoyancy of overburden corresponding t o
d e c r e a s e i n boundary water pressure. I n developed l o c a t i o n s , s e t t l e m e n t o f
surrounding a r e a s from drawdown must be c a r e f u l l y e v a l u a t e d b e f o r e u n d e r t a k i n g
dewatering o r w e l l pumping.

S e c t i o n 3. INSTANTANEOUS SETTLEMENT

1. IMMEDIATE SETTLEMENT OF FINE-GRAINED SOILS. Generally, t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s

s e t t l e m e n t r e s u l t s from e l a s t i c compression of c l a y e y s o i l . For f o u n d a t i o n s
on u n s a t u r a t e d c l a y o r h i g h l y o v e r c o n s o l i d a t e d c l a y , t h e e l a s t i c s e t t l e m e n t
c o n s t i t u t e s a s i g n i f i c a n t p o r t i o n of t h e t o t a l s e t t l e m e n t .
 COMPRESSIBLE LAYER HAS BEEN
PREOONSOUDATED BY SOME PRST
PRESSURE PC.EFFECTIVE STRESS OF
EXISTING OVERBURDEN = Pg .

THIS INCREASES STRESS FROM Pg

n> PI. RESULTING SETTLEMPlT IS
RECOMPRESSIONAND TAKES PLACE
COMPARATIVELY RAPIDLY.

FROM PI 70P2.EXWtNSON TAKES PLACE

A W REBOUND !XOPE OFC VI P (4) LMQ€STRESS- I

(5)WATER LEVEL - TO RISE

BACK TO ITS ORlCilNAL LEVEL.

THIS SOME UPLIFT ON

FIGURE 3
Computation of Total Settlement for Various Loading Conditions
Immediate s e t t l e m e n t 6" i s estimated a s :

q i s a p p l i e d uniform p r e s s u r e ; B i s width of loaded a r e a ; I i s combined shape

and r i g i d i t y f a c t o r ; u i s Poisson's r a t i o -
ranges betweezl 0.3 and 0.5, t h e
h i g h e r value being f o r s a t u r a t e d s o i l w i t h no volume change d u r i n g l o a d i n g ;
and E,,U i s undrained modulus obtained from l a b o r a t o r y o r f i e l d ( p r e s s u r e -
meter) t e s t s . Table 1 (Reference 1 , S t r e s s e s and D e f l e c t i o n s i n Foundations
and Pavements, by Department of C i v i l Engineering, U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a ,
Berkeley) p r o v i d e s v a l u e s of I. Empirical r e l a t i o n s h i p d e r i v e d from f i e l d
measurement may be used t o determine Eu when a c t u a l t e s t v a l u e s are n o t
a v a i l a b l e ; s e e Table 2 (adapted from Reference 2 , An Engineering Manual For
S e t t l e m e n t S t u d i e s , by Duncan and Buchignani). Empirical c o r r e l a t i o n s f o r
e s t i m a t i o n of OCR (Over Consolidation R a t i o ) a r e presented i n Chapter 3.

I f t h e f a c t o r of s a f e t y a g a i n s t b e a r i n g f a i l u r e ( s e e DM-7.2, Chapter 4 )
i s l e s s than about 3, t h e n t h e immediate s e t t l e m e n t 8, i s modified a s
follows :

Ec = immediate s e t t l e m e n t c o r r e c t e d t o allow
for p a r t i a l yield condition

SR = Settlement R a t i o

Determine SR from Figure 4 (Reference 3, I n i t i a l S e t t l e m e n t of S t r u c t u r e s on

-
C l a y , ' b y D'Appolonia, e t a l . ) . See Figure 5 f o r an example.

2. SETTLEMENT OF COARSE-GRAINED SOILS. This immediate s e t t l e m e n t i s a func-

t i o n of t h e width and depth of f o o t i n g , e l e v a t i o n of t h e water t a b l e , and t h e
modulus of v e r t i c a l subgrade r e a c t i o n (K,,) w i t h i n t h e d e p t h a f f e c t e d by t h e
footing. Figure 6 may be used t o e s t i m a t e q,
from t h e s o i l boring l o g , and
t o compute a n t i c i p a t e d s e t t l e m e n t .

For l a r g e f o o t i n g s where s o i l deformation p r o p e r t i e s v a r y s i g n i f i c a n t l y

with depth o r where t h e t h i c k n e s s of g r a n u l a r s o i l i s o n l y a f r a c t i o n of t h e
width of t h e loaded a r e a , t h e method i n Figure 6 may underestimate s e t t l e m e n t .

3. TOTAL SETTLEMENT I N GRANULAR SOILS. T o t a l s e t t l e m e n t i s t h e combined

e f f e c t of immediate and long-term s e t t l e m e n t s . A u s u a l l y c o n s e r v a t i v e e s t i -
mate of s e t t l e m e n t can be made u t i l i z i n g t h e method i n Figure 7 (Reference 4 ,
S t a t i c Cone t o Compute S t a t i c S e t t l e m e n t Over Sand, by Schmertmann). A review
of methods d e a l i n g w i t h s e t t l e m e n t of sands u t i l i z i n g t h e s t a n d a r d p e n e t r a t i o n
t e s t r e s u l t s can be found i n Reference 5, Equivalent L i n e a r Model f o r P r e d i c t -
i n g S e t t l e m e n t s of Sand Bases, by Oweis.
 TABLE 1
Shape and R i g i d i t y F a c t o r s I f o r C a l c u l a t i n g S e t t l e m e n t s
o f P o i n t s on Loaded Areas a t t h e Surface of an E l a s t i c Half-Space

>

Shape and R i g i d i t y F a c t o r I f o r Loaded Areas

on an E l a s t i c Half-Space of I n f i n i t e Depth

Shape and ~ d g e l ~ i ded l

Rigidity Center Corner of Long S i d e Average

Circle (flexible) 1.00 0.64 0.85

Circle (rigid) 0.79 0.79 0.79
Square ( f l e x i b l e ) 1.12 0.56 0.76 0.95
Square ( r i g i d ) 0.82 0.82 0.82 0.82
Rectangle :
(flexible)
lengthlwidth
2 1.53 0.76 1.12 1.30
5 2.10 1.05 1.68 1.82
10 2.56 1.28 2.10 2.24
Rectangle:
(rigid)
lengthlwidth
2 1.12 1.12 1.12 1.12
5 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.6
10 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
 TABLE 1 ( c o n t i n u e d )
Shape and R i g i d i t y F a c t o r s I f o r C a l c u l a t i n g S e t t l e m e n t s
o f P o i n t s on Loaded Areas a t t h e S u r f a c e of a n E l a s t i c Half-Space

Shape and R i g i d i t y F a c t o r I f o r Loaded Areas

o n . a n E l a s t i c Half-Space of Limited Depth Over a Rigid Base

Center of Corner of F l e x i b l e Rectangular Area

Rigid Circular
Area
H/B Diameter = B (strip)
L/BP1 L / B = ~L/B=5 LIB-10 LIB-a,

for v = 0.50
0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.5 0.14 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04
1.0 0.35 0.15 0.12 0.10 0.10 0.10
1.5 0.48 0.23 0.22 0.18 0.18 0.18
2.0 0.54 0.29 0.29 0.27 0.26 0.26
3.0 0.62 0.36 0.40 0.39 0.38 0.37
5.0 0.69 0.44 0.52 0.55 0.54 0.52
10.0 0.74 0.48 0.64 0.76 0.77 0.73

f o r v = 0.33
0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 .
0.5 0.20 0.09 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08
1 .O 0.40 0.19 0.18 0.16 0.16 0.16
1.5 0.51 0.27 0.28 0.25 0.25 0.25
2.0 0.57 0.32 0.34 0.34 0.34 0.34
3.0 0.64 0.38 0.44 0.46 0.45 0.45
5.0 0.70 0.46 0.56 0.60 0.61 0.61
10.0 0.74 0.49 0.66 0.80 0.82 0.81

RECTANGLE CIRCLE
NOTATION FOR L O A D E D AREAS, SHOWN IN PLAN VIEW
 TABLE 1 (continued)
Shape and Rigidity Factors I for Calculating Settlements
o f P o i n t s ' o n Loaded Areas a t the Surface of an E l a s t i c Half-Space

I
Example :

Compute immediate settlement a t center of uniformly loaded area

( f l e x i b l e ) measuring 20' by 20'.

Calculate as tk sun of tk
inflwnce values at the
carriers of four equal-sided

HI-
rectargles.

lo'

1 ° f

RIGID BASE
 TABLE 2
Relationship Between Undrained Modulus and Overconsolidation Ratio

OCR* Eu/c
P1<30 30<PI<50 1 P1>50
I

* OCR = Overconsolidation r a t i o

c = Undrained shear strength

P I = P l a s t i c index
I
- 1.0

!
9 0,8
\
h
9
3 0.6

P 0.4
s
&
II
0.2
a
0
0 0.2 0.1 0.6 0.8 1.0
APPLIED STRESS RATIO ,
- 1.0

P 0.8
T
h

i
0.6

-
& 0.4

02
I1

8 0
APPLIED STRESS RATIO, q/q,,lt

-
APPLE0 STRESS RATIO,
qXapplied stnss ti= thickness d elastic layer
u=ultimata bearing capacity B= width d foundation
1
f = initial shear stress ratio (see FIGURE 4b)
FIGURE 4a
R e l a t i o n s h i p Between Settlement R a t i o and Applied S t r e s s R a t i o
f o r S t r i p Foundation on Homogeneous I s o t r o p i c Layer
 v

10 1 1 1 I 1 '
-. o a -
0 3

F
a
OL
V)
0.6 -
V)
W
a
I-
Q4- -
V)
a 0.2l
a
W
x
u, 0 -
aF: -0.2
-z
-0.4 - -
- 0.6 I I I I I .
I 2 4 6 8 10
OVERCONSOLIDATION RATIO
i

FIGURE 4 b
Relationship Between Initial Shear Stress and Overconsolidation Ratio
Example :

Given LL = 58% P I = 25% c = 1 KSF

Moderately c o n s o l i d a t e d c l a y , OCR <3

Depth t o r i g i d l a y e r (H) = 10.5 f t

v = 0.5

Rigid s t r i p f o o t i n g , width = 7 f t qappl = 2.5 KSF quit = 6 KSF

Find immediate s e t t l e m e n t .
(I-v2)
G v = q ~ E" I

I = 2.0 (Table 1 ) assume l e n g t h l w i d t h W 10

From Table 2, E u / c = 600

Eu = 600 x 1 = 600 KSF

2.5 x 7 x ( 1 - 0 . 5 ~ ) x 2.0
8, = 12 = 0.52 inches
600

Find f a c t o r of s a f e t y a g a i n s t b e a r i n g f a i l u r e .

F ~ = 6*o
- = 2.4, 2.4 <3.0
2.5

Correct f o r y i e l d .

f = 0.7 ( F i g u r e 4b)

qappl/qult = 0.42, H I B = 1.5

SR = 0.60 ( F i g u r e 4a)

Corrected v a l u e of i n i t i a l s e t t l e m e n t

8, = = 0.87 i n c h e s
0.60
-
FIGURE 5
Example of Immediate S e t t l e m e n t Computations i n Clay
- - . - --- -- -
DEFINITIONS COARSE-GRAINOD SOLS
M' IMMEDIATE SETTLEMENT OF FOOTING (MOWCUS O f ELASTICITY W A S I N G
q = F O O T M UNIT LOAD IN trt LINEARLY WITH DEPTH)
0 = FOOTING WIDTH SHULOW FOOTINGS D L B
FOR B 11 20,FT:
D = DEPTH OF FOOTING BELOW GROUND
SURFACE
Kvl ' MODULUS OF VERTICAL SUIBRADE FOR b OFT^
REACTION

INTERPOLATE FOR INTERMEDIATE

VALUES OF B
DEEP FOUNDATION D ' s bB
FOR B s
2 0 FT:

NOTES: I. NONPLMTIC SILT IS ANALYZED A3 COAR3E-mAINED SOIL WITH MODULUS OF

ELASTICITY INCREASING LINEARLY WITH DEPW.
2. VALUES OF K , SHOWN FOR COAR3E-GRAINED SOILS *PLY TO OUY OR MOIST W E R I M
WlTH THE GROUNDWATER LEVEL AT A DEPTH OF AT LEAST 1.5B BELOW BASE OF FOOTING.
IF GROUNDWATER IS AT BASE OF FOOTING, USE KVI/2 IN COMPUTING SETTLEMENT
3 FOR CONTINUOUS FOOTINGS MULTIPLY THE SETTLEMENT COMPUTED FOR WIDTH"B"BY 2.

FIGURE 6 -- -
I n s t a n t a n e o u s Settlement of I s o l a t e d Footings on Coarse-Grainej S o i . 1 ~
 1. A p r o f i l e of standard p e n e t r a t i o n r e s i s t a n c e N ( b l o w s l f t ) v e r s u s depth,
from the'proposed foundation l e v e l t o a depth of 2B, o r t o boundary of a n
incompressible l a y e r , whichever occurs f i r s t . Value of s o i l modulus Es
i s e s t a b l i s h e d using the following r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

S o i l Type

S i l t s , sands s i l t s , s l i g h t l y cohesive
s i l t - s a n d mixtures 4

Clean, f i n e t o med, sands & s l i g h t l y

s i l t y sands 7

I Coarse 'sands & sands with l i t t l e g r a v e l 10

I
I Sandy g r a v e l s and g r a v e l 12
I
I 2.

3.
Least width of foundation = B, depth of embedment = D, and proposedaverage
c o n t a c t pressure = P.

Approximate u n i t weights of surcharge s o i l s , and p o s i t i o n of water t a b l e i f

I
within D.

4. I f t h e s t a t i c cone bearing value qc i s measured compute Es based on

Es = 2 qc.

ANACYSIS PROCEDUW:

Refer t o t a b l e i n example problem f o r column numbers r e f e r r e d t o by paren-

thesis:

1. Divide t h e subsurface s o i l p r o f i l e i n t o a convenient number of l a y e r s of

any thickness, each with constant N over t h e depth i n t e r v a l 0 t o 2B below
t h e foundation.

2. Prepare a t a b l e a s i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e example problem, using the i n d i c a t e d

column headings. F i l l i n columns 1, .2, 3 and 4 w i t h t h e l a y e r i n g assigned
i n Step 1.

3. Multiply' N v a l u e s i n column 3 by t h e a p p r o p r i a t e f a c t o r Es/N (col. 4) t o

o b t a i n values of Es; place v a l u e s i n column 5.

4. Draw an assumed 2B-0.6 t r i a n g u l a r d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r t h e s t r a i n i n f l u e n c e

f a c t o r I,, along a scaled depth of 0 t o 2B helow the foundation. Locate
the depth of t h e mid-height of each of t h e l a y e r s assumed i n Step 2, and
place i n column 6. From t h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n , determine t h e I, value a t t h e
mid-height of each l a y e r , and place i n column 7.

FIGURE 7
Settlement of Footings Over Granular S o i l s : Example Computation
Using Schmertmann's Method
5. C a l c u l a t e (I,/E,) AZ, and p l a c e i n column 8. Determine t h e sum of
a l l v a l u e s i n column 8.
28
6. Total settlement = AH = c1c2Ap Z0 (%)Az,

where C1 = 1 - )
0.5 ( p 0 / A p ) ; C I = o . 5 embedment c o r r e c t i o n f a c t o r

C2 = 1 + 0.2 l o g ( l o t ) creep correction f a c t o r

po = overburden p r e s s u r e a t foundation l e v e l

n p = net foundation pressure i n c r e a s e

t = e l ~ s ~ s et di p i e i n pears.

EXAMPLE PROBLEM:
GIVEN THE FOLLOWING SOIL SYSTEM AND CORRESPONDING STANDARD PENETRATON
TEST (SPT) DATA, DETERMINE THE AMOUNT OF ULTIMATE SETTLEMENT UNDER
A GWEN FOOTING AND FOOTING LOAD:

PO MSTRlbU

STANDARD PENETRATION TEST VALUE (N )

FIGURE 7 ( c o n t i n u e d )
S e t t l e m e n t of F o o t i n g s Over Granular S o i l s :
Example Computation Using Schmertmann's Method
Footing D e t a i l s :

Footing width: 6.0 f t . (min.) by 8.0 f t . (max.)

Depth of Embedment: 2.0 f t . Load (Dead + Live): 120 t o n s

S o i l Properties:

Depth Below DepthBelow Base UnitWt. (pcf)

Surface ( f t . ) of Footing ( f t . ) Moist Sat. S o i l Description

0 - 5 <5 95 105 F i n e sandy s i l t

5 - 10 3 - 8 105 120 F i n e t o medium sand

10 - 17 8 - 15 1.20 130 Coarse sand

Solution:

Layer AZ N Es 2%c I, IZ AZ
(in.) E,/N (tsf) (in.) ~(in./tsf)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6 (7) *(8)
1 24 10 4 40 12 .20 0.120
2 24 16 4 64 36 .60 0.225
3 12 25 4 100 54 .50 0.060
4 12 25 7 175 66 .43 0.029
5 24 12 7 84 84 .33 0.094
6 24 20 7 140 108 -20 0.034
7 24 26 10 260 132 -07 0.006

C = 0.568

po = (2.0 f t J ( 9 5 p c f ) = 190 psf = 0.095 t s f

~p = 120 t o n s I ( 6 f t . ) ( 8 f t . ) = 2.50 t s f

A t t = 1 yr,

cl = 1 - 0.5(.095/2.50) = 0.981

c2 = 1 + 0.2 l o g (10)(1) = 1.20

AH = (0.981)(1.20)(2.50)(0.568) = 1.67 i n .
6

FIGURE 7 (continued)
S e t t l e m e n t of Footings Over Granular S o i l s :
Example Camputation Using Schmer t m n n ' s Method
 S e c t i o n 4. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SETTLEMENTS

1. PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION.

a. C o n s o l i d a t i o n Settlement. For c o n d i t i o n s where excess pore p r e s s u r e s

a r e developed d u r i n g t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of load and i f p r e c o n s o l i d a t i o n stress i s
determined r e l i a b l y , t o t a l s e t t l e m e n t can be p r e d i c t e d with r e a s o n a b l e accu-
racy. The percentage e r r o r i s g r e a t e s t f o r s e t t l e m e n t from recompression
only. In t h i s c a s e a n o v e r e s t i m a t e may r e s u l t u n l e s s h i g h q u a l i t y u n d i s t u r b e d
samples a r e used f o r c o n s o l i d a t i o n tests.

( 1 ) T y p i c a l Loading Cycle. See Figure 3 f o r l o a d i n g sequence i n

building construction. Foundation e x c a v a t i o n can cause s w e l l and heave.
A p p l i c a t i o n of a s t r u c t u r a l l o a d recompresses s u b s o i l and may extend c o n s o l i -
d a t i o n i n t o t h e v i r g i n compression range. S t r e s s changes a r e p l o t t e d on a
semilogarithmic pressure-void r a t i o e-log p curve s i m i l a r t o t h a t shown i n
Figure 3.

( 2 ) pressure-void R a t i o Diagram. Determine t h e a p p r o p r i a t e e-log p

curve t o r e p r e s e n t average p r o p e r t i e s of compressible s t r a t u m from c o n s o l i d a -
t i o n tests. The e-log p curve may be i n t e r p r e t e d from s t r a i g h t l i n e v i r g i n
compression and recompression s l o p e s i n t e r s e c t i n g a t t h e p r e c o n s o l i d a t i o n
stress. Draw e-log p curve t o conform t o t h e s e s t r a i g h t l i n e s a s shown i n
Figure 3.

( 3 ) Magnitude of C o n s o l i d a t i o n S e t t l e m e n t . Compute s e t t l e m e n t
magnitude from change i n void r a t i o corresponding t o change i n s t r e s s from
i n i t i a l t o f i n a l c o n d i t i o n s , o b t a i n e d from t h e e-log p curve ( F i g u r e 3 ) . To
improve t h e accuracy of computations d i v i d e t h e c l a y l a y e r i n t o a number of
s u b l a y e r s f o r computing s e t t l e m e n t . Changes i n c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y of t h e s t r a t u m
and e x i s t i n g and a p p l i e d s t r e s s e s can be d e a l t with more a c c u r a t e l y by consid-
e r i n g each s u b l a y e r independently and then f i n d i n g t h e i r combined e f f e c t .

(4) P r e l i m i n a r y e s t i m a t e s of Cc can be made using t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s

i n Table 3.

b. C o r r e c t i o n s t o Magnitude of C o n s o l i d a t i o n S e t t l e m e n t s . S e t t l e m e n t s
computed f o r o v e r c o n s o l i d a t e d c l a y s by t h e above procedures may g i v e an over-
e s t i m a t e of t h e s e t t l e m e n t . Correct consolidation settlement estimate a s
follows :

Hc = c o r r e c t e d c o n s o l i d a t i o n s e t t l e m e n t

a = f u n c t i o n of o v e r c o n s o l i d a t i o n r a t i o (OCR)
and t h e width of loaded a r e a and t h i c k n e s s o f
compressible s t r a t u m (See Figure 8 f o r v a l u e s and
Reference 6 , E s t i m a t i n g c o n s o l i d a t i o n S e t t l e m e n t s
of Shallow Foundation on Overconsolidated Clay, by
Leonards .)
 TABLE 3
Estimates of C o e f f i c i e n t of Consolidation (Cc)

Cc = 0.009 (LL - 10%) i n o r g a n i c s o i l s , with s e n s i t i v i t y l e s s t h a n 4

Cc = 0.0115 w, organic s o i l s , p e a t

Cc = 1.15 ( e o - 0.35) a l l c l a y s

C, = (1 + eo)(O.l + [wn - 251 0.006) varved c l a y s

wn i s n a t u r a l moisture c o n t e n t , LL i s water c o n t e n t a t l i q u i d l i m i t and eo

i s i n i t i a l void r a t i o .
-
 FIGURE 8
R e l a t i o n Between S e t t l e m e n t R a t i o and O v e r c o n s o l i d a t i o n R a t i o
 OCR = p r e c o n s o l i d a t i o n pressure/overburden p r e s s u r e ( P ~ / P ~ )
(See Chapter 3 . )

AH),^ = c a l c u l a t e d s e t t l e m e n t r e s u l t i n g from s t r e s s increment of

Po t o PC by procedures o u t l i n e d i n Figure 3 , S e c t i o n 2.

2. TIME RATE OF PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION.

a. Application. Settlement time r a t e must be determined f o r f o u n d a t i o n

t r e a t m e n t involving e i t h e r a c c e l e r a t i o n of c o n s o l i d a t i o n o r p r e c o n s o l i d a t i o n
b e f o r e c o n s t r u c t i o n of s t r u c t u r e . Knowledge of s e t t l e m e n t r a t e o r p e r c e n t
c o n s o l i d a t i o n completed a t a p a r t i c u l a r time i s important i n planning remedial
measures on a s t r u c t u r e damaged by s e t t l e m e n t .

b. Time Rate of Consolidation. Where pore water d r a i n a g e i s e s s e n t i a l l y

v e r t i c a l , t h e o r d i n a r y , o n e dimensional t h e o r y of c o n s o l i d a t i o n d e f i n e s t h e
time r a t e of s e t t l e m e n t . Using t h e c o e f f i c i e n t of c o n s o l i d a t i o n c v , compute
percent c o n s o l i d a t i o n completed a t s p e c i f i c elapsed times by t h e time f a c t o r
Tv c u r v e s of Figure 9 (upper panel, Reference 7 , S o i l s and Geology, Proce-
d u r e s f o r Foundation Design of B u i l d i n g s and Other S t r u c t u r e s (Except Hydrau-
-. .
l i c S t r u c t u r e s ) . bv t h e D e ~ a r t m e n t sof t h e Armv and A i r Force). For v e r t i c a l
sand d r a i n s u s e Figure 10 (upper panel, Reference 7). For p r e l i m i n a r y
e s t i m a t e s , t h e e m p i r i c a l c o r r e l a t i o n f o r cv i n Chapter 3 may be used.

( 1 ) E f f e c t of P r e s s u r e D i s t r i b u t i o n . Rate of c o n s o l i d a t i o n i s
i n f l u e n c e d by t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e p r e s s u r e s which occur throughout t h e
d e p t h of t h e compressible l a y e r . For c a s e s where t h e p r e s s u r e s a r e uniform
o r vary l i n e a r l y w i t h depth, use F i g u r e 9 which i n c l u d e s t h e most common pres-
sure distribution. The nomograph i n F t g u r e 11 may be used f o r t h i s c a s e .

For n o n l i n e a r p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n , use Reference 8 , S o i l

Mechanics i n Engineering P r a c t i c e , by Terzaghi and Peck, t o o b t a i n t h e time
factor.

( 2 ) Accuracy of P r e d i c t i o n . Frequently the predicted settlement

time i s l o n g e r t h a n t h a t observed i n t h e f i e l d f o r t h e following r e a s o n s :

' ( a ) T h e o r e t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s assumed f o r t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n analy-

s i s f r e q u e n t l y do n o t hold i n s i t u because of i n t e r m e d i a t e l a t e r a l d r a i n a g e ,
a n i s o t r o p y i n p e r m e a b i l i t y , time dependency of r e a l l o a d i n g , and t h e v a r i a t i o n
of s o i l p r o p e r t i e s w i t h e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s . Two o r t h r e e dimensional l o a d i n g
i n c r e a s e s t h e time r a t e of c o n s o l i d a t i o n . Figure 1 2 ( a f t e r Reference 9,
S t r e s s ~ e f o k a t i o nand S t r e n g t h C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , by Ladd e t a 1 .) g i v e s
examples of how t h e width of t h e loaded a r e a and a n i s t r o p y i n p e r m e a b i l i t y can
a f f e c t the consolidation r a t e substantially. A s t h e r a t i o of t h e t h i c k n e s s of
t h e compressible l a y e r t o t h e width of t h e loaded a r e a i n c r e a s e s , t h e t h e o r y
t e n d s t o o v e r e s t i m a t e t h e time f a c t o r . For d e p o s i t s such a s some h o r i z o n t a l
varved c l a y s where continuous seams of high p e & e a b i l i ty a r e p r e s e n t , c o n s o l i -
d a t i o n can be expected t o be c o n s i d e r a b l y f a s t e r than s e t t l e m e n t r a t e s comput-
ed based on t h e assumption of no l a t e r a l drainage.

( b ) The c o e f f i c i e n t of c o n s o l i d a t i o n , a s determined i n t h e
l a b o r a t o r y , d e c r e a s e s w i t h sample d i s t u r b a n c e . P r e d i c t e d s e t t l e m e n t time
t e n d s t o be g r e a t e r than a c t u a l time ( s e e Chapter 3 ) .
 0

s0
J

5: 40
Z
8
ge
-
(3
W
P

3 m
2
W
P 100
0.1 1.w
r= -
0.01 0.10 1
0
TIME FACTOR,Ty & CW
HZ

"2
OWE WAY DRAINAGE TWO WAY DRAINNE DISTRIBUTION OF INITIAL
PORE PRESSURE
I

0INSTANTANEOUS LOADING, VERTICAL DRAINAGE ONLY

UNIFORM APPLIED UUD Ap=0.8'lXE

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 FROM LABORATORY TESTS ON THE CUY STRATUM :

Oo = 1.00 Cc=(X21 Cv ~ 0 . 0 3FT.~/DAY Cq=O.OK)
LOAD INCREMENT, Ap =WTSF (VIRGIN COMPRESSION)
(I ) FOR W/' PRIMARY ONSOLIDATION:
A H = * u x . ( - ) =o W(O.S)=~.UY.

(2) -NDARY COMPRESSION FOR I CYCLE OF TIME:

A H ~ ~ =ux
c ~ H ~
.........
..-.
.::.::.
-
(3)TIME CONSOLlMToN RELATK)NSHIP: TV :% :TIME =TOR M VERTICAL DRAINAGE.
t = TIME FOLLOWING W I N O .

USE UPPER M E L FOR Tv vt 5. PUlT SETTLEMENT vs TIME-SEE CURVE@ IN FIGURE K ) ( M M E L )

J

FIGURE 9
Time Rate of C o n s o l i d a t i o n f o r V e r t i c a l Drainage
Due t o I n s t a n t a n e o u s Loading
 0

20

$0

60

80

100
0.001 0.01 0.10 , 1.00 no
TIME FACTOR, Tm

@ INSTANTANEOUS W I N G WITH SAND DRAINS

ANALYZE SAND DRAINS FOR AOCELERATION OF CONSOLIMTION.
DRAINS IN TRIANGULAR ARRAY ~ I N G ~, ~ 1 &0 =' ~ 5 ' WELL
, DIAMETER, d W = d a

m R l z o N r u e r r F F K I m T ar a r u r o u a r T w , ch = 0.mFT~/O*Y
T = . = I Rn =*:K=r
(de) d, 1.5
/A dw USE CURVE IN GRAPH ABOVE FOR n =7 TO OBTAIN TR VI OR. PLOT ( 1H GR) AS
CURVE @ .B E W COMBINED EFFECT OF VERTICAL AND RADIAL DRAINAGE:
. PLOT ( ~ V &)AS
S WRVE@BEU)W.

8
K) KK) lo00 10000
TIME SINCE START OF CONSTRUCTION, M Y S
1
-- - - - -- - . ---.
FIGURE 10
V e r t i c a l Sand Drains and S e t t l e m e n t Time Rate
7.1-228
*
AVERME EXCESS PORE WATER AVERME DOOREEOF C(mSOLlMTm
PRESSURE RATK) JL, P E M+-
'b Jl-
6,
K)
PERCENT

1.00 SUPWRT LINE

0.90
0.80 MRECTKWS :
0.70 -- TO DETERMINE THE AVERME DE@REEOF :
0.60 -- ~~NSOCIMW AT A GIVEN nME AFTER 4-
0.50 -
- "
THICKNESS OF COMPRESSIBLE STRATUM,
~NSTANTANW LCWM : 3-
1. RaS3 A STRAIGHT LINE BETWEEN
FEET, ONE WAY DRAINAGE
THE COEFFICIENT OF-1-
CV(WINTI)AWTH€THCKNESSOF .,2
COMPRESSIBLE STRATUM W N G ONE-
WAY DRAINAGE (WINT2)TO ESTAB-
ISH POINT 3 ON THE SUPPORT LINE.
ROM THE GIVEN ELAPSED TIME
AFTER LMDING (WNT 4) P#SS A I
STRAIGHT LINETHROUGH POINT 3 TO
OBTAIN POINT 5. THE DESIRED VAWE
OF THE AVERAGE D86REE O f CON-
SOL1DATlON (OR AVERAGE EXCESS
PORE WATER PRSSURE RATK)) IN
PERCENT. -
3. PROCEED IN A SIMILAR MANNER USING
KNOWN DATA TO ESTABLISH UNKMWN
VALUES REVISING SEWENCE OF
-
--3 OPERATIONS AS REQUIRED. -
-2 -
-50

- DRAINME OFA STRATUM.

DOUBLE DRAINME WHERE INITIAL
DISTRIBUTKMI OF EXCESS PORE WATER
2. IF COMPRESSIBLE STRbTlM HAS TWO- PRESSURE IS LINEAR WITH EPTH,OR
001 - WAY DRAINAGE USE ONE-WLF OF FOR CASES OF SINGLE DRAINAOE WHERE
EXCESS PORE WATER PRESSURE IS
3. NOMOGRAPH APPLIESTOCASES OF CONSTANT WITH DEPTH.
s b

FIGURE 1 1
Nomograph for Consolidation With Vertical Drainage
 Find t i m e n e e d e d f o r 50% c o n s o l i d a t i o n ,

c, = 0.03 f t 2 / d a y HlB'2.5 kh/k,=5

Ht=16 f t . , d r a i n a g e a t t o p and bottom

I 2 5 10 20
ANISOTROPIC PERMEABILITY RATIO, kh / k V Drainage d i s t a n c e ,H=8 f t .
t 5 0 ( f o r i s o t r o p i c p e r m e a b i l i t y ) = Ooo2 82 = 42.67 days
0.03
Corrected t50 f o r anisotropy.

t50 (aniso) (iso)=0.65

Therefore, t50 (aniso)=0.65 x 42.67=27,7 days

1
FIGURE 1 2
E f f e c t of Drainage Conditions on Time Rate of C o n s o l i d a t i o n
 ( 3 ) Gradual Load Application. If construction t i m e is appreciable
compared t o t i m e r e q u i r e d f o r primary c o n s o l i d a t i o n , use t h e t i m e f a c t o r s o f
~ i ~ u 1r 3e (Reference 10, C o n s o l i d a t i o n Under Time Dependent Loading, by Olson)
t o determine c o n s o l i d a t i o n r a t e during and following c o n s t r u c t i o n .

( 4 ) C o e f f i c i e n t of C o n s o l i d a t i o n From F i e l d Measurements. Where

piezometers a r e i n s t a l l e d t o measure pore water p r e s s u r e under t h e a p p l i e d
l o a d s , cv i s computed a s shown i n F i g u r e 14.

c. Time Rate of Multi-Layer Consolidation. I f a compressible s t r a t u m

c o n t a i n s l a y e r s of d i f f e r e n t o v e r a l l p r o p e r t i e s , use t h e procedure of F i g u r e
15 t o determine o v e r a l l s e t t l e m e n t t i m e r a t e .

3. SECONDARY COMPRESSION.

a. Laboratory e-log p Curve. A l a b o r a t o r y e-log p curve i n c l u d e s a n

amount of secondary compression t h a t depends on d u r a t i o n of test l o a d s .
Secondary compression c o n t i n u e s e x p o n e n t i a l l y with t i m e w i t h o u t d e f i n i t e
t e r m i n a t i o n . Thus, t o t a l o r u l t i m a t e s e t t l e m e n t i n c l u d e s secondary compres-
s i o n t o a s p e c i f i c time following completion of primary c o n s o l i d a t i o n .

b. S e t t l e m e n t Computation. Campute s e t t l e m e n t from secondary compres-

s i o n following primary c o n s o l i d a t i o n a s follows :

Hsec = Ca ( H ~ l)o g
-
tsec
t~

Hsec = s e t t l e m e n t from secondary compression

Ca = c o e f f i c i e n t of secondary compression
expressed by t h e s t r a i n per l o g c y c l e of t i m e
(See Chapter 3 )

Ht = t h i c k n e s s of t h e compressible s t r a t u m

tsec = u s e f u l l i f e of s t r u c t u r e o r t i m e
f o r which s e t t l e m e n t i s s i g n i f i c a n t

t p = time of completion of primary c o n s o l i d a t i o n

See example i n F i g u r e 9 f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e secondary s e t t l e m e n t .

The parameter C can be determined from l a b o r a t o r y c o n s o l i d a t i o n tests
(Chapter 3 ) ; f o r p r e l i m i n a r y e s t i m a t e s , t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s i n F i g u r e 16 ( a f t e r
Reference 2) may be used. This r e l a t i o n s h i p i s a p p l i c a b l e t o a wide range o f
s o i l s such a s i n o r g a n i c p l a s t i c c l a y s , o r g a n i c s i l t s , p e a t s , e t c .

c . Combining Secondary and Primary Consolidation. I f secondary compres-

s i o n i s important, compute t h e s e t t l e m e n t from primary c o n s o l i d a t i o n s e p a r a t e -
l y , using an e-log p curve t h a t i n c l u d e s o n l y compression from primary con-
solidation. For e a c h l o a d increment i n t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n t e s t , compression
i s p l o t t e d v e r s u s time ( l o g s c a l e ) ( s e e Chapter 3). The compression a t t h e
end of t h e primary p o r t i o n ( r a t h e r t h a n s t a n d a r d 24 hours) may be used t o
e s t a b l i s h e-log p curve.
 FIND EGREEOF CON-TWN 15 M Y S N O
KK) MYS AFTER THE START OF O O n S T m .
( I ) CONSOLIMTm WITH VERTICAL DRAINME
CONSTRUCTION TIME to t 30 DAYS.
THICKNESS OF COMPRESSIBLE STftATUMr Ion.
DRAMME 00NMTK)N =DOUBLE DRAINAGE

FOR:
t = 1SMYS.T = -=0.03,~=79&
(512
AND FOR
t = looMYS,T = -=0.2,cv ~47%
(512

GRADUAL CONS- TlME (Un FOR

(2) CONSOLIDATION WITH RADIAL DRAINWE

ch = 0.1 FT.~/DAY
&=LOFT.; de=IOFT

(3) COMBINED ( OC 1 VERTICAL AND RADIAL FUW

-
SOLIDATION WlTH RADIAL DRAINAGE
TO SAND DRAINS.
.
0.01

--
0.1
RADIAL TIME FACTOR,TR
-
1.o
= s2
.
--- -
-
--- -
IQO

J
13 FIGURE
Time Rate of Consolidation for Gradual Load Application
7.1-232
 0

QR

16

*Ir I8
N

I8

,,
2
0 0.1 0.2 43 04 0.3 0.6 0.7 OB 0.B 1.0
Canrolldation & = ( I -

. - .-. .. . .. . . . .. -.. -...-..

. . .... ... ..; ..-..
. ... ...:.

:
. .. . . * . . .I.

'4,
.a: .I I.

j;*; !
!::F52
I
t a-- u
u2
..-.
. ....a ... .. .. ..., ..-
A ';. u
'J2
PERVIOUS I WERVIOUS
T W O W A Y DRAINA~C: ONE WAY DRAINAaE

U, = 1 - 3 (consolidation ratio)

ue = Excess pore pressure a t some time t

uo = Excess pore pressure a t time t = 0 (due to external loading)

-
FIGURE 14
Coefficient of Consolidation from Field Measurements
Example :

Thickness of c l a y l a y e r Ht = 66 f t , Drainage - t o p & bottom

H = -66
- - 33 f t
2

Depth of piezometer below t o p of compressible l a y e r = 21 f t

Applied e x t e r n a l l o a d Ap = 1.5 KSF

I n i t i a l e x c e s s pore water p r e s s u r e = uo = Ap = 1.5 KSF

Excess pore p r e s s u r e a f t e r time t l = 15 days, ue(15) = 20 f t = U e t l

Excess pore p r e s s u r e a f t e r t i m e t 2 = 100 days, ~ ~ ( 1 0 0= )14 f t = Uet2

Piezometer measure Uo = 24 f e e t of water +21 f t ( i n i t i a l s t a t i c head)

f o r a t o t a l of 45 f t .

z = g =0.64,
H 33

C o n s o l i d a t i o n r a t i o a t time t l = 15 days = (u,)tl = 1 -2= 0.17

24

Consolidation r a t i o a t time t 2 = 100 days = ( u z ) t 2 = 1 - 14 = 0.47

24

From above graph Ttl = 0.11 ( p o i n t A ) , Tt2 = 0.29 ( p o i n t B)

- 0.29 - 0.11
(33)2 - 231 f t 2 / d a y
cv - 100 - 15

FIGURE 14 ( c o n t i n u e d )
C o e f f i c i e n t of C o n s o l i d a t i o n from F i e l d Measurements
For a s o i l system containing n l a y e r s with p r o p e r t i e s c v i ( c o e f f i c i e n t of
c o n s o l i d a t i o n ) and Hi ( l a y e r t h i c k n e s s ) , convert the system t o one equiva-
l e n t l a y e r with equivalent p r o p e r t i e s , using t h e following procedure:

1. S e l e c t any l a y e r i, with p r o p e r t i e s c v = c v i , H = H i .

2. Transform the thickness of every o t h e r l a y e r t o an e q u i v a l e n t t h i c k n e s s

of a l a y e r possessing t h e s o i l p r o p e r t i e s of l a y e r i, a s follows:
c v i 112
H t l = H~(-)
,
Cvl
c v i 112
H t 2 = H~(-)cv2

c v i 112
H~ n = %(<)

3. Calculate t h e t o t a l thickness of the equivalent l a y e r :

H t T = HT1 + Ht2 + 0.. +Hti + + Htn

4. Treat t h e system a s a s i n g l e l a y e r of t h i c k n e s s H t T , possessing a
c o e f f i c i e n t of c o n s o l i d a t i o n cv = cvi.

5. Determine values of percent c o n s o l i d a t i o n (c)

a t various t i m e s ( t ) f o r
t o t a l t h i c k n e s s (HTT) using nomograph i n Figure 11.
.
FIGURE 15
Procedure f o r Determining t h e Rate of Consolidation
f o r A l l S o i l Systems Containing "N" Layers
 -
EXAMPLE OF COMPUTATION OF RATE OF CONSOLIDATION FOR A MULTI-LAYERED SYSTEM:

LAYERED SYSTEM :

ACTUAL STRATIFICATION
. :. :::..*..:..;:: ..-...::*'....,....-...-.
. .......
. . . . .............
.::....:.. -....... %
....
I.:..?.::;

I
LAYER A $= I4 FT
I
LAYER 8 Hg=6 FT

.:..;: :. :. .....
-.. .... ...:.::...
...:% :.:.::~j:.:;:-~.:~:::~'.<%:.::!-:.:.!..;:.*< :........
.
*.
-.
.-
2:

EQUIVALENT STRATIFICATION

LAYER A

KNOWN APPLICABLE SOlL PROPERTIES:

LAYER A:
c v =~0.04 FT~/DAY
LAYER B:
CvB = I.20 F T .DAY
~
ASSUME: DOUBLE DRAINAGE
DETERMINATION OF EQUIVALENT LAYER THICKNESS:
I. ASSUME AN EQUIVALENT LAYER POSSESSING THE PROPERTIES OF SOlL A.
2. EQUIVALENT THICKNESS t i i = H A + H ~
v2
=tIA+HB

= 14+6 (B)
4
1/2

= 14 +1.10
H i = 15.10 fT.
3. DETERMINE 6FROM FIGURE II ,a.g. AT t =0.25 YEARS,USING H= (15.10)/2 =I 55 FT.
(DRAINAGE PATH ASSUMING DOUBLE DRAINAGEIAND c v ~ z 0 . 0 4FT~/DAY,Uz29.1 ?h

FIGURE 15 ( c o n t i n u e d )
Procedure f o r Determining t h e Rate of C o n s o l i d a t i o n
f o r A l l S o i l Systems Containing "Y" Layers
 loo

'd
0

i
0
z
V)
W
a
a 16'
L
0
0
>
a
s
Z
0
0
W
V)
-2
10
0
I-
.Z
-
W
-
0
LL
LL
W
0
0
-3
10
10 100 1000 3000

NATURAL WATER CONTENT, w., PERCENT

-
FIGURE 1 6
C o e f f i c i e n t of Secondary Compression a s Related t o
Natural Water Content
 4. SANITARY LANDFILL. Foundations on s a n i t a r y l a n d f i l l s w i l l undergo exten-
s i v e s e t t l e m e n t s , b o t h t o t a l and d i s t o r t i o n a l , which are extremely d i f f i c u l t
t o predict. S e t t l e m e n t s r e s u l t n o t o n l y from compression of t h e u n d e r l y i n g
m a t e r i a l s , but a l s o from t h e decomposition of o r g a n i c m a t t e r . Gases i n land-
f i l l a r e a s a r e h e a l t h and f i r e hazards. A thorough s t u d y i s n e c e s s a r y when
u t i l i z i n g s a n i t a r y 1 a n d f i l l . a r e a s f o r foundations. F u r t h e r guidance i s g i v e n
i n DM-7.3, Chapter 3.

5. PEAT AND ORGANIC SOILS. S e t t l e m e n t s i n t h e s e s o i l s a r e computed i n a

s i m i l a r manner a s f o r fine-grained s o i l s . However, t h e primary c o n s o l i d a t i o n
t a k e s p l a c e r a p i d l y and t h e secondary compression c o n t i n u e s f o r a long period
of time and c o n t r i b u t e s much more t o t h e t o t a l s e t t l e m e n t .

Section 5. TOLERABLE AND DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT

1. APPLICATIONS. For an important s t r u c t u r e , compute t o t a l s e t t l e m e n t a t a

s u f f i c i e n t number of p o i n t s t o e s t a b l i s h t h e o v e r a l l s e t t l e m e n t pat4r-r. From
t h i s p a t t e r n , determine t h e maximum scope of t h e s e t t l e m e n t p r o f i l e o r t h e
-----_ __--.___----
g r e a t e s t d i f f e r e n c e i n s e t t l e m e n t between a d j a c e n t f o u n d a t i o n u n i t s .

2. APPROXIMATE VALUES. Because of n a t u r a l v a r i a t i o n of s o i l p r o p e r t i e s and

u n c e r t a i n t y on t h e r i g i d i t y of s t r u c t u r e and t h u s a c t u a l l o a d s t r a n s m i t t e d t o
f o u n d a t i o n u n i t s , e m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s have been suggested t o e s t i m a t e t h e
d i f f e r e n t i a l s e t t l e m e n t s ( o r a n g u l a r d i s t o r t i o n ) i n terms of t o t a l s e t t l e m e n t
( s e e Reference 11, S t r u c t u r e S o i l I n t e r a c t i o n , by I n s t i t u t i o n of C i v i l Engi-
n e e r s ) . Terzaghi and Peck (Reference 8, page 489) suggested t h a t f o r f o o t i n g s
on sand, d i f f e r e n t i a l s e t t l e m e n t i s u n l i k e l y t o exceed 75% of t h e t o t a l set-
tlement. For c l a y s , d i f f e r e n t i a l s e t t l e m e n t may i n some c a s e s approach t h e
t o t a l settlement.

3. TOLERABLE SETTLEMENT

a . C r i t e r i a . D i f f e r e n t i a l s e t t l e m e n t s and a s s o c i a t e d r o t a t i o n s and t i l t
may cause s t r u c t u r a l damage and could i m p a i r t h e s e r v i c e a b i l i t y and f u n c t i o n
o f a given s t r u c t u r e . Under c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s , d i f f e r e n t i a l s e t t l e m e n t s
could undermine t h e s t a b i l i t y of t h e s t r u c t u r e and cause s t r u c t u r a l f a i l u r e .
Table 4 (Reference 12, ~ l l o w a b l eS e t t l e m e n t s of S t r u c t u r e s , by Bjerrum) pro-
v i d e s some g u i d e l i n e s t o e v a l u a t e t h e e f f e c t of s e t t l e m e n t on most s t r u c t u r e s .
Table 5 g u i d e l i n e s f o r tanks and o t h e r f a c i l i t i e s .

b. Reduction of D i f f e r e n t i a l S e t t l e m e n t E f f e c t s . For methods of reduc-

i n g o r a c c e l e r a t i n g c o n s o l i d a t i o n s e t t l e m e n t s , s e e S e c t i o n 6. S e t t l e m e n t t h a t
can be completed during t h e e a r l y s t a g e s of c o n s t r u c t i o n , b e f o r e p l a c i n g sen-
1
s i t i v e finishes, generally w i l l not contribute to s t r u c t u r a l distress. In
I b u i l d i n g s with l i g h t frames where l a r g e d i f f e r e n t i a l s e t t l e m e n t s may n o t h a r m
I t h e frame, make s p e c i a l p r o v i s i o n s t o avoid damage t o u t i l i t i e s o r o p e r a t i n g
equipment. I s o l a t e s e n s i t i v e equipment, such a s motor-generator sets w i t h i n
t h e s t r u c t u r e , on s e p a r a t e r i g i d l y supported foundations. Provide f l e x i b l e
couplings f o r u t i l i t y l i n e s a t c r i t i c a l locations.
 TABLE 5
Tolerable Differential Settlement for Miscellaneous Structures ,

STRUCTURE TOLERABCE 01STOIPnO)J

-
k or8
L

*
r I

*
A. ONREINFORCED LOU) W U I N G -NO
WALLS rorrM < s L = 1/mt.

(L and H ore respectively mR L/H > 3 = 1/20oon l/ilao.

Iongth ond height ot t-he HOmING
w d l from tog of tooting) -LA= I -
Arnrr
L a I/SOOO

FOR L/H = 3 -
Amam
L a 1/rs00
J

0. JOINTED RtGlD CONCRETE PRESSURE CONDUITS

(Mr)tMlM ANGLE CHANGE AT JOMT 2 TO 4 1 /66
TIMES .AVERAGE SLOPE OF SETTLEMENT
PROFILE. LONBlTUDlNAL EXTENSION
AFFECTS DAMAGE.)

C, CIRCULAR STEEL PETROLEUM OR ,@ < I/SOO

FLUID STORAOE TANKS. 8.' 1/500ta 1/300

-
CCv
PUNTS ON TANK PERIMETER

I
I k I

&
tL-+
SINE CURVE
A 4 q D
OBSERVED SET T LEMENTS - -

-
-

8 .
si -L sj t L
sf + s; I
8'=@{- FOUNDATION MWEMENTS
4. EFFECT OF STRUCTURE RIGIDITY. Computed d i f f e r e n t i a l s e t t l e m e n t i s less
a c c u r a t e than computed t o t a l o r average s e t t l e m e n t because t h e i n t e r a c t i o n
between t h e foundation elements and t h e supporting s o i l i s d i f f i c u l t t o
predict. Complete r i g i d i t y i m p l i e s uniform s e t t l e m e n t and t h u s no d i f f e r -
e n t i a l s e t t l e m e n t . Complete f l e x i b i l i t y i m p l i e s uniform c o n t a c t p r e s s u r e
between t h e mat and t h e s o i l . Actual c o n d i t i o n s a r e always i n between t h e two
extreme c o n d i t i o n s . However, depending on t h e magnitude of r e l a t i v e s t i f f n e s s
a s defined below, mats can be d e f i n e d a s r i g i d o r f l e x i b l e f o r p r a c t i c a l pur-
poses.

a . Uniformly Loaded C i r c u l a r Raft. I n t h e c a s e where t h e r a f t h a s a

f r i c t i o n l e s s c o n t a c t with an e l a s t i c h a l f s p a c e ( a s s o i l i s g e n e r a l l y assumed
t o r e p r e s e n t ) , t h e r e l a t i v e s t i f f n e s s i s defined a s

R = r a d i u s of t h e r a f t , t = t h i c k n e s s of r a f t , s u b s c r i p t s r and s r e f e r t o
r a f t and s o i l , v = P o i s s i o n ' s r a t i o and E = Young's modulus.

For Kr < 0.08, r a f t i s considered f l e x i b l e and f o r Kr 5.0 r a f t

i s considered r i g i d .

For i n t e r m e d i a t e s t i f f n e s s v a l u e s see Reference 13, Numerical

Analyses of Uniformly Loaded C i r c u l a r R a f t s on E l a s t i c Layers of F i n i t e Depth,
by Brown.

b. Uniformly Loaded Rectangular Raft. For f r i c t i o n l e s s c o n t a c t between

t h e r a f t and s o i l , t h e s t i f f n e s s f a c t o r i s defined a s :
4 E, 1 - V , .t?

B = width of t h e foundation. Other symbols a r e d e f i n e d i n ( a ) .

For Kr < 0.05, r a f t i s considered f l e x i b l e and f o r Kr -> 1 0 , raft

i s considered r i i i d .

For i n t e r m e d i a t e s t i f f n e s s v a l u e s s e e Reference 14, Numerical

Analysis of Rectangular R a f t on Layered Foundations, by F r a z e r and Wardle.

S e c t i o n 6. METHODS OF REDUCING OR ACCELERATING SETTLEMENT

1. GENERAL. See Table 6 f o r methods of minimizing c o n s o l i d a t i o n s e t t l e -

ments. These i n c l u d e removal o r displacement of compressible m a t e r i a l and
p r e c o n s o l i d a t i o n i n advance of f i n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n .

2. REMOVAL OF COMPRESSIBLE SOILS. Consider excavation o r displacement o f

compressible m a t e r i a l s f o r s t a b i l i z a t i o n of f i l l s t h a t must be placed o v e r
soft strata.

Methods of Reducing o r A c c e l e r a t i n g S e t t l e m e n t o r Coping w i t h S e t t l e m e n t
Method
Procedures f o r l i n e a r f i l l s on
swamps o r compressible
s u r f a c e stratum:
Excavation of s o f t material....
Displacement by weight of f i l l .
J e t t i n g t o f a c i l i t a t e dis-
placement...................
B l a s t i n g by t r e n c h o r shooting
mthods.....................
B l a s t i n g by r e l i e f method. .....
B l a s t i n g by u n d e r f i l l method...
L
TABLE 6
Comment
When compressible foundation s o i l s extend t o
depth of about 1 0 t o 15 f t , i t may be
p r a c t i c a b l e t o remove e n t i r e l y . Partial
removal i s combined with v a r i o u s methods
of d i s p l a c i n g remaining s o f t m a t e r i a l .
Complete displacement i s o b t a i n e d o n l y when
compressible foundation i s t h i n and v e r y
s o f t . Weight displacement i s combined
with excavation of s h a l l o w m a t e r i a l .
For a sand o r g r a v e l f i l l , j e t t i n g w i t h i n t h e
f i l l reduces i t s r i g i d i t y and promotes
s h e a r f a i l u r e t o d i s p l a c e so£ t foundation.
J e t t i n g w i t h i n s o f t foundation weakens i t
t o a s s i s t i n displacement.
Charge i s placed d i r e c t l y i n f r o n t of advanc-
ing f i l l t o b l a s t o u t a t r e n c h i n t o which
t h e f i l l i s forced by t h e weight of sur-
c h a r g e b u i l t up a t i t s p o i n t . Limited t o
depths n o t exceeding about 20 f t .
Used f o r b u i l d i n g up f i l l on an o l d roadway
o r f o r f i l l s of p l a s t i c s o i l . Trenches
a r e b l a s t e d a t both t o e s of t h e f i l l
s l o p e s , r e l i e v i n g c o n f i n i n g p r e s s u r e and
allowing f i l l t o s e t t l e and d i s p l a c e
underlying s o f t m a t e r i a l s .
Charge i s placed i n s o f t s o i l underlying f i l l
by j e t t i n g through t h e f i l l a t a prelimi-
n a r y s t a g e of i t s buildup. Blasting
l o o s e n s compressible marterial, a c c e l e r a -
t i n g s e t t l e m e n t and f a c i l i t a t i n g d i s p l a c e -
ment t o t h e s i d e s . I n some c a s e s r e l i e f
d i t c h e s a r e c u t o r b l a s t e d a t t o e of t h e
f i l l slopes. Procedure i s used i n swamp
d e p o s i t s up t o 30 f t t h i c k .
 TABLE 6 (continued)
Methods of Reducing o r A c c e l e r a t i n g S e t t l e m e n t o r Coping w i t h S e t t l e m e n t
I Met hod
Procedures f o r preconsolida-
Surcharge f i l l .............
t i o n of s o f t foundations:
A c c e l e r a t i n g c o n s o l i d a t i o n by
v e r t i c a l drains...............
V e r t i c a l sand d r a i n s with o r
without surcharge f i l l . .
Wellpoints placed i n v e r t i c a l
sand drain^................^..
Vacuum method.................
Balancing load of s t r u c t u r e
by excavation................
I
Comment
Used where compressible s t r a t u m i s r e l a -
t i v e l y t h i n and s u f f i c i e n t time i s
a v a i l a b l e f o r c o n s o l i d a t i o n under
s u r c h a r g e load. Surcharge m a t e r i a l may ,.'
be placed a s a s t o c k p i l e f o r use later,,'
i n permanent c o n s t r u c t i o n . S o f t founda-
t i o n must be s t a b l e a g a i n s t s h e a r f p ' i l u r e
under surcharge load.
Used where t o l e r a b l e s e t t l e m e n t of."the
completed s t r u c t u r e i s s m a l l , 'where t i m e
available f o r preconsolidation i s l i m i t e d ,
and surcharge f i l l i s r e a s o n a b l y
economical. S o f t f o u n d a t i o n must be ,.,'
s t a b l e a g a i n s t s h e a r f a i l u r e under /
s u r c h a r g e load.
...... Used t o a c c e l e r a t e t h e time f o r c o n s o i i d a t i o n
by providing s h o r t e r d r a i n a g e paths.
Used t o a c c e l e r a t e c o n s o l i d a t i o n by r e d u c i n g
t h e water head, thereby p e r m i t t i n g
i n c r e a s e d flow i n t o t h e sand d r a i n s .
P a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l where p o t e n t i a l
i n s t a b i l i t y of s o f t f o u n d a t i o n r e s t r i c t s
p l a c i n g of surcharge o r where s u r c h a r g e i s
n o t economical.
V a r i a t i o n of w e l l p o i n t i n v e r t i c a l sand d r a i n
but with a p o s i t i v e s e a l a t t h e top of t h e
sand d r a i n surrounding t h e w e l l p o i n t p i p e .
Atmospheric p r e s s u r e r e p l a c e s s u r c h a r g e i n
c o n s o l i d a t i n g s o f t foundations.
U t i l i z e d i n connection w i t h m a t o r r a f t
foundations on compressible m a t e r i a l o r
where s e p a r a t e spread f o o t i n g s a r e founded
i n s u i t a b l e bearing m a t e r i a l o v e r l y i n g
compressible stratum. Use of t h i s method
may e l i m i n a t e deep f o u n d a t i o n s , b u t i t
r e q u i r e s very thorough a n a l y s i s of s o i l
c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y and heave.
 a. Removal by Excavation. Organic swamp d e p o s i t s w i t h low s h e a r
s t r e n g t h and h i g h c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y should be removed by e x c a v a t i o n and r e p l a c e d
by c o n t r o l l e d f i l l . F r e q u e n t l y t h e s e o r g a n i c s o i l s a r e u n d e r l a i n by v e r y
l o o s e f i n e sands o r s i l t o r s o f t c l a y e y si'lts which may be adequate f o r t h e
embankment f o u n d a t i o n and n o t r e q u i r e replacement.

T o p s o i l i s u s u a l l y s t r i p p e d p r i o r t o placement of f i l l s ; however,
s t r i p p i n g may n o t b e . r e q u i r e d f o r embankments h i g h e r t h a n 6 f e e t a s t h e set-
tlement from t h e upper 112 f o o t of t o p s o i l i s g e n e r a l l y s m a l l and t a k e s p l a c e
r a p i d l y d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n period. However, i f t h e t o p s o i l i s l e f t i n p l a c e ,
t h e o v e r a l l s t a b i l i t y of t h e embankment should be checked assuming a f a i l u r e
plane through t h e t o p s o i l using t h e methods of Chapter 7.

b. Displacement. P a r t i a l e x c a v a t i o n may be accompanied by displacement

of t h e s o f t f o u n d a t i o n by t h e weight of f i l l . The advancing f i l l should have
a s t e e p f r o n t face. The displacement method i s u s u a l l y used f o r p e a t and muck
deposits. T h i s method h a s been used s u c c e s s f u l l y i n a few c a s e s f o r s o f t
s o i l s up t o 65 f e e t deep. J e t t i n g i n t h e f i l l and v a r i o u s b l a s t i n g methods
a r e used t o f a c i l i t a t e displacement. Fibrous o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l s tend t o resist
displacement r e s u l t i n g i n trapped pockets which may c a u s e d i f f e r e n t i a l s e t t l e -
ment.

3. BALANCING LOAD BY EXCAVATION. To d e c r e a s e f i n a l s e t t l e m e n t , t h e founda-

t i o n of heavy s t r u c t u r e s may be placed above compressible s t r a t a w i t h i n a n
e x c a v a t i o n t h a t i s c a r r i e d t o a d e p t h a t which t h e weight of overburden,
removed p a r t i a l l y o r completely, balances t h e a p p l i e d l o a d .

a. Computation of T o t a l Settlement. In t h i s c a s e , s e t t l e m e n t i s d e r i v e d
l a r g- e l y from recompression. The amount of recompression i s i n f l u e n c e d by mag-
-

n i t u d e of heave and magnitude of s w e l l i n t h e unloading s t a g e .

b. E f f e c t of Dewatering. I f drawdown f o r dewatering e x t e n d s w e l l below

t h e planned subgrade, heave and consequent recompression a r e d e c r e a s e d by t h e
a p p l i c a t i o n of c a p i l l a r y s t r e s s e s . I f groundwater l e v e l i s r e s t o r e d a f t e r
c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e l o a d removed e q u a l s t h e d e p t h of e x c a v a t i o n times t o t a l u n i t
weight of t h e s o i l . I f groundwater p r e s s u r e s a r e t o be permanently r e l i e v e d ,
t h e load removed e q u a l s t h e t o t a l weight of s o i l above t h e o r i g i n a l water
t a b l e p l u s t h e submerged weight of s o i l below t h e o r i g i n a l water t a b l e . Cal-
c u l a t e e f f e c t i v e stresses a s d e s c r i b e d i n Figure 2 , and c o n s o l i d a t i o n under
s t r u c t u r a l l o a d s a s shown i n Figure 3.

4. PRECONSOLIDATION BY SURCHARGE. This procedure c a u s e s a p o r t i o n of t h e

t o t a l s e t t l e m e n t t o occur b e f o r e c o n s t r u c t i o n . It i s used p r i m a r i l y f o r f i l l
beneath paved a r e a s o r s t r u c t u r e s w i t h comparatively l i g h t column l o a d s . For
h e a v i e r s t r u c t u r e s , a compacted f i l l of h i g h r i g i d i t y may be r e q u i r e d t o
reduce s t r e s s e s i n compressible foundation s o i l ( s e e DM-7.2, Chapter 2).

a. E l i m i n a t i o n of Primary Consolidation. Use F i g u r e 17 t o determine

s u r c h a r g e load and p e r c e n t c o n s o l i d a t i o n under s u r c h a r g e n e c e s s a r y t o e l i m i -
n a t e primary c o n s o l i d a t i o n under f i n a l l o a d . T h i s computation assumes t h a t
t h e r a t e of c o n s o l i d a t i o n under t h e surcharge i s e q u a l t o t h a t under f i n a l
load.
 m U E N l WDER- 8 UYD

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- RATIO OF INTENSITY Of SURCMAROC TO INTENSITY Of FINAL LOAD,

FIGURE 1 7
/Pf

Surcharge Load Required t o Eliminate Settlement Under Final Load

 b. E l i m i n a t i o n of Secondary Consolidation. Use t h e formula i n t h e
bottom panel of F i g u r e 17 t o determine s u r c h a r g e l o a d and p e r c e n t c o n s o l i d a -
t i o n under s u r c h a r g e r e q u i r e d t o e l i m i n a t e primary c o n s o l i d a t i o n p l u s a
s p e c i f i c secondary compression under f i n a l l o a d .

c. L i m i t a t i o n s on Surcharge. I n a d d i t i o n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n s of time
a v a i l a b l e and c o s t , t h e surcharge load may induce s h e a r f a i l u r e of t h e s o f t
foundation s o i l . Analyze s t a b i l i t y under s u r c h a r g e by methods of Chapter 7.

5. VERTICAL DRAINS. These c o n s i s t of a column of p e r v i o u s m a t e r i a l placed

i n c y l i n d r i c a l v e r t i c a l h o l e s i n t h e compressible s t r a t u m a t s u f f i c i e n t l y
c l o s e s p a c e s so t h a t t h e h o r i z o n t a l d r a i n a g e path i s less t h a n t h e v e r t i c a l
d r a i n a g e path. A l l d r a i n s should be connected. a t t h e ground s u r f a c e t o a
drainage blanket. V e r t i c a l d r a i n s a r e u t i l i z e d i n connection with f i l l s
s u p p o r t i n g pavements o r low- t o moderate-load s t r u c t u r e s and s t o r a g e tanks.
Common t y p e s of v e r t i c a l d r a i n s a r e shown i n Table 7 (Reference 1 5 , Use of
Precompression and V e r t i c a l Sand D r a i n s f o r S t a b i l i z a t i o n of Foundation S o i l s ,
by Ladd). Sand d r a i n s d r i v e n with a closed-end pipe produce t h e l a r g e s t
displacement and d i s t u r b a n c e i n t h e surrounding s o i l and t h u s t h e i r
e f f e c t i v e t i e s s i s reduced.

a. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . V e r t i c a l d r a i n s a c c e l e r a t e c o n s o l i d a t i o n by f a c i l i -
t a t i n g d r a i n a g e of pore water but do n o t change t o t a l compression of t h e
s t r a t u m s u b j e c t e d t o a s p e c i f i c load. V e r t i c a l d r a i n s a r e l a i d o u t i n rows,
s t a g g e r e d , o r a l i g n e d t o form p a t t e r n s of e q u i l a t e r a l t r i a n g l e s o r squares.
See Figure 18 f o r c r o s s - s e c t i o n and d e s i g n d a t a f o r t y p i c a l i n s t a l l a t i o n f o r
sand d r a i n s .

b. C o n s o l i d a t i o n Rate. Time r a t e of c o n s o l i d a t i o n by r a d i a l d r a i n a g e of
pore water t o v e r t i c a l d r a i n s i s d e f i n e d by t i m e f a c t o r c u r v e s i n upper panel
of Figure 10. For convenience, use t h e nomograph of Figure 19 t o determine
c o n s o l i d a t i o n time r a t e . Determine t h e combined e f f e c t of v e r t i c a l and r a d i a l
d r a i n a g e on c o n s o l i d a t i o n t i m e r a t e a s shown i n t h e example i n F i g u r e 10.

c . V e r t i c a l Drain Design. See Figure 20 f o r an example of design. For

a t r i a l s e l e c t i o n of d r a i n diameter and s p a c i n g , combine p e r c e n t c o n s o l i d a t i o n
a t a s p e c i f i c time from v e r t i c a l d r a i n a g e w i t h p e r c e n t c o n s o l i d a t i o n f o r
r a d i a l drainage t o t h e d r a i n . This combined percent c o n s o l i d a t i o n Uc i s
p l o t t e d v e r s u s e l a p s e d time f o r d i f f e r e n t d r a i n spacing i n t h e c e n t e r panel of
Figure 20. S e l e c t i o n of d r a i n spacing depends on t h e p e r c e n t c o n s o l i d a t i o n
r e q u i r e d p r i o r t o s t a r t of s t r u c t u r e , t h e t i m e a v a i l a b l e f o r c o n s o l i d a t i o n ,
and economic c o n s i d e r a t ions.

d. Allowance f o r Smear and Disturbance. I n c a s e s where sand d r a i n h o l e s

a r e d r i v e n w i t h a closed-end pipe, . s o i l i n a surrounding a n n u l a r space one-
t h i r d t o one-half t h e d r a i n diameter i n width i s remolded and i t s s t r a t i f i c a -
t i o n i s d i s t o r t e d by smear. Smear t e n d s t o reduce t h e h o r i z o n t a l p e r m e a b i l i t y
c o e f f i c i e n t , and a c o r r e c t i o n should be made i n accordance w i t h Figure 21.
 TABLE 7
Commn Types of V e r t i c a l Drains

Typical I n s t a l l a t i o n

General Type Sub-type dw s

1. Driven Sand Drain Closed end mandrel 182 i n 5 - 20 ft

2. Augered Sand Drain ( a ) Screw type auger 6 - 30 i n -

( b ) Continuous f l i g h t hollow stem 18 i n 5 - 20 f t
auger

3. J e t t e d Sand Drain (a) Internal jetting 18 i n 5 - 20 ft

( b ) Rotary j e t 12 - 18 i n 5 - 20 f t
( c ) Dutch j e t - b a i l e r 12 i n 4 - 16 f t

4. "Paper" Drain ( a ) Kjellman cardboard wick 0 . e i n by 1.5+ - 4+ f t

42 i n

( b ) Cardboard coated p l a s t i c wick s l i g h t l y thicker -

5. F a b r i c Encased Sand
Drain
( a ) Sandwick 2.5 - 3 in 4 - 12 f t
(b) Fabridrain 5 in -

dw = diameter of d r a i n , s = d r a i n spacing
 SETTLEMENT PLATE
SETTLEMENT PROBES

PAMETER W DRAINS RANGES FROM 6 TO 30 IN.,GENERALLY BETWEEN I6 AND 20 IN.

m N G OF DRAINS RANGES FROM 6 TO 20 FT ON CENTER ,GENERALLY BETWEEN 6 AND I0 FT.
PRINCIPAL METHOOS FOR INSTALLING DRAINSARE CLOSED OR OPEN MANDRELSAWANCED BY DRIVING OR JETTIYG,
OR ROTARY DRILLING WITH OR WlTHWT JETS. DRIVING CLOSED MANDREL IS THE MOST COMMON.
W I N BACKFILL MATERIAL SHOULD HAVE SUFFENT PERMEABILITY TO DISCHARGE PORE WATER FLOW ANTI-
CIWlED,BUT USUALLY DOES NUT MEET FILTER REQUIREMENTS AGAINST FOUNDATIONS SOILS. CLEAN SANDS
WITH NO MORE THAN 3 % BY WEIGHT F#SSING No. 200 SIEVE IS USUALLY SUITABLE. A TYPCAL GRADATION
IS As FDUOWS :
SIEVE No. 4 16 50 100 200
%FINER EW WEIGHT: 90-KX) 40-85 2-30 0 - 7 0-3
SAND DRAINME BLANKET MATERIAL IS SIMILAR TO THAT USED FOR DRAIN 0XKFILL.IN SOME CASES GRAVEL
WNORWS OR PERFORATED, OORRUGATED,METAL PIPE ARE PLMED IN DRAINME BLANKET TO REDlEE
HEAD WSS IN DRAINME BLANKET. LONGITUDINAL DITCH OR COLLECTOR DRAIN MAY BE PLACED AT TOE.
GRANULAR WORKING MAT IS SOMETIMES PLACED BELOW DRAINAGE BLANKET TO SUPPORT EQUIPMENT.
SURCHARGE LCMD IS PLACED TO REDUCE OR ELIMINATE POSTCONSTRUCTIW CONSOLIDATION BENEATH NORMAL
FILL. GENERALLY THE SURCHARGE KMD IS NO MORE THAN ABOUT 30% OF NORMAL EMBANKMENT LCW.
FKLD CONTROL DEVICES :
PIEZOMETERS OF STANDPIPE OR CLOSED SYSTEM TYPE 1D OBSERVE PORE WATER PRESSURES;
SETTLEMENT PLATES, MINIMUM 3 FT SQUARE, PLACED AT BASE OF FILL TO RECORD l W A L SETTLEMENT;
SETTLEMENT PROBES DRIVEN OR AUGERED INTO FOUNDATW STRATUM TO MEASURE COMPRESSION
WITHI N FOUNDATION.
ALKiNMENT STAKES,T-SHAPED STAKES PLACED AT OR OUtSlDE EMBANKMENT TOE TO OBSERVE
LATERAL MOVEMENT AND HEAVE.
b
FIGURE II!
Data f o r T y p i c a l Sand D r a i n I n s t a l l a t i o n
C

COEFFICIENT OF CONSOLIDAT'N SUPPORT DIAMETER OF ELAPSED TIME SUBSEQUENT

FOR RADIAL DRAINAGE, Ch, SAND DRAIN TO LOADING
DKYS YEARS
0.1- -99.9
DIRECTIONS
I. LOCATE POINT I CORRESPONDING TO ASSUMED
DIAMETER AND SPACING OF SAND DRAINS,ARRANGED
IN AN EQUILATERALTRIANGULAR ARRAY. ( IF SANO 4 .-
DRAINS ARE ARRANGED IN A SQUARE ARRAY, --
3
19
MULTIPLY M N G BY 1.072 TO CONVERT TO AN
EQUIVALENT TRIANGULAR ARRAY).
2. FROMN T, 1, EXTEND A LINE mIZONTALLYTO
REFERENCE LlNE TO LOCATE POINT 2.
F
a
W
K
3
Of
--
90 a
W
4
lo 3. CONNECT POlNT 2 AND ASSUMED VAWE OF THE
COEFFICIENT OF CONSOLIDATION FOR RADIAL
DRAINAGE, ( POINT 3) WITH A STRAIGHT LlNE TO
LOCATE POINT 4 ON THE SUPPORT LINE.
-3 0 - -
4. PASS A STRAIGHT LINE FROM POINT 4 THROUGH 3
POINT 5. THE ELAPSED TIME AFTER INSTAN-
TANEOUS U)ADING,TO DETERMINE POlNT 6
CORRESPONDING TO THE DESIRED VALUES OF THE
AVERAGE EGREE OF CONSOLIDATION OR AV€RAE
EXCESS PORE WATER PRESSURE RATIO. x
W
60'-40
.. S8
'
b

NOTES
NOMOGRAPH APPLIES TO RADIAL FLOW TO
a .-
VERTICAL SAND DRAINS ASSUMING EQUAL
STRAIN CONDITIONS THROUGHOUT COMPRESSIBLE
STRATUM.
E
FILL OF WIDE EXTENT, INCLUDES ADDITIONAL GIVEN SOIL PROPERTIES
FlLLlD COMPENSATE FQR SETTLEMENT FILL: SAND :
YT =120PCF YT = 125 PCF
HEIGHT =35FK Ysue = 65 PCF
g = 2.0 TSF
CLAY:
y m ~ = 4 0 P S F Ch=Q50FTqDA~
t30 = 1.50 Ca =0.015FT/FT/CYCU OF TlME
Cc = 0.60 Kv = 6 x 10'8 CM/SEC
INITIAL INITIALu CV = 0.0 FT~/DAVKh = SO x 10-8 CM/SEC
4 KS = I0 x 10-8 CM/SEC
COMPUTATION OF TOTAL SETTLEMENT FOR A KNOWN SET OF FOUNDATION CONMTK)NS
g.0.63 TSF, P1=PO+Pf= 2.73 TSF AND A REQUIRED HElOHT OF flLL,VARDUS
FROM PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION : COMBINATIONS OF SURCHARGE AND VERTICAL
AH^. (ce)
I+to Po
PI;"'20
2.5
--:E. - 3-07 FT SAND DRAINS ARE INVESTIGATEDTO ELIMINATE
OR UCELERATE flNAL SETTLEMENTS.
FROM SECUNWRY COMPRESSKM:
AH
=C
,~ ( H ~LOG%
) FOR -=I CYCLE OFTIME
tp 'P
AHSEC '0.015 x20x 1 =0.30Ff. TOTAL AH= 3.37 FT

TO STUW VARIOUS SF#CING

OF DRAINS. VALUES OF &
VS TlME ARE COMPUTED
FOR de = 10:16'a20'.

-
RESULTS ARE PLOTTED AT
LEFT.

TlME IN DAYS
DESIGN OF SAND DRAINS (NO SURCHARGE INCLUDED)
SELECT 18"8 DRAIN AND CONSIDER SWING OF 10 FT: ,I6 FT 8 20 FT 0.C.- de
ALLOWANCE FOR SMEAR EFFECT: Kh/Ks = 3 ASSUME s 11.2 FOR de.10, n = = 6.67
WHERE Ks = SMEAR ZONE PERMEABILITY rw
THEN FROM FIG.21, EQUIVALENTn =9.5,EOUIVALENT rw~6.3': dW= 12.6"
TlME REQUIRED FOR CONSOLIDATION: TO OBTAIN TlME VS Ov FOR VERTICAL DRAINAGE ONLY,USE
NOMOGRAPH OF FIG.1 I .TOOBTAIN TlME VS GR FOR RADIAL DRAINAGE l0 SAND DRAIN,USE NOMOGRAPH
OF FIG. 19.
COMBINED Gc AT AW TIME IS: $ =IOO-~IOO-G~)R)(XX)-~V)] IN O/o
100

TICL%E 2 0
F x a n p l e of F u r c h a r r e and Sand Drain Design
L

SURCHARGE W N G PERIOD IN MYS

S E C T I O N OF SURCHAROE MEIOHT
AH^ = 3-07', . ,HA = a=', =a s
10 ELIMINATE SETTLEMENT UNDER Pf ,UC IS TAKEN EQUAL TO -
u'f+s= A H f OR
A Hf +s
u f
AHf+s
RELATWN OF Gf +s AND TIME IS GIVEN ABOVE FOR VARKWS DRAIN SPACINGS.

WAROE P~, VAWES OF ijf+s = -

A"f +s
IS GIVEN IN ~ 6 . 1 7

WRCHMGE Ps rOr VALUES OF of+,= w+ua

IS GIVEN BY FORMULA IN FIG I?
A"f +s
USING THESE RELATIONSHIPS, PI (EXPRESSED AS HEIGHT Of SURCHARQ) REPLACES Of+s iN
FlQWIE IT.
COYBINATION w SAND DRAIN AND SURCHARGE IS SELECTED BASED ON nME AVAILABLE
AND OOMPARATIVE COSTS.
_I

FIGURE 20 (continued)
Example of Surcharge and Sand Drain Design
h

TO
50
40
30

20

5
4
3

2 / *
I

t
I
I
I 2 3 4 5 7 K ) 20 304050m 0 0 200300400500m

-
EQUIVALENT nqv =n FOR DRAIN WITH NO SMEAR

DEFINITIONS EXAMPLE:7t)DETERMINE EIXIIVALENT

RADIUS OF DRAIN WKHOVT SMEAR
FOR TRIANGULAR PATTERN
IS WTDw ACTUAL
da =I.OS(WELL -1ffi) WN WITH -.
FOR SOUARE PATTERN
de = 1.14 (WELL SWING 1
de = EFFECTIVE DIAMETER
OF SAND DRAIN.

DRAIN WELLS IN
TRIANGULAR PATTERN
ACTUAL SAND DRAIN
n=5,Kh/Ks=7
Kh=HORIZONTALPERMEABILITY ESTIMATED S = 1.2
K~zSME*R PERULILITY DETERMINE FROM MSRAM ABOVE:
neqv = 15, rW= LL=asa
15

- RADIUSOF SMEAR #)NE

RAWS OF DRAIN

SECTION a-a
EQUIVALENT SAND DRAIN,
NO SMEAR
h
FIGURE 21
Allowance f o r Smear E f f e c t i n Sand Drain Design
 e. Sand Drains P l u s Surcharge. A s u r c h a r g e load i s normally p l a c e d
above t h e f i n a l f i l l l e v e l t o a c c e l e r a t e t h e r e q u i r e d s e t t l e m e n t . Surcharge
i s e s p e c i a l l y n e c e s s a r y when t h e compressible f o u n d a t i o n c o n t a i n s material i n
which secondary compression predominates over primary c o n s o l i d a t i o n . The per-
c e n t c o n s o l i d a t i o n under t h e surcharge f i l l n e c e s s a r y t o e l i m i n a t e a s p e c i f i c
amount of s e t t l e m e n t under f i n a l l o a d i s determined a s shown i n t h e l o w e s t
panel of Figure 20.

f . General Design Requirements. Analyze s t a b i l i t y a g a i n s t f o u n d a t i o n

f a i l u r e by t h e methods of Chapter 7, i n c l u d i n g t h e e f f e c t of pore p r e s s u r e s on
t h e f a i l u r e plane. Determine allowable buildup of pore p r e s s u r e i n t h e
compressible s t r a t u m a s h e i g h t of f i l l i s i n c r e a s e d .

( 1 ) H o r i z o n t a l Drainage. For major i n s t a l l a t i o n i n v e s t i g a t e i n

d e t a i l t h e h o r i z o n t a l c o e f f i c i e n t of c o n s o l i d a t i o n by l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s w i t h
drainage i n t h e horizontal d i r e c t i o n , or f i e l d permeability t e s t s t o determine
h o r i z o n t a l permeability.

( 2 ) C o n s o l i d a t i o n Tests. Evaluate t h e importance of smear o r d i s -

turbance by c o n s o l i d a t i o n t e s t s on remolded samples. For s e n s i t i v e s o i l s dnd
h i g h l y s t r a t i f i e d s o i l s , c o n s i d e r nondisplacement methods f o r forming d r a i n
holes.

( 3 ) Drainage M a t e r i a l . Determine d r a i n a g e m a t e r i a l and arrangement

t o handle maximum flow of water squeezed from t h e compressible s t r a t u m i n
accordance with Chapter 6.

g. C o n s t r u c t i o n Control Requirements. Control t h e r a t e of f i l l r i s e by

i n s t a l l i n g piezometer and observing pore p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e f o r comparison w i t h
pore v a l u e s compatible with- s t a b i l i t y . Check a n t i c i p a t e d - r a t e of
c o n s o l i d a t i o n by pore p r e s s u r e d i s s i p a t i o n and s e t t l e m e n t measurements.

S e c t i o n 7. ANALYSIS OF VOLUME EXPANSION

1. CAUSES OF VOLUME EXPANSION. Volume expansion i s caused by ( a ) r e d u c t i o n

of e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s e s , ( b ) mineral changes, and ( c ) formation and growth of
i c e lenses. Swell with decrease of e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s i s a r e v e r s e of t h e con-
s o l i d a t i o n process. For d e s c r i p t i o n of s w e l l i n g problems and s u g g e s t e d t r e a t -
ment, s e e Table 8. Where h i g h l y preconsolidated p l a s t i c c l a y s a r e p r e s e n t a t
t h e ground s u r f a c e , s e a s o n a l c y c l e s of r a i n f a l l and d e s i c c a t i o n produce volume
changes. The most s e v e r e swelling occurs w i t h m o n t m o r i l l i n i t e c l a y s a l t h o u g h ,
i n an a p p r o p r i a t e c l i m a t e , any s u r f a c e c l a y of medium t o h i g h p l a s t i c i t y w i t h
r e l a t i v e l y low m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t can heave. For e s t i m a t i o n of s w e l l p o t e n t i a l
s e e Chapter 1, S e c t i o n 6.

2. MAGNITUDE OF VOLUME EXPANSION. Figure 22 o u t l i n e s a procedure f o r e s t i -

mating t h e magnitude of s w e l l i n g t h a t may occur when f o o t i n g s a r e b u i l t on
expansive c l a y s o i l s . This f i g u r e a l s o i n d i c a t e s a method of determining t h e
n e c e s s a r y undercut t o reduce t h e heave t o an a c c e p t a b l e value. F u r t h e r
guidance f o r foundations on expansive s o i l s i s c o n t a i n e d i n DM-7.3, Chapter
3.

Conditions and materials
Reduction of effective s t r e s s of
overburden:
Temporary reduction of effective
s t r e s s by excavation for stmc-
cure foundation in preconsoli-
dated clays.
Permanent reduction of effective
s t r e s s by excavation in chem-
ically inert, uncemented clay-
shale or shale.
Reduction of effective s t r e s s of
overburden and release of
capillary stress:
Construction of earth dams of
heavily compacted plastic
clays.
Construction of structural fill for
light buildings of compacted
p l a s t i c clay.
TABLE 8
Heave From Volume Change
Mechanism of h e a v e
Soil swells in accordance with laboratory e-p curves.
Heave i s maximum a t center of excavation. T o t a l po-
tential heave may not have occurred by time the load
i s reapplied. Final structural load will recompress
foundation materials.
In sound s h a l e where water cannot obtain a c c e s s to the
shale, swelling may be insignificant.
For hydraulic structures or construction below the
ground water table, reduction of effective s t r e s s e s
will c a u s e permanent heave in accordance with labo-
ratory e-p curves. Alternate wetting and drying dur-
ing excavation i n c r e a s e s swelling potential.
Intrusion of seepage from reservoir r e l e a s e s capillary
pressures and reduces effective s t r e s s o f overburden
and may produce swelling leading t o sloughing of the
slopes. Most critical material a r e CH c l a y s with
swelling index exceeding 0.07. Compaction a t rela-
tively low water contents, where t h e water deficiency
in the clay mineral lattice i s high and the degree of
saturation is low, will accentuate swelling.
R i s e of groundwater, seepage, leakage, or elimination Compact c l a y s a s wet a s practicable c o n s i s t e n t with compressi-
of surface evaporation i n c r e a s e s degree o f saturation bility requirements. Avoid o v e r c o m p ~ t i o nof general fill nnd
and reduces effective s t r e s s , leading to expansion.
Treatment I1
Ii
!
Provide drainage for rapid collection of surface water. Avoid dis- j
turbance t o subgrade by placing 4-in.-thick working mat of l e a n
concrete i n i m e d i a t e l ~after exposing subgrade. Ileave i s mini-
mized if the groundwater i s drawn down 3 or 4 ft below b a s e of '
excavation a t i t s center to maintain capillary s t r e s s e s . I
Protect s h a l e from wetting and drying during excavation by limit-
ing area opened a t subgrade and with concrete working mat. Pour
concrete floors and foundations directly on protected s h a l e with
no underfloor drainage course. Backfill around walls with ilnpelr
vious s o i l s to prevent a c c e s s of water. Provide proper surface
drainage and paving if n e c e s s a r y to avoid infiltration.
Where an increase in water content i s probable, s p e c i a l structural I
d e s i g n s must b e considered. T h e s e include (1) anchoring or
rock bolting the floor t o a depth i n s h a l e that provides suitable 1
hold down against swelling pressures; (2) a floor supported on 1
heavily loaded column footings with an opening o r compressible 1
filler beneath floors; and (3) a mat foundaAon designed t o r e s i s t
potential swelling pressures. In any c a s e , excavation in the s h a l e I 1
should b e protected by s e a l i n g c o a t s or working mat immediately .
after exposure a t subgrade. i
Avoid placing highly p l a s t i c fill on or near embankment slopes. ,
Compact c l a y s a t a relatively high moisture content c o n s i s t e n t
with strength and compressibility requirements. Avoid overcom-
paction t o a n unnecessarily high dry unit weight.
,
undercompaction of backfill at column footings or in utility
trenches which would accentuate differential movements. Stabi-
lization of compacted f i l l s with various s a l t admixtures r e d u c e s
swelling potential by increasing ion concentration in pore
water.

Conditions and materials
Changes of capillary s t r e s s e s :
Construction of light buildings
on surface s t r a t a o f highly pre-
consolidated c l a y s intemperate
climates subject to substantial
s e a s o n a l fluctuations i n rain-
fall. (Southern England, a s an
example.)
Construction of light buildings
o n c l a y s of high activity,
highly preconsolidated with
fractures and slickensides, in
climate where hot summers al-
ternate with wet winters.
(South-central T e x a s for ex-
ample.)
Construction of light to medium
load structures in hot, arid cli-
mate where the free surface
evaporation i s several times
larger than annual rainfall.
Difficulties are greatest in
fractured and slickensided clay
o f high activity, with low water
table and maximum deficiency
of evaporation over rainfall.
(South Africa, a s an example.)
Chemical changes:
Excavation and exposure ofclay-
s h a l e s or s h a l e s containing
pyrite (iron sulphide) o r anhy-
drite (calcium sulphate).
*
TABLE 8 (continued)
Heave From Volume Change
Mechanism of heave
Seasonal movements 1 or 2 in. upwards and downwards Light reinforcing or stiffening minimize effects in small houses.
occur within the upper 3 to 5 ft. Settlement occurs in
early summer and expansion i n the fall. Caused by
change of capillary s t r e s s e s produced by transpira-
tion t o nearby trees, plant, or g r a s s cover surrounding
the structure. Movements are maximum at e d g e of
building. Groundwater is shallow. Change of capil-
lary s t r e s s e s by evaporation i s not of prime impor-
tanc e.
Even in the absence o f vegetal cover, s e a s o n a l cycles Support light footings and s l a b s on compacted, coarse-grained f i l l
of settlement and heave occur because of the alter-
nate increase and release of capillary s t r e s s e s .
Buildings constructed during wet season may undergo
small but nonuniform settlement beneath exterior foot-
ings. Buildings constructed in the dry seasonundergo
uneven heave up to 3 or 4 in. maximum, distributed
irregularly over the structure.
Permanent moisture deficiency e x i s t s in the ground.
Construction eliminates evaporation over building
area, reducing capillary s t r e s s e s and causing move-
ment of moisture to beneath building. T h i s l e a d s to
continuing heave with minor seasonal fluctuations.
Thermoosmotic gradients directed toward cooledl
subsoil beneath structure contribute to increase i n
moisture, which may extend to depths of 10 to I5 ft.
Exposure to air and water c a u s e s oxidation and hydra-
tion of pyrites with a volumetric expansion of a s
much a s ten times their original volume, or hydration
of anhydrite to gypsum.
Treatment
Basements carried to usual depths usually eliminate movements.
about 4 to 6 ft thick. P a v e peripheral a r e a s to minimize subsoil
moisture content change. Consider the u s e of belled c a i s s o n s
with supported floor. Open block wall foundations have been
utilized for small houses. Collect rainwater falling on structure
and surrounding areas and convey runoff away from structures.
Damage i s minimized by u s e of s l a b or raft foundation, dry wall
construction, s t e e l or reinforced concrete framing, reinforced
foundation beams, and provision for jacking. Heave i s eliminated
by removal of desiccated material to a depth of 8 to 12 ft.and re-
placement by granular fill; or belled c a i s s o n s , founded near the
water table and reinforced to r e s i s t tensile forces, supporting
floor between c a i s s o n s with opening or compressible filler be-
neath floors. Divert rainwater and surface runoff away from
structure.
Rough excavate no closer than one-half foot t o final subgrade and
protect exposed s h a l e with a spray or mop coat of bitumen. When
ready for foundations, excavate to final grade and pour concrete
immediately over a spray or mop coat of bitumen.
 9

AREA UNDER #RCPlT SWELL

CURVE, AbOVE DEPTH OF
ZERO SWELL.

TOTAL SWELL
VERSUS DEPTH
0 I 2 3 4 0 (XOb 0.K) 0.6
PERCENT SWELL TUWL SWELL, FEET
MATERIALS INVESTIGATED ARE CLAYS, HIGHLY OVERCONSOLIm BY CAPILLARY ST- THAT ARE
EFFECTIVE PRIOR TO THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE SfRUCTURE UPON THEM.

PROCEDURE FOR ESTIMATING TOTAL SWELL UNDER STRUCTURE UMD.

I. OBTAIN REPRESENTATIVE UNDISTURBED SAMPLES OF THE SHALLOW CLAY STRATUM AT
A TIME WHEN CAPILLARY STRESSES ARE EFFECTIVE ; I.E., WHEN NOT F W D E D OR
SUBJECTED TO HEAVY RAIN.
2. LOAD SPECIMENS ( AT NATURAL WATER CONTENT IN CONSOLIDOMETER UNDER A
PRESSURE EQUAL TO THE ULTIMATE VALUE OF OVERBURDEN FOR HIGH GROUND WATER,
PLUS WEIGHT OF STRUCTURE. ADD WATER TO SATURATE AND MEASURE SWELL.
3. COMPUTE FINAL SWELL IN TERMS OF PERCENT OF ORIGINAL SAMPLE HEIGHT AND
PLOT SWELL VERSUS DEPTH, AS IN THE LEFT MNEL.
4. COMPUTE TOTAL SWELL WHICH IS EQUAL TO THE AREA UNDER THE PERCENT SWELL
VERSUS DEPTH CURVE. FOR THE ABOVE EXAMPLE:
TOTAL SWELL = 1/2 (8.2 -1.0) r 2.8/100 -0.0 FT.

PROCEDURE FOR ESTIMATING UNDERCUT NECESSARY TO REDUCE SWELL TO AN ALWABLE VALUE.

I. FROM PERCENT SWELL VERSUS DEPTH CURVE PLOT RELATIONSHIP OF lWWL SWELL
VERSUS DEPTH AT THE RIGHT. TOTAL SWELL AT ANY DEPTH EQUALS AREA UNDER
THE CURVE AT LEFT, INTEGRATED UPWARD FROM THE DEPTH OF tWO SWELL.
2.FOR A GIVEN ALLOWABLE VALUE OF SWELL, READ THE AMOUNT OF UNDERCUT
NECESSARY FROM THE TOTAL SWELL VERSUS DEPTH CURVE. FOR EXAMPLE, FOR AN
ALLOWABLE SWELL OF 0.03 FT, UNDERCUT REQUIRED = 4.6 FT. UNDERCUT CLAY IS
REPLACED BY AN EQUAL THICKNESS OF NONSWELLING COMMTED FILL.

FIGURE 22
Computation of Swell of D e s i c c a t e d C l a y s
 REFERENCES

1. Department . of C i v i l Engineering, U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a , Berkeley,

S t r e s s e s and D e f l e c t i o n s i n Foundations and Pavements, F a l l , 1965.

2. Duncan, J.M., and Buchignani, A.L., An Engineering Manual For S e t t l e m e n t

S t u d i e s , U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a , Berkeley, 1976.

3. DIAppolonia, D.J., Poulos, H.G. and Ladd, C.C., I n i t i a l S e t t l e m e n t of

S t r u c t u r e s on Clay, J o u r n a l of t h e S o i l Mechanics and Foundation
Division, ASCE, Vol. 97, No. SM10, 1971.

4. Schmertmann, J.H., S t a t i c Cone t o Compute S t a t i c S e t t l e m e n t Over Sand,

J o u r n a l of t h e S o i l Mechanics and Foundation D i v i s i o n , ASCE, Vol. 96, No.

5. Omis, I.S., E q u i v a l e n t L i n e a r Model For P r e d i c t i n g S e t t l e m e n t s of Sand

Bases, J o u r n a l of t h e Geotechnical Engineering D i v i s i o n , ASCE, Vol. 105,
No. GT12, 1979.

6. Leonards, G.S., E s t i m a t i n g Consolidation S e t t l e m e n t s of Shallow

Foundation on Overconsolidated Clay, T r a n s p o r t a t i o n Research Board
S p e c i a l Report 163, T r a n s p o r t a t i o n Research Board, 1976.

7. Departments of t h e Army and A i r Force, S o i l s and Geology, P r o c e d u r e s f o r

Foundation Design of Buildings and Other S t r u c t u r e s , (Except H y d r a u l i c
S t r u c t u r e s ) , TM5-818-~/AFM-88-3, Chapter 7, Washington, D. C. , 1979.

8. Terzaghi, K. and Peck, R., S o i l Mechanics i n Engineering P r a c t i c e , John

Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1967.

9. Ladd, C.C., F o o t t , R., I s h i h a r a , K., S c h l o s s e r , F., and Poulos, H.G.,

s t r e s s Deformation and S t r e n g t h C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , Proceedings Ninth
I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference on S o i l Mechanics and Foundation E n g i n e e r i n g ,
Tokyo, Volume 2, pp 421-494, 1977.

10. Olson, R.E., Consolidation Under Time Dependent Loading, J o u r n a l of t h e

Geotechnical Engineering D i v i s i o n , ASCE, Vol. 103, No. GT1, 1977.

11. I n s t i t u t i o n of C i v i l Engineers, S t r u c t u r e S o i l I n t e r a c t i o n , A S t a t e of
t h e A r t .Report, 1978.

12. Bjerrum, L., Allowable S e t t l e m e n t s of S t r u c t u r e s , Proceedings of European

Conference on S o i l Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Wiesbaden,
Volume 2, pp 135-137, 1963.

13. Brown, P.T., Numerical Analyses of Uniformly Loaded C i r c u l a r R a f t s on

E l a s t i c Layers of F i n i t e Depth, Geotechnique, Vol. 19, No. 2, 1969.

14. F r a z e r , R.A. and Wardle, L.J., Numerical Analysis of Rectangular R a f t on

Layered Foundations, Geotechnique, Vol. 26, No. 4, 1976.
15. Ladd, C.C., Use of Precompression and Vertical Sand Drains for
Stabilization of Foundation Soils, ASCE New York Metropolitan Section
Seminar, 1978.
 CHAPTER 6 . SEEPAGE AND DRAINAGE

S e c t i o n 1. INTRODUCTION

1. SCOPE. This c h a p t e r c o v e r s s u r f a c e e r o s i o n , and a n a l y s i s of f l o w quan-

t i t y and groundwater p r e s s u r e s a s s o c i a t e d with underseepage. Requirements a r e
g i v e n f o r methods of d r a i n a g e and p r e s s u r e r e l i e f .

2. RELATED CRITERIA. Other c r i t e r i a , r e l a t i n g t o groundwater u t i l i z a t i o n o r

c o n t r o l , can be found i n t h e following sources:

Subject Source

Drainage Systems......................
Out
d u t of
of Date
Date
.NAVFAC ..... DM-5.3
S o i l Conservation.....................
Drainage f o r A i r f i e l d Pavements.. ..... NAVFAC
NAVFAC
Dewateri.ng and Groundwater Control f o r Deep Excavations...NAVFAC
I.... DM-5.11
DM-2 1
P-418

A d d i t i o n a l c r i t e r i a f o r permanent p r e s s u r e r e l i e f and seepage c o n t r o l beneath

s t r u c t u r e s a r e given i n DM-7.2, Chapter 4.

3. APPLICATIONS. Control of s o i l e r o s i o n must be c o n s i d e r e d i n a l l new

construction projects. Seepage p r e s s u r e s a r e of primary importance i n s t a -
b i l i t y a n a l y s i s and i n foundation d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n . F r e q u e n t l y , draw-
down of groundwater i s n e c e s s a r y f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n . In other s i t u a t i o n s ,
p r e s s u r e r e l i e f must be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n temporary and permanent s t r u c t u r e s .

4. INVESTIGATIONS REQUIRED. For e r o s i o n a n a l y s i s , t h e s u r f a c e water flow

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , s o i l t y p e , and s l o p e a r e needed. For a n a l y s i s of major seep-
age problems, determine p e r m e a b i l i t y and piezometric l e v e l s by f i e l d observa-
tions. See Chapter 2 f o r techniques.

S e c t i o n 2. SEEPAGE ANALYSIS

1. FLOW NET. F i g u r e 1 shows an example of flow n e t c o n s t r u c t i o n . Use t h i s

procedure t o e s t i m a t e seepage q u a n t i t y and d i s t r i b u t i o n of pore water pres-
s u r e s i n two-dimensional flow. Flow n e t s a r e a p p l i c a b l e f o r t h e s t u d y of cut-
off w a l l s and w e l l p o i n t s , o r s h a l l o w d r a i n a g e i n s t a l l a t i o n s placed i n a r e c -
t a n g u l a r l a y o u t whose l e n g t h i n plan i s s e v e r a l times i t s width. Flow n e t s
can a l s o be used t o e v a l u a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of flow l i n e s .

a. Groundwater P r e s s u r e s . For s t e a d y s t a t e flow, water p r e s s u r e s depend

on t h e r a t i o of mean p e r m e a b i l i t y of s e p a r a t e s t r a t a and t h e a n i s o t r o p y of
layers. A c a r e f u l l y drawn flow n e t i s n e c e s s a r y t o determine p i e z o m e t r i c
l e v e l s w i t h i n t h e flow f i e l d o r p o s i t i o n of t h e drawdown curve.
C 7

FLOW NET PWI WOEWE- TO DRY DOCK

CUTOFF SHEET PILE W

DCIAlNME LAVE

TRANSFER CONDITIONS AT INTERFKE BETWEEN STRAfA:

STRATUM a

PERMEABILITY Kp

RATIO IN STRATUM@ =
KI
EWIPOTENTIM
I

FROM FLOW NET : FOR ANISOTROPIC SOIL:

NUMBER OF FLOW FATHS = nf = 6 TRANS- CROSS SECTION BY DIVIDING
NUMBER OF WUlPQTENTlAL DROPS = nd = I5 DIMENSIONS IN THE DIRECTION OF K y ~ x
UNDERSEEME PER RUNNING FOOT OF DOCK WALL,
(%) 50 z 0 . 4 ~ ~ ~
q * ~~ H = ( L W
BY THE FACTOR /= KMIN
"d
SEEP&€ PRESSURE IN A DISTANCE D= -
H
nd D YW
I a
FIGURE 1
Flow Net Construction and Seepage Analysis
.
RULES FOR FLOW NET CONSTRUCTION
I. WHEN MATERIALS ARE ISOTROPIC WlTH RESPECT TO PERMEABILITY,THE PATTERN OF F W LINES
AND EQUIPOTENTIALS INTERSECT AT RIGHT ANGLES. DRAW A MTTERN IN WHICH SaUARE FIGURES
ARE FORMED BETWEEN FLOW LINES AND EQUIPOTENTIALS.
2. USUALLY IT IS EXPEDIENT TO START WITH AN INTEGER NUMBER OF EQUIPOTENTIAL DROPS,
DIVIDING TOTAL HEAD BY A WHOLE NUMBER, AND DRAWING F L W LINES TO CONFORM TO THESE
EQUIPOTENTIALS. IN THE GENERAL CASE ,THE OUTER FLOW PATH WlLL FORM RECTANGULAR RATHER
THEN SQUARE RGURES.THE SHAPE OF THESE RECTANGLES (RATIO B/L) MUST BE CONSTANT.
3. THE UPPER BOUNDARY OF A FLOWNET THAT IS AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE IS A "FREE WATER
SURFACE': INTEGER EQUIWTENTIALS I N T E R S T THE FREE WATER SURFACE AT POlNTS S W E D AT
EQUAL VERTICAL INTERVALS.
4. A DISCHARGE FACE THROUGH WHICH SEEPAGE PASSES IS AN EQUIKlTEMIAL LINE IF THE DISCHARGE
IS SUBMERGED, OR A FREE WATER SURFACE IF THE MSCHARGE IS NOT SUBMERGED. IF IT IS A FREE WATER
SURFACE, THE FLOW NET FIGURES ADJOINING THEE DISCHARGE FACE WlLL NOT BE SQUARES.
5. IN A STRATIFIED SOlL PROFILE WHERE RATK) OF PERMEAHLlTY OF LAYERS EXCEEDS 0,THE ROW IN
THE MORE PERMEABLE LAYER CONTROLS.THAT IS,THE F L W NET MAY BE DRAWN FOR MORE PERMEABLE
LAYER ASSUMING THE LESS PERMEABLE LAYER TO BE IMPERVIOUS.THE HEAD ON THE INTERFACE THUS
OBTAINED IS IMPOSED ON THE LESS PERVIOUS LAYER FOR CONSTRUCTION OF THE FLOW NET WITHIN IT.
6. IN A STRATIFIED SOlL PROFILE WHERE RATIO OF PERMEABILITY OF LAYERS IS LESS THAN 10, FLOW
IS DEFLECTED AT THE INTERFACE IN AOCORDANCE WITH THE DIAGRAM S W N ABOVE.
7. WHEN MATERIALS ARE ANISOTROPK: WITH RESPECT TO PERMEABILITY,THE CROSS SECTION M N BE
TRANSFORMED BY CHANGING SCALE AS SHOWN A W E AND FLOW NET DRAWN AS FOR IS(TTROPICMATERIALS.
IN COMPUTING QUANTITY OF S E E M , THE DIFFERENTIAL HEAD IS NOT ALTERED FOR THE TRANSFOR-
MATION.
8. WHERE ONLY THE QUANTITY OF SEEPAGE IS TO BE DETERMINED, AN APPROXIMATE FLOW NET
SUFFICES. IF PORE PRESSURES ARE TO BE DETERMINED,THE FLOW NET MUST BE ACCURATE.
J

FIGURE 1 ( c o n t i n u e d )
Flow N e t C o n s t r u c t i o n and Seepage A n a l y s i s
 b. Seepage Quantity. T o t a l seepage computed from flow n e t depends p r i -
m a r i l y on d i f f e r e n t i a l head and mean p e r m e a b i l i t y of t h e most p e r v i o u s l a y e r .
The r a t i o of p e r m e a b i l i t i e s of s e p a r a t e s t r a t a o r t h e i r a n i s o t r o p y h a s less
i n f l u e n c e . The r a t i o nf/nd i n F i g u r e 1 u s u a l l y r a n g e s from 112 t o 2 / 3 and
t h u s f o r e s t i m a t i n g seepage q u a n t i t y a roughly drawn flow n e t p r o v i d e s a
r e a s o n a b l y a c c u r a t e estimate of t o t a l flow. U n c e r t a i n t i e s i n t h e permea-
b i l i t y v a l u e s a r e much g r e a t e r l i m i t a t i o n s on accuracy.

For s p e c i a l c a s e s , t h e flow regime can be analyzed by t h e f i n i t e ele-

ment method. Mathematical e x p r e s s i o n s f o r t h e flow a r e w r i t t e n f o r e a c h of
t h e elements, c o n s i d e r i n g boundary c o n d i t i o n s . The r e s u l t i n g system of equa-
t i o n s i s solved by computer t o o b t a i n t h e flow p a t t e r n ( s e e Appendix A).
'

2. SEEPAGE FORCES. The flow of water through s o i l e x e r t s a f o r c e on t h e

s o i l c a l l e d a seepage f o r c e . The seepage p r e s s u r e i s t h i s f o r c e per u n i t
volume of s o i l and i s e q u a l t o t h e h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t times t h e u n i t weight o f
water .
where Ps = seepage p r e s s u r e

i = hydraulic gradient

Yw = u n i t weight of water

The seepage p r e s s u r e a c t s i n a d i r e c t i o n a t r i g h t a n g l e s t o t h e e q u i p o t e n t i a l
l i n e s ( see F i g u r e 1) .
The seepage p r e s s u r e i s of g r e a t importance i n a n a l y s i s of t h e s t a b i l i t y
o f e x c a v a t i o n s and s l o p e s ( s e e Chapter 7 and DM-7.2, Chapter 1 ) because i t i s
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e phenomenon known a s b o i l i n g o r piping.

a. Boilinq. B o i l i n g occurs when seepage p r e s s u r e s i n an upward d i r e c -

t i o n exceed t h e downward f o r c e of t h e s o i l . The c o n d i t i o n can be expressed i n
terms of c r i t i c a l h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t . A minimum f a c t o r of s a f e t y of 2 i s
u s u a l l y r e q u i r e d , i .e. ,

'C = CRITICAL
-- YT - Yw = -Yb .
yw yw '
where i = a c t u a l hydraulic gradient

YT = t o t a l u n i t weight of t h e s o i l

Yw = u n i t weight of water
Yb = buoyant u n i t weight of s o i l

b e P i p i n g and Subsurface Erosion. Most p i p i n g f a i l u r e s a r e caused by

s u b s u r f a c e e r o s i o n i n o r beneath dams. These f a i l u r e s can occur s e v e r a l
months o r even y e a r s a f t e r a dam i s placed i n t o o p e r a t i o n .
 I n essence, water t h a t comes o u t of t h e ground a t t h e t o e s t a r t s a
process of e r o s i o n ( i f t h e e x i t g r a d i e n t i s h i g h enough) t h a t culminates i n
t h e formation of a tunnel-shaped passage ( o r "pipe") beneath t h e s t r u c t u r e .
When t h e passage f i n a l l y works backward t o meet t h e f r e e water, a m i x t u r e
o f s o i l and water rushes through t h e passage, undermining t h e s t r u c t u r e and
f l o o d i n g t h e channel below t h e dam. It has been shown t h a t t h e danger of a
p i p i n g f a i l u r e due t o s u b s u r f a c e e r o s i o n i n c r e a s e s w i t h d e c r e a s i n g g r a i n
size.

S i m i l a r s u b s u r f a c e e r o s i o n problems can occur i n r e l i e v e d drydocks,

where water i s seeping from a f r e e s o u r c e t o a d r a i n a g e o r f i l t e r b l a n k e t
beneath t h e f l o o r o r behind t h e walls. I f the f i l t e r f a i l s or is defective
and t h e h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t s a r e c r i t i c a l , s e r i o u s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of flow c a n
r e s u l t i n l a r g e v o i d s and eroded channels.

P o t e n t i a l passageways f o r t h e i n i t i a t i o n of piping i n c l u d e : uniform-

l y graded g r a v e l d e p o s i t s , conglomerate, open j o i n t s i n bedrock, c r a c k s caused
by earthquakes o r c r u s t a l movements, open j o i n t s i n p i p e l i n e s , h y d r a u l i c f r a c -
t u r e , open v o i d s i n c o a r s e boulder d r a i n s i n c l u d i n g French d r a i n s , abandoned
' w e l l p o i n t h o l e s , gopher h o l e s , c a v i t i e s formed i n l e v e e foundations by r o t t i n g
r o o t s o r b u r i e d wood, improper b a c k f i l l i n g of p i p e l i n e s , p i p e s without
antiseepage c o l l a r s , etc.

F a i l u r e by piping r e q u i r e s p r o g r e s s i v e movement of s o i l p a r t i c l e s t o
a f r e e e x i t s u r f a c e . It can be c o n t r o l l e d by a d e q u a t e l y designed f i l t e r s o r
r e l i e f blankets. Guidelines f o r preventing piping beneath dams may be found
i n Reference 1, S e c u r i t y from Under Seepage of Masonary Dams on E a r t h
Foundations, by Lee.

3. DEWATERING. Dewatering methods a r e discussed i n Table 7, DM-7.2, Chapter

1. F i g u r e s 13 and 14 i n DM-7.2, Chapter 1 i l l u s t r a t e some methods of con-
s t r u c t i o n d e w t e r i n g and s o i l g r a i n s i z e l i m i t a t i o n s f o r d i f f e r e n t dewatering
methods. See NAVFAC P-418 f o r dewatering and groundwater c o n t r o l systems.

4. THREE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW. For a n a l y s i s of flow q u a n t i t y and drawdown t o

i n d i v i d u a l w e l l s o r t o any a r r a y of w e l l s , s e e S e c t i o n 5.

S e c t i o n 3. SEEPAGE CONTROL BY CUTOFF

1. METHODS.. Procedures f o r seepage c o n t r o l i n c l u d e c u t o f f w a l l s f o r

d e c r e a s i n g t h e seepage q u a n t i t y and reducing t h e e x i t g r a d i e n t s , and d r a i n a g e
o r r e l i e f s t r u c t u r e s t h a t i n c r e a s e flow q u a n t i t y but reduce seepage p r e s s u r e s
o r cause drawdown i n c r i t i c a l a r e a s . See Table 1; Table 7 of DM-7.2, Chapter
1; and DM-7.3, Chapter 3 (Diaphragm Walls) f o r methods of c r e a t i n g p a r t i a l o r
complete c u t o f f . See NAVFAC P-418 f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n dewatering.

2. SHEETPILING. A d r i v e n l i n e of i n t e r l o c k i n g s t e e l s h e e t i n g may be u t i -
l i z e d f o r a c u t o f f a s a c o n s t r u c t i o n expedient o r a s a p a r t of t h e completed
structure.

a. Applicability. The following c o n s i d e r a t i o n s govern 'the use of sheet-

piling:

. Method
Sheet p i l e c u t off wall
Compacted b a r r i e r of
impervious s o i l
TABLE 1
Cutoff Methods f o r Seepage Control
Applicability
Suited e s p e c i a l l y f o r s t r a t i f i e d
s o i l s with high h o r i z o n t a l and low
v e r t i c a l permeability o r pervious
hydraulic f i l l m a t e r i a l s . May be
e a s i l y damaged by boulders o r
buried o b s t r u c t i o n s . Tongue and
groove wood sheeting u t i l i z e d f o r
shallow excavation i n s o f t t o
medium s o i l s . I n t e r l o c k i n g s t e e l
s h e e t p i l i n g i s u t i l i z e d f o r deeper
cutoff.
Formed by compacted b a c k f i l l i n a
cutoff trench c a r r i e d down to
impervious m a t e r i a l o r a s a c o r e
s e c t i o n i n e a r t h dams.
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and Requirements
i
S t e e l s h e e t i n g must be c a r e f u l l y d r i v e n
t o maintain i n t e r l o c k s t i g h t . S t e e l
H-pile s o l d i e r beams may be used t o mini-
mize d e v i a t i o n of sheeting i n driving.
Some d e v i a t i o n of s h e e t i n g from plumb
toward t h e s i d e with l e a s t h o r i z o n t a l
pressure should be expected. Seepage
through i n t e r l o c k s i s minimized where
t e n s i l e force a c t s across interlocks.
For s t r a i g h t wall sheeting an a p p r e c i a b l e
flow may pass through i n t e r l o c k s . De-
c r e a s e i n t e r l o c k leakage by f i l l i n g
i n t e r l o c k s with sawdust, b e n t o n i t e ,
cement g r o u t , o r s i m i l a r m a t e r i a l .
Layers o r s t r e a k s of pervious m a t e r i a l i n
t h e impervious zone must be avoided by
c a r e f u l s e l e c t i o n and mixing of borrow
m a t e r i a l s , s c a r i f y i n g l i f t s , aided by
sheepsfoot r o l l i n g . A drainage zone
downstream of an impervious s e c t i o n of
t h e embankment i s necessary i n most
instances.
-

Method
Grouted o r i n j e c t e d
cutoff
S l u r r y t r e n c h method
TABLE 1 (continued)
Cutoff Methods f o r Seepage Control
Applicability
Applicable where depth o r char-
a c t e r of foundation m a t e r i a l s make
s h e e t p i l e wall o r c u t o f f t r e n c h
impractical. U t i l i z e d e x t e n s i v e l y
i n major hydraulic s t r u c t u r e s .
May be used a s a supplement below
c u t o f f sheeting o r trenches.
Suited f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n of
impervious cutoff trench below
groundwater o r f o r s t a b i l i z i n g
t r e n c h excavation. Applicable
whenever c u t o f f w a l l s i n e a r t h a r e
required. Is r e p l a c i n g s h e e t p i l e
c u t o f f walls.
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and Requirements
A complete p o s i t i v e grouted cutoff i s
o f t e n d i f f i c u l t and c o s t l y t o a t t a i n ,
r e q u i r i n g a p a t t e r n of h o l e s staggered
i n rows with c a r e f u l l y planned i n j e c t i o n
sequence and pressure c o n t r o l . See
DM-7.3, Chapter 2 f o r m a t e r i a l s and
methods.
V e r t i c a l sided trench i s excavated below
groundwater a s s l u r r y with s p e c i f i c
g r a v i t y g e n e r a l l y between 1.2 and 1.8 i s
pumped back i n t o t h e trench. S l u r r y may
be formed by mixture of powdered bento-
n i t e with fine-grained m a t e r i a l removed
from.the excavation. For a permanent
c u t o f f trench, such a s a foundation w a l l
o r o t h e r diaphragm w a l l , concrete i s
tremied t o bottom of trench, d i s p l a c i n g
s l u r r y upward. A l t e r n a t i v e l y , w e l l
graded b a c k f i l l m a t e r i a l is dropped
through t h e s l u r r y i n t h e trench t o form
a dense mixture t h a t i s e s s e n t i a l l y a n
incompressible mixture; i n working with
c o a r s e r g r a v e l s (which may s e t t l e o u t ) ,
t o o b t a i n a more r e l i a b l e key i n t o rock,
and a narrower trench, use a cement-
b e n t o n i t e mix.

Method
Impervious wall of mixed
in-place p i l e s .
Freezing - ammonium
brine o r liquid
nitrogen
See a l s o DM-7.2 Chapter 1, Table 10, DM-7.3 Chapter 3 ( f o r diaphragm w a l l s a s a c u t o f f ) , and DM-7.3
Chapter 2 ( f o r grouted c u t o f f s and f r e e z i n g ) .
TABLE 1 (continued)
Cutoff Methods f o r Seepage Control
Applicability
Method may be s u i t a b l e t o form
cofferdam w a l l where s h e e t p i l e
cofferdam i s expensive o r cannot be
d r i v e n t o s u i t a b l e depths, o r has
insufficient r i g i d i t y , or requires
e x c e s s i v e bracing.
A l l types of s a t u r a t e d s o i l s and
rock. Forms i c e i n voids t o s t o p
water. Ammonium b r i n e i s b e t t e r
f o r l a r g e a p p l i c a t i o n s of long
duration. Liquid n i t r o g e n i s
b e t t e r f o r small a p p l i c a t i o n s of
s h o r t d u r a t i o n where quick
f r e e z i n g i s needed.
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and Requirements
For a cofferdam surrounding an excava-
t i o n , a l i n e of overlapping mixed
in-place p i l e s a r e formed by a hollow
s h a f t auger o r mixing head r o t a t e d i n t o
t h e s o i l while cement grout i s pumped
through t h e s h a f t . Where p i l e s cannot be
advanced because of o b s t r u c t i o n s o r
boulders, supplementary grouting o r
i n j e c t i o n may be necassary.
Gives temporary mechanical s t r e n g t h t o
s o i l . I n s t a l l a t i o n c o s t s a r e high and
r e f r i g e r a t i o n p l a n t i s expensive. Some
ground heave occurs.
 ( 1 ) Sheeting i s p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t a b l e i n coarse-grained m a t e r i a l
with maximum s i z e s l e s s t h a n about 6 i n c h e s o r i n s t r a t i f i e d s u b s o i l s w i t h
a l t e r n a t i n g f i n e g r a i n e d and p e r v i o u s l a y e r s where h o r i z o n t a l p e r m e a b i l i t y
g r e a t l y exceeds v e r t i c a l .

( 2 ) To be e f f e c t i v e , s h e e t i n g must be c a r e f u l l y d r i v e n w i t h i n t e r -
locks intact. Boulders o r b u r i e d o b s t r u c t i o n s a r e almost c e r t a i n t o damage
s h e e t i n g and break i n t e r l o c k connections. W a t e r t i g h t n e s s cannot be assumed i f
o b s t r u c t i o n s a r e present.

( 3 ) Loss of head a c r o s s a s t r a i g h t w a l l of i n t a c t s h e e t i n g depends

on i t s w a t e r t i g h t n e s s r e l a t i v e t o t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y of t h e surrounding s o i l .
I n homogeneous fine-grained s o i l , head l o s s c r e a t e d by s h e e t i n g may be i n s i g -
nificant. I n pervious sand and g r a v e l , head l o s s may be s u b s t a n t i a l depending
on t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e flow p a t h i s lengthened by s h e e t i n g . In t h i s c a s e ,
t h e q u a n t i t y of water passing through i n t a c t i n t e r l o c k s may be a s much a s 0.1
gpm per f o o t of w a l l l e n g t h f o r e a c h 10 f e e t d i f f e r e n t i a l i n head a c r o s s
s h e e t i n g , u n l e s s s p e c i a l measures a r e taken t o s e a l i n t e r l o c k s .

b. P e n e t r a t i o n Required. T h i s paragraph and Paragraph "c" below a p p l y

_equa13y-t . a l l impervious w a l l s l i s t e d i n Table 1. Seepage beneath s h e e t i n g
d r i v e n f o r p a r t i a l c u t o f f may produce p i p i n g i n dense sands o r heave i n l o o s e
sands. Heave o c c u r s i f t h e u p l i f t f o r c e a t t h e s h e e t i n g t o e exceeds t h e sub-
merged weight of t h e o v e r l y i n g s o i l column. To prevent p i p i n g o r heave of a n
excavation c a r r i e d below groundwater, s h e e t i n g must p e n e t r a t e a s u f f i c i e n t
d e p t h below subgrade o r supplementary d r a i n a g e w i l l be r e q u i r e d a t subgrade.
See Figure 2 (Reference 2, Model Experiments t o Study t h e I n f l u e n c e of Seep-
age on t h e S t a b i l i t y of a Sheeted Excavation i n Sand, by Marsland) f o r s h e e t -
i n g p e n e t r a t i o n r e q u i r e d f o r v a r i o u s s a f e t y f a c t o r s a g a i n s t heave o r p i p i n g i n
' i s o t r o p i c sands. For homogeneous but a n i s o t r o p i c sands, reduce t h e h o r i z o n t a l
c r o s s - s e c t i o n dimensions by t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n f a c t o r of F i g u r e 1 t o o b t a i n
the equivalent c r o s s s e c t i o n f o r i s o t r o p i c conditions. See F i g u r e 3 (Refer-
ence 2 ) f o r s h e e t i n g p e n e t r a t i o n r e q u i r e d i n l a y e r e d s u b s o i l s . For c l e a n
sand, e x i t g r a d i e n t s between 0.5 and 0.75 w i l l cause u n s t a b l e c o n d i t i o n s f o r
men and equipment o p e r a t i n g on t h e subgrade. To avoid t h i s , provide s h e e t i n g
p e n e t r a t i o n f o r a s a f e t y f a c t o r of 1.5 t o 2 a g a i n s t p i p i n g o r heave.

c . Supplementary Measures. I f i t i s uneconomical o r i m p r a c t i c a l t o pro-

v i d e r e q u i r e d s h e e t i n g p e n e t r a t i o n , t h e seepage e x i t g r a d i e n t s may be reduced
a s follows:

( 1 ) For homogeneous m a t e r i a l s o r s o i l s whose p e r m e a b i l i t y d e c r e a s e s

with d e p t h , p l a c e w e l l p o i n t s , pumping w e l l s , o r sumps w i t h i n t h e excavation.
Wellpoints and pumping w e l l s o u t s i d e t h e e x c a v a t i o n a r e a s e f f e c t i v e i n some
c a s e s and do n o t i n t e r f e r e with b r a c i n g o r excavation.

( 2 ) For m a t e r i a l s whose p e r m e a b i l i t y i n c r e a s e s with d e p t h , o r d i n a r y

r e l i e f w e l l s with c o l l e c t o r p i p e s a t subgrade may s u f f i c e .

( 3 ) A pervious berm placed a g a i n s t t h e s h e e t i n g , o r a f i l t e r b l a n k e t

a t subgrade, w i l l provide weight t o balance u p l i f t p r e s s u r e s . M a t e r i a l placed
d i r e c t l y on t h e subgrade should meet f i l t e r c r i t e r i a of S e c t i o n 4.
# ,
2.0
PENETRAfK))J REQUIRED FUR CUT OFF WALL
IN SANDS OF INFINITE DEPTH

1.5

0 1.0
CUT OFF M L L
--------2x) --
B
f
Q5
%
k LOOSE SAND ------
e
0 HEAVING IN l&OSE SAND OR
W
5
3 0
0.5 1.0 1.5 2 .o
8
a 21)h
PONETRATON REQUIRED FOR CUTOFF WALL
IN DENSE SAND OF LIMED WPTH

---- --..----
4-----J--i- - --
1.0
H I / ~=lJ
kOAlNST PIPING
h
Oo 0.5 Ix) 1.5 2.0
RATIO W/HW 'RATIO OF HALF WIDTH OF EXCAVATION 10 NET HY DROSTATK: HEAD

FIGURE 2
Penetration of Cut O f f Wall t o Prevent Piping i n Isotropic Sand
. 4

COARSE SAND UNDERLYING FlNE SAND

MES€NCE OF COM(SE LAYER MAKES FWW IN FlNE MATERIAL MORE NEARLY
VERTICAL AWP OENERALLY mCREASES SEE- GRADIENTS M THE
FINE LAYER COWWED 70T)(E WOGENEOUS CROSS-SECTION OF

IFTOeOIO(IIRSE LAYERISATA#PlH BELWCUTOFF WALL M T O M

OREATER THIN WIDTH OF EXCIVATION,SAFElY FmORS OF F E W 2

PWOF- LAYER I S N A E P T H #UIW CUTOFFWLLbOTTOM

LESS THAN WIDTH OF UCAVATlON,TMUPLIFTPR~RESYIE
QlKITER THAN FOR THE m N E O U S CROS-SECTK)N. IF PERMEABILITY
OF C(YRSE LAYER IS me THAN TEN n w s TMT w FINE LAYER,
RlLURlE HEAD (Hwl THICKMESS OF FWE UYER (HZ).

FINE SAND UNDERLYING CCWISE SAND

#(ESENCE OF FINE LAYER CONBTRIC~S FUIW BENEATH CUT m WALL
AND GENERALLY #CREASES SEEPKT GRADIENTS IN THE LAYER.

IF TOP OF FlNE LAYER LES BELOW CUT OFF WALL W1OM.SKETY M7DRS
ARE INTERMEDIATE BETWnN THOS FOR AN IMPERMEABLE BOUNMRY
AT TDQ OR Wl7DM OF THE FINE LAYER USING FIGURE 2.

IF TOP OF THE FlNE LAYER LIES ABOVE CUT OFF WALL WlmM,TtlE W T T Y
FACTORS OF FWRE 2 ARE SOMEWHAT CONSERVATIVE FOR PENETRATION

--

FIGURE 3
Penetration of Cut Off Wall Required t o Prevent Piping i n
S t r a t i f i e d Sand
 FlNE LAYER IN HOMOGENEOUS SAND STRATUM

IF THE TOP OF FIPL: LAYER IS AT A DEPTH GREATER THAN

WIDTH OF EXCAVATION BELW CUT OFF WAU KftTOM,SAFETV
F m R S OF FlGURE2 A m , ASSUMING IMPERVIOUS BASE
Kf TOPOFFINE LAYER.

IF TOP OF FINE LAYER IS AT A DEPTH LESS THAN WUJTH OF

EXCAVATIW m W CUT OFF WALL TIPS, PRESSURE RELIEF
IS REOUIRED SO THAT UNBALANCED HEAD B EW FlNE
LAYER DOES NOT EXCEED HEIGHT OF SOIL ABOVE BASE OF
LAYER.

IF FlNE LAYER LIES ABOVE SUBGRACE OF EXCAVAm,FINAL

L) CONDITION IS SAFER THAN HOMOGENEOUS CASE,BUT
IMNGEROUS CONDITION MAY ARISE WRING EXCAVATION
ABOVE THE flNE LAYER AND PRESSURE RELIEF IS REWIRED
IMPEWIOUS AS IN THE PRECEDING CASE.

€
TO AVOID BOTTOM HEAVE, yT X H SHOULD BE GRENER THAN
1 . ..... .. . Yw X H 4 .
YT = TOTAL UNIT WEIGHT OF THE SOIL
YW= UNIT WEIGHT OF WATER

' ~ C E R Y FINE LAYER (CLAYSOIL@

.... ..

FIGURE 3 (continued) '

Penetration of Cut Off Wall Required t o Prevent Piping i n
S t r a t i f i e d Sand
 ( 4 ) An o u t s i d e open water source may be blanketed w i t h f i n e s o r
b e n t o n i t e dumped through water o r placed as a s l u r r y . See Table 2.
- Evaluate t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e s e measures by flow n e t a n a l y s i s .

3. GROUTED CUTOFF. For g r o u t i n g methods and m a t e r i a l s , see DM-7.3, Chap-

ter 2. Complete grouted c u t o f f i s f r e q u e n t l y d i f f i c u l t and c o s t l y t o a t t a i n .
Success of g r o u t i n g r e q u i r e s c a r e f u l ' e v a l u a t i o n of pervious s t r a t a f o r selec-
t i o n of a p p r o p r i a t e g r o u t mix and procedures. These techniques, i n combina-
t i o n with o t h e r c u t o f f o r d r a i n a g e methods, a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l a s a

. c o n s t r u c t i o n expedient t o c o n t r o l l o c a l seepage.

4. IMPERVIOUS SOIL BARRIERS. B a c k f i l l i n g of c u t o f f t r e n c h e s w i t h s e l e c t e d

impervious m a t e r i a l and placing impervious f i l l s f o r embankment c o r e s a r e
r o u t i n e procedures f o r e a r t h dams.

a. Compacted Impervious F i l l . P r o p e r l y c o n s t r u c t e d , t h e s e s e c t i o n s
permit n e g l i g i b l e seepage compared t o t h e flow through f o u n d a t i o n s o r abut-
.merits. Pervious l a y e r s o r l e n s e s i n t h e compacted c u t o f f must be avoided by
blending of borrow m a t e r i a l s and s c a r i f y i n g t o bond s u c c e s s i v e l i f t s .

b. Mixed-in-Place P i l e s . Overlapping mixed-in-place p i l e s of cement and

n a t u r a l s o i l forms a cofferdam w i t h some s h e a r r e s i s t a n c e around an excava-
t ion.

c. S l u r r y - f i l l e d Trench. Concurrent excavation of a s t r a i g h t s i d e d

t r e n c h and b a c k f i l l i n g w i t h a s l u r r y of b e n t o n i t e w i t h n a t u r a l s o i l i s done.
A l t e r n a t i v e l y , a cement b e n t o n i t e m i x can be used i n a narrower t r e n c h where
c o a r s e r g r a v e l occurs. In c e r t a i n c a s e s , t r e m i e c o n c r e t e may be placed,
working upward from t h e base of a s l u r r y - f i l l e d t r e n c h , t o form a permanent
p e r i p h e r a l w a l l (Diaphragm Wall, s e e DM-7.3, Chapter 3 ) .

5. FREEZING. See S e c t i o n 2, DM-7.3, Chapter 2, and Table 7, DM-7.2, Chap-

t e r 1.

S e c t i o n 4. DESIGN OF DRAINAGE BLANKET AND FILTERS

1. FILTERS. I f water flows from a s i l t t o a g r a v e l , t h e s i l t w i l l wash i n t o

t h e i n t e r s t i c e s of t h e g r a v e l . This could l e a d t o t h e f o l l o w i n g , which must
be avoided:

(1) The l o s s of s i l t may c o n t i n u e , causing c r e a t i o n of a c a v i t y .

( 2 ) The s i l t may c l o g t h e g r a v e l , stopping 'flow, and c a u s i n g

h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e buildup.

The purpose of f i l t e r s i s t o a l l o w water t o pass f r e e l y a c r o s s t h e

i n t e r f a c e ( f i l t e r must be c o a r s e enough t o avoid head l o s s ) b u t s t i l l be s u f -
f i c i e n t l y f i n e t o prevent the m i g r a t i o n of f i n e s . The f i l t e r p a r t i c l e s must
be d u r a b l e , e.g., c e r t a i n crushed l i m e s t o n e s may d i s s o l v e . F i l t e r r e q u i r e -
ments apply t o a l l permanent subdrainage s t r u c t u r e s i n c o n t a c t w i t h s o i l ,
i n c l u d i n g wells. See Figure 4 f o r p r o t e c t i v e f i l t e r d e s i g n c r i t e r i a .
 SILT OR CLAY (PLASTIC OR NON-PLASTIC) I
A

CLEAR SQUARE OPENINGS US STANDARD SIEVE NUMBERS

HYOROMETER ANALYSIS

SAND .3 .75 2 4
CONQETE GRAVEL
W4"TO N0.4 7 12 16 2.5

FIGURE 4
Design Criteria for Protective Filters
r I

Sl LT OR CLAY (PLASTK: OR NON-PLASTIC)

CLEAR SQUARE OPENINGS US STANDARD SIEVE NUMBERS

HYDROMETER ANALYSIS

OENERAL REQUIREMENTS:
I. X)AVOID HEAD LDSS IN FILTER : > 4, AND PERMEABILITY OF FILTER MUST BE LARGE ENOUGH TO SUFFICE FOR RIRTKWLAR W N & E
Dl5 B
2. X)AVOlD MOVEMENT OFPARTICLES FROMBASE: * c 5 , ~ ( 2 5 , ~ ~ 2 0
D85 B D~~~
FOR VERY UNIFORM BASE MATERIAL ( Cu < 1.5 1: DISF/D~SB MAY BE MCREASEO TO 6
FOR BROADLY GRADED BASE MATERIAL ( CU ) 4) Dl5 F/D 15 B MAY BE INCREASED TO 40
3. TO AVOID MOVEMENT OF FILTER IN M W N PIPE PERFORATIONS OR JOINTS : D~sF/SLOT WIDTH > ( 1.2 TO 1.41, ~ g s ~ / H 6 1DIAMETER
E )(l.Om1.2)
4. TO AVOID SEGREGATK)N,FLTER SHOULD CONTAIN NO SIZES U RGE THAN 3':
5. TO AVOID INTERNAL MOVEMENT OF FINES, FILTER SHOULD WVE NO MORE THAN 5% FASING No.200 SEVE .

FIGURE 4 (continued)
Design Criteria for Protective Filters
 The f i l t e r may be too f i n e grained t o convey enough w a t e r , t o provide
a good working s u r f a c e , o r t o pass t h e water f r e e l y without l o s s of f i n e s t o a
- subdrain pipe. For t h i s c o n d i t i o n , a second f i l t e r l a y e r i s placed on t h e
f i r s t f i l t e r l a y e r ; t h e f i r s t f i l t e r l a y e r i s then considered t h e s o i l t o be
p r o t e c t e d , and t h e second f i l t e r l a y e r i s designed. The f i n e s t f i l t e r s o i l i s
o f t e n a t t h e base, w i t h c o a r s e r l a y e r s above. This i s r e f e r r e d t o as r e v e r s e d
o r inverted f i l t e r s .

Concrete sand (ASTM C33, S p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r Concrete Aggregates) suf-

f i c e s a s a f i l t e r a g a i n s t t h e m a j o r i t y of fine-grained s o i l s o r s i l t y o r
c l a y e y sands. For non-plastic s i l t , varved s i l t , o r c l a y w i t h sand o r s i l t
l e n s e s , use a s p h a l t sand (ASRI D1073, S p e c i f i c a t i o n s f o r F i n e Aggregates f o r
Bituminous Paving Mixtures) but always check t h e c r i t e r i a i n Figure 4. Local-
l y a v a i l a b l e n a t u r a l m a t e r i a l s a r e u s u a l l y more economical than processed
m a t e r i a l s , and should be used where they meet f i l t e r c r i t e r i a . The f i n e
f i l t e r l a y e r can be r e p l a c e d with p l a s t i c f i l t e r c l o t h s under t h e f o l l o w i n -g
c o n d i t i o n s ( a f t e r ~ e f e ; e n c e 3 , performance of P l a s t i c F i l t e r C l o t h s a s a
Replacement f o r Granular M a t e r i a l s , by Calhoun, e t a l . ) :

( a ) Non-woven f i l t e r c l o t h s , o r woven f i l t e r c l o t h s w i t h l e s s t h a n 4%
open a r e a should n o t be used where s i l t i s p r e s e n t i n sandy s o i l s . A c l o t h
with an e q u i v a l e n t opening s i z e (EOS) equal t o t h e No. 30 s i e v e and an open
a r e a of 36% w i l l r e t a i n sands c o n t a i n i n g s i l t .

( b ) When s t o n e s a r e t o be dropped d i r e c t l y on t h e c l o t h , o r where

u p l i f t pressure from a r t e s i a n water may be encountered, t h e minimum t e n s i l e
s t r e n g t h s (ASTM D1682, T e s t s f o r Breaking Load and Elongation of T e x t i l e
F a b r i c s ) i n t h e s t r o n g e s t and weakest d i r e c t i o n s should be n o t l e s s t h a n 350
and 200 l b s . r e s p e c t i v e l y . Elongation a t f a i l u r e should n o t exceed 35%. The
minimum b u r s t s t r e n g t h should be 520 p s i (ASTM D751, T e s t i n g Coated F a b r i c s ) .
Where t h e c l o t h s a r e used i n a p p l i c a t i o n s n o t r e q u i r i n g h i g h s t r e n g t h o r
a b r a s i o n r e s i s t a n c e , t h e s t r e n g t h requirements may be relaxed.

( c ) C l o t h s made of polypropylene, polyvinyl c h l o r i d e and polyethylene

f i b e r s do n o t d e t e r i o r a t e under most c o n d i t i o n s , b u t t h e y a r e a f f e c t e d by sun-
l i g h t , and should be p r o t e c t e d from t h e sun. M a t e r i a l s should be d u r a b l e
a g a i n s t ground p o l l u t a n t s and i n s e c t a t t a c k , and p e n e t r a t i o n by burrowing
animals.

( d ) Where f i l t e r c l o t h s a r e used t o wrap c o l l e c t i o n p i p e s o r i n s i m i -

l a r a p p l i c a t i o n s , b a c k f i l l should c o n s i s t of c l e a n sands o r g r a v e l s graded
such t h a t t h e D85 i s g r e a t e r than t h e EOS of t h e c l o t h . When t r e n c h e s a r e
l i n e d with f i l t e r c l o t h , t h e c o l l e c t i o n pipe should be s e p a r a t e d from t h e
c l o t h by a t l e a s t s i x i n c h e s of g r a n u l a r m a t e r i a l .
-
( e ) Cloths should be made of monofilament yarns, and t h e a b s o r p t i o n
of t h e c l o t h should not exceed 1%t o reduce p o s s i b i l i t y of f i b e r s s w e l l i n g and
changing EOS and percent of open a r e a .

-
For f u r t h e r guidance on t y p e s and p r o p e r t i e s of f i l t e r f a b r i c s s e e
Reference 4 , C o n s t r u c t i o n and ~ e o t e c h n i c a lEngineering Using S y n t h e t i c
F a b r i c s , by Koerner and Welsh.
 2. DRAINAGE BLANKET. Figure 5 shows t y p i c a l f i l t e r and d r a i n a g e b l a n k e t
i n s t a1l a t ions.

a . Permeability. Figure 6 (Reference 5, Subsurface Drainage of High-

-
ways, by Barber) g i v e s t y p i c a l c o e f f i c i e n t s of p e r m e a b i l i t y f o r c l e a n ,
coarse-grained d r a i n a g e m a t e r i a l and t h e e f f e c t of v a r i o u s p e r c e n t a g e s of
f i n e s on Mixtures of about e q u a l p a r t s g r a v e l w i t h medium t o
c o a r s e sand have a p e r m e a b i l i t y of approximately 1 fpm. Single sized, c l e a n
g r a v e l h a s a p e r m e a b i l i t y exceeding 50 fpm. For approximate r e l a t i o n s h i p of
p e r m e a b i l i t y v e r s u s e f f e c t i v e g r a i n s i z e DlO, s e e F i g u r e 1, Chapter 3.
+ b. Drainage Capacity. Estimate t h e q u a n t i t y of water which can b e
t r a n s m i t t e d by a d r a i n a g e b l a n k e t a s f o l l o w s :

where q = q u a n t i t y of flow, f t 3 / s e c

k = permeability c o e f f i c i e n t , f t / s e c

i = average g r a d i e n t i n flow d i r e c t i o n , f t / f t

A = c r o s s s e c t i o n a l a r e a of b l a n k e t , f t 2

The g r a d i e n t i s l i m i t e d by u p l i f t p r e s s u r e s t h a t may be t o l e r a t e d a t
t h e point f a r t h e s t from t h e o u t l e t of t h e d r a i n a g e b l a n k e t . Increase gradi-
e n t s and flow c a p a c i t y of t h e b l a n k e t by providing c l o s e r spacing of d r a i n
pipes within t h e blanket.

(1) Pressure Relief. See bottom panel of F i g u r e 7 (Reference 6 ,

Seepage Requirements of F i l t e r s and P e r v i o u s Bases, by Cedergren) f o r combi-
n a t i o n s of d r a i n pipe s p a c i n g , d r a i n a g e c o u r s e t h i c k n e s s , and p e r m e a b i l i t y
r e q u i r e d f o r c o n t r o l of flow upward from an underlying a q u i f e r under an aver-
age v e r t i c a l g r a d i e n t of 0.4.

( 2 ) Rate of Drainage. See t h e t o p panel of F i g u r e 7 (Reference 5 )

f o r time r a t e of d r a i n a g e of water from a s a t u r a t e d base c o u r s e beneath a
pavement. E f f e c t i v e p o r o s i t y i s t h e volume of d r a i n a b l e water i n a u n i t vol-
ume of s o i l . It r a n g e s from 25 p e r c e n t f o r a uniform m a t e r i a l such a s medium
t o c o a r s e sand, t o 1 5 percent f o r a b r o a d l y graded sand-gravel mixture.

c. Drainage Blanket Design. The following g u i d e l i n e s should be f o l -

1owed :

(1) Gradation. Design i n accordance w i t h F i g u r e 4 .

( 2 ) Thickness. Beneath, s t r u c t u r e s r e q u i r e a minimum of 12 i n c h e s

f o r each l a y e r with a minimum t h i c k n e s s of 2 4 i n c h e s o v e r a l l . I f placed on
wet, y i e l d i n g , uneven e x c a v a t i o n s u r f a c e and s u b j e c t t o c o n s t r u c t i o n o p e r a t i o n
and t r a f f i c , minimum t h i c k n e s s s h a l l be 36 i n c h e s o v e r a l l .
 PERFoR&TED CLOSED JOINT
DRAIN ~ P 6"
EWIN.MAMETER

AND MPLXED WITH FILTER fiRBRIC.

FlLTOR

FIGURE 5
Typical Filter and Drainage Blanket Applications
7.1-276
 COEFFICIENT O f PERMEABILITY
-
FOR CLEAN COARSE GRAINED
DRAINME MATERIAL
CURVE K.FT/MIN.

0 73.7
0 56.9
0 5-41
0 0.13
0 0.01
@ 2.08
0 1.81
@ 0.m
@ 0.22
@ 0.08
0 0.01

K)
8
6
4

i
d
0 6
w- 4
5
V)

f 2
(3

.K)
w 8
B
W 4
Z
2

.a
CAPILLARY HEtGHT IN FEET

PERCENT BY WEIGHT PASSING NO. 200 SIEVE

.
FIGURE 6
Permeability and C a p i l l a r i t y of Drainage Materials
 ,
SUBSO(L PERMEABILITY, k . FPM
ASSUMPTIONS: ~PREVENTBREAKOUTOFSEE#IOIEONOlKXMO
STEADY S E E M MOVES VERTICALLY UPWARD SMFXE, SELECT FILTER PERMEABlLKY AND
FROM MUIFER AT DEPTH 0.50 WITH AVEWE THICKNESS SO T I M MAX. HEWT OF WATER N
GRADIENT =Q4. DRAINME LAYER (h) IS LES3 THAN FILTER
THCKNESS.

FIGURE 7
Analysis of Drainage Layer Performance
7.1-278
 d. Chemical Clogging. F i l t e r systems ( f i l t e r l a y e r s , f a b r i c s , p i p e s )
can become chemically clogged by f e r r u g i n o u s ( i r o n ) and c a r b o n a t e d e p o s i t i o n s
and i n c r u s t a t i o n s . Where t h e permanent subdrainage system i s a c c e s s i b l e ,
p i p e s w i t h l a r g e r p e r f o r a t i o n s (318 i n c h ) and i n c r e a s e d t h i c k n e s s of f i l t e r
l a y e r s can be used. For e x i s t i n g f a c i l i t i e s , a weak s o l u t i o n of h y d r o c h l o r i c
a c i d can be used t o d i s s o l v e c a r b o n a t e s .

3. INTERCEPTING DRAINS. I n t e r c e p t i n g d r a i n s c o n s i s t of s h a l l o w t r e n c h e s
w i t h c o l l e c t o r p i p e s surrounded by d r a i n a g e m a t e r i a l , placed t o i n t e r c e p t
seepage moving h o r i z o n t a l l y i n a n upper pervious stratum. To d e s i g n p r o p e r
c o n t r o l d r a i n s , determine t h e drawdown and flow t o d r a i n s by f l o w n e t a n a l y -
sis. F i g u r e 8 shows t y p i c a l placements of i n t e r c e p t i n g d r a i n s f o r roadways on
a slope.

4. SHALLOW DRAINS FOR PONDED AREAS. Drains c o n s i s t i n g of shallow s t o n e

t r e n c h e s with c o l l e c t o r p i p e s can be used t o c o l l e c t and c o n t r o l s u r f a c e run-
off. See F i g u r e 9 ( Reference 7 , Seepage I n t o D i t c h e s From a P l a n e Water
Table Overlying a Gravel Substratum, by Kirkham; and Reference 8, Seepage
I n t o D i t c h e s i n t h e Case of a P l a n e Water Table And an Impervious Substratum,
by Kirkham) f o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n of r a t e of seepage i n t o d r a i n a g e trenches. If
s u f f i c i e n t c a p a c i t y cannot be provided i n t r e n c h e s , add s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e
facilities.

5. PIPES FOR DRAINAGE BLANKETS AND FILTERS. Normally, p e r f o r a t e d w a l l p i p e s

of metal o r p l a s t i c o r porous w a l l c o n c r e t e p i p e s a r e used a s c o l l e c t o r p i p e s .
C i r c u l a r p e r f o r a t i o n s should g e n e r a l l y n o t be l a r g e r t h a n 318 inch. F i l t e r
m a t e r i a l must be graded according t o t h e above g u i d e l i n e s .

P i p e s should be checked f o r s t r e n g t h . C e r t a i n deep b u r i e d p i p e s may need

a cradle.. Check f o r c o r r o s i v e n e s s of s o i l and water; c e r t a i n m e t a l p i p e s may
n o t be a p p r o p r i a t e .

S i n c e s o i l m i g r a t i o n may o c c u r , even i n t h e b e s t designed systems,

i n s t a l l c l e a n o u t p o i n t s so t h a t t h e e n t i r e system can be f l u s h e d and snaked.

S e c t i o n 5. WELLPOINT SYSTEMS AND DEEP WELLS

1. METHODS. Excavation below groundwater i n s o i l s having a p e r m e a b i l i t y

g r e a t e r than 10'3 fpm g e n e r a l l y r e q u i r e s dewatering t o p e r m i t c o n s t r u c t i o n
i n t h e dry. For m a t e r i a l s w i t h a p e r m e a b i l i t y between 1 0 ' ~ amd 1 0 ' ~ fpm,
t h e amount of seepage may be small but piezometric l e v e l s may need t o be
lowered i n o r d e r t o s t a b i l i z e s l o p e s o r t o prevent s o f t e n i n g of subgrades.
Drawdown f o r i n t e r m e d i a t e depths i s normally accomplished by w e l l p o i n t systems
o r sumps.

Deep d r a i n a g e methods i n c l u d e deep pumping w e l l s , r e l i e f w e l l s , and d e e p

s h e e t e d sumps. These a r e a p p r o p r i a t e when e x c a v a t i o n exceeds a d e p t h t h a t can
be dewatered e f f i c i e n t l y by w e l l p o i n t systems alone o r when t h e p r i n c i p a l
s o u r c e of seepage i s from lower permeable s t r a t a .
 v

INTERCEPrOR DRAIN

ORIGINAL GRADE

BASE AND SUBGRADE

FIGURE 8
Intercepting Drains f o r Roadways on a Slope
 CASE @
0 = KfS-F
Q =MAXIMUM DISCHARGE INTO TRENCH
PER RUNNING FOOT OF LENGTH.
K-PERMEABILITY OF SURFKE LAYER.
2S =SWING OF TRENCH.
F = F W COEFFICIENT.

ASSUMPTIONS:
I. SURFACE LAYER IS SATURATED
BY CONTINUOUS RAINFALL.
2. NO HEAD UlSS IN TRENCH BUKFILL
Of? IN UNDERLYING P E W W LAYER.
3. NO PWDING OF WATER ON THE
GROUND SURFACE IS PERMITTED.

OF: HEIGHT OF WATER IN DITCH

THICKNESS OF SOIL LAYER ,

L
OTHERWISE SURFACE DRAINAGE MUST BE PROVIDED IN ADDITION TO THE TRENCHES.

FIGURE 9
1
NOTE : TO PREVENT PONDING OF WATER ON THE GROUND SURFACE, DESIGN DRAINAGE TRENCH SO THAT
FLOW INTO TRENCH IS EQUAL OR GREATER THAN INTENSITY OF RAINFALL ON AN AREA OF: IX2S.

Rate of Seepage i n t o Drainage Trench

 a. C o n s t r u c t i o n Controls. For important c o n s t r u c t i o n dewatering,
i n s t a l l piezometers below t h e base of e x c a v a t i o n s and behind s l o p e s o r
cofferda& t o check on t h e performance and adequacy of d r a i n a g e system.

b. s e t t l e m e n t E f f e c t s . Where dewatering lowers t h e water l e v e l s i n

permeable s t r a t a a d j a c e n t t o compressible s o i l s , s e t t l e m e n t may r e s u l t . See
Chapter 5 f o r methods of s e t t l e m e n t e v a l u a t i o n .

c. Dewatering Schemes. For c o n s t r u c t i o n of dewatering systems and pro-

c e d u r e s , r e f e r t o DM-7.2, Chapter 1, and NAVFAC P-418.

2. WELLPOINT SYSTEMS. Wellpoints c o n s i s t of 1-112 o r 2-inch diameter p i p e s

w i t h a p e r f o r a t e d bottom s e c t i o n p r o t e c t e d by screens. They a r e j e t t e d o r
placed i n a prepared h o l e and connected by a header pipe t o s u c t i o n pumps.

a. A p p l i c a b i 1 i . t ~ . Wellpoints depend upon t h e water flowing by g r a v i t y

t o t h e w e l l screen. Pumping methods f o r g r a v i t y d r a i n a g e g e n e r a l l y a r e n o t
e f f e c t i v e when t h e average e f f e c t i v e g r a i n s i z e of a s o i l D l 0 i s l e s s t h a n
0.05 mm. I n varved o r laminated s o i l s where s i l t y f i n e sands a r e s e p a r a t e d by
c l a y e y s i l t s o r c l a y , g r a v i t y d r a i n a g e may be e f f e c t i v e even i f t h e average
m a t e r i a l has a s much a s 50 p e r c e n t s m a l l e r than 0.05 mm. Compressible, f i n e -
g r a i n e d m a t e r i a l s c o n t a i n i n g an e f f e c t i v e g r a i n s i z e l e s s t h a n 0.01 mm can b e
d r a i n e d by providing a vacuum s e a l a t t h e ground s u r f a c e around t h e w e l l p o i n t ,
u t i l i z i n g atmospheric p r e s s u r e a s .a c o n s o l i d a t i n g force. See S e c t i o n 4 f o r
l i m i t a t i o n s due t o i r o n and carbonate clogging.

b. Capacity. Wellpoints o r d i n a r i l y produce a drawdown between 15 and 18

f e e t below t h e c e n t e r of t h e header. For g r e a t e r drawdown, i n s t a l l w e l l p o i n t s
i n s u c c e s s i v e tiers o r s t a g e s a s e x c a v a t i o n proceeds. Discharge c a p a c i t y i s
g e n e r a l l y 15 ta 30 gpm per point. P o i n t s a r e spaced between 3 and 1 0 f e e t
apart. I n f i n e l y s t r a t i f i e d o r varved materials, use minimum spacing of
p o i n t s and i n c r e a s e t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s by p l a c i n g sand i n t h e a n n u l a r s p a c e
surrounding t h e w e l l p o i n t .

c. Analysis. Wellpoint spacing u s u a l l y i s so c l o s e t h a t t h e seepage

p a t t e r n i s e s s e n t i a l l y two dimensional. Analyze t o t a l flow and drawdown by
flow n e t procedure. (See S e c t i o n 2.) For f i n e sands and c o a r s e r m a t e r i a l ,
t h e q u a n t i t y of water t o be removed c o n t r o l s w e l l p o i n t layout. For s i l t y
s o i l s , t h e ' q u a n t i t y pumped i s r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l and t h e number and spacing of
w e l l p o i n t s w i l l be i n f l u e n c e d by t h e t i m e a v a i l a b l e t o accomplish t h e
n e c e s s a r y drawdown.

3. SUMPS-. For c o n s t r u c t i o n convenience o r t o handle a l a r g e flow i n per-

v i o u s s o i l s , sumps can be excavated with s o l d i e r beam and h o r i z o n t a l wood
lagging. C o l l e c t e d seepage i s removed w i t h c e n t r i f u g a l pumps placed w i t h i n
t h e sump. Analyze drawdown and flow q u a n t i t i e s by approximating t h e sump w i t h
a n e q u i v a l e n t c i r c u l a r w e l l of l a r g e diameter.

Sheeted sumps a r e i n f r e q u e n t l y used. Unsheeted sumps a r e f a r more com-

mon, and a r e used p r i m a r i l y i n dewatering open shallow excavations i n c o a r s e
sands, c l e a n g r a v e l s , and rock.
4. ELECTRO-OSMOSIS. This i s a s p e c i a l i z e d procedure u t i l i z e d i n s i l t s a n d '
c l a y s t h a t a r e t o o fine-grained t o be e f f e c t i v e l y d r a i n e d by g r a v i t y o r vacuum
methods. See DM-7.3, Chapter 2.

5. PUMPING WELLS. These w e l l s a r e formed by d r i l l i n g a h o l e of s u f f i c i e n t

diameter t o accommodate a p i p e column and f i l t e r , i n s t a l l i n g a w e l l c a s i n g ,
and placing f i l t e r m a t e r i a l i n t h e a n n u l a r space surrounding t h e c a s i n g .
Pumps may be e i t h e r t h e t u r b i n e type w i t h a motor a t t h e s u r f a c e and p i p e
column with pump bowls hung i n s i d e t h e w e l l , o r a submersible pump placed
w i t h i n t h e well c a s i n g .

a. Applications. Deep pumping w e l l s a,re used i f ( a ) dewatering i n s t a l -

l a t i o n s must be k e p t o u t s i d e t h e e x c a v a t i o n a r e a , ( b ) l a r g- e q- u a n t i t i e s a r e t o
be pumped for. t h e f u l l c o n s t r u c t i o n p e r i o d , and ( c ) pumping must commence
b e f o r e excavation t o o b t a i n t h e n e c e s s a r y time f o r drawdown.
(bottom panel, Reference 9, A n a l y s i s of Groundwater Lowering Adjacent t o Open
-
See F i n u r e 10

Water, by Avery) f o r a n a l y s i s of drawdown and pumping q u a n t i t i e s f o r s i n g l e

w e l l s o r a group of w e l l s i n a c i r c u l a r p a t t e r n . Deep w e l l s may be u s e d - f o r
g r a v e l s t o s i l t y f i n e sands, and water b e a r i n g rocks.- See s e c t i o n 4 f o r
l i m i t a t i o n s due t o i r o n and c a r b o n a t e clogging.

'Bored shallow w e l l s with s u c t i o n pumps can be used t o r e p l a c e w e l l -

p o i n t s where pumping i s r e q u i r e d f o r s e v e r a l months o r i n s i l t y s o i l s where
correct f i l t e r i n g is c r i t i c a l .

b. S p e c i a l Methods. E j e c t o r o r e d u c t o r pumps may be u t i l i z e d w i t h i n

w e l l p o i n t s f o r l i f t s up t o about 60 f e e t . The e j e c t o r pump h a s a n o z z l e
arrangement a t t h e bottom of two small diameter r i s e r p i p e s which remove water
by t h e Venturi p r i n c i p l e . They a r e used i n l i e u of a m u l t i s t a g e w e l l p o i n t
system and i f t h e l a r g e pumping c a p a c i t y of deep w e l l s i s n o t r e q u i r e d . Their
primary a p p l i c a t i o n i s f o r sands, but w i t h proper c o n t r o l t h e y can a l s o be
used i n s i l t y sands and sandy s i l t s .

6. RELIEF WELLS. These w e l l s a r e sand columns used t o b l e e d water from

underlying s t r a t a c o n t a i n i n g a r t e s i a n p r e s s u r e s , and t o reduce u p l i f t f o r c e s
a t c r i t i c a l l o c a t i o n . R e l i e f w e l l s may be tapped below ground by a c o l l e c t o r
system t o reduce back p r e s s u r e s a c t i n g i n t h e well.

a. A p p l i c a t i o n s . R e l i e f w e l l s a r e f r e q u e n t l y used a s c o n s t r u c t i o n
e x p e d i e n t s , and i n s i t u a t i o n s where a h o r i z o n t a l d r a i n a g e c o u r s e may be
inadequate f o r p r e s s u r e r e l i e f of deep f o u n d a t i o n s u n d e r l a i n by varved o r
s t r a t i f i e d s o i l s o r s o i l s whose p e r m e a b i l i t y i n c r e a s e s with depth.

b. Analysis. See Figure 11 (Reference 10, S o i l Mechanics Design,

Seepage C o n t r o l , by t h e Corps of Sngineers) f o r a n a l y s i s of drawdown produced
by l i n e of r e l i e f w e l l s inboard of a long dike. To reduce u p l i f t p r e s s u r e s
h, midway between t h e w e l l s t o s a f e v a l u e s , v a r y t h e w e l l d i a m e t e r , s p a c i n g ,
and p e n e t r a t i o n t o o b t a i n t h e b e s t combination.
 H = HEAD AT RADIUS OF
INFLUENCE R

SECTION A-A

WHERE n EQUALS

2rKD (H-ZW) DISCHARGE FROM

q ' m[(~h
SR n 4 r c p ) ] ' A SINGLE WL

ING OF WELLS
0 :ECCENTRICITY OF

0 = DISTANCE FROM LINE

SOURCE TO HYDRAULIC:
CENTER OF WELLS

FOR ANY P O W WITHIN ZONE

WELLS INFLUENCE

(TOfAL DISCHARGE
FROM SYSTEM)

FIGURE 10
Groundwater Lowering by Pumping Wells
 rSSSUMPTIONS:

2.NO HEAD IDSN WELLS DUE TO INFLLIW OR OUTFUrW RPEFRCTlON

DEFINITIONS:
DRAWDO DOWN FZ~CTOR=

h = NET PRESSURE HEAD ON SYSTEM = H - hw

R =.DISTANCE FROM SUPPLY LINE TD WELLS
EXTRA L E m IS A MAMETER DETERMINED FROM MODEL
STUDIES TD AUI)W FOR RESIST#NCE X) FUlllV INlD WELLS.

FIGURE 1 1
Drainage of Artesian Layer by Line of R e l i e f Wells
 S e c t i o n 6. LININGS FOR RESERVOIRS AND POLLUTION CONTROL FACILITIES

1. PURPOSE. L i n i n g s a r e used t o reduce water l o s s , t o minimize seepage

which can cause i n s t a b i l i t y i n embankments, and t o keep p o l l u t a n t s from
m i g r a t i n g t o groundwater sources a s i n holding ponds a t sewage t r e a t m e n t and
chemical f a c i l i t i e s , and i n s a n i t a r y l a n d f i l l s . For f u r t h e r guidance s e e
Reference 4 and ~ e f e r e n c e11, wastewater S t a b i l i z a t i o n Pond ~ i n i n ~ by s , the
Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory.

2. TYPES. Table 2 l i s t s t y p e s of l i n i n g s a p p r o p r i a t e where wave f o r c e s a r e

i n s i g n i f i c a n t . Where e r o s i v e f o r c e s a r e p r e s e n t , combine l i n i n g w i t h s l o p e
p r o t e c t i o n procedure. See Chapter 7 , S e c t i o n 6 .

3. SUBDRAINAGE. I f t h e water l e v e l i n t h e r e s e r v o i r may f a l l below t h e

surrounding groundwater l e v e l , a permanent subdrainage system should be pro-
vided below t h e l i n i n g .

4. INVESTIGATION FOR LINING. Check any p o t e n t i a l l i n i n g f o r r e a c t i o n t o

p o l l u t a n t s (e.g., s y n t h e t i c rubber i s s u b j e c t t o a t t a c k by hydrocarbons),
p o t e n t i a l f o r i n s e c t a t t a c k (e.g., c e r t a i n s y n t h e t i c f a b r i c s may be s u b j e c t t o
t e r m i t e a t t a c k ) , and t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r burrowing animals b r e a c h i n g t h e
.
1i n i n g

S e c t i o n 7. EROSION CONTROL

1. GENERAL. The d e s i g n of e r o s i o n c o n t r o l s must c o n s i d e r t h e volume of

runoff from p r e c i p i t a t i o n , t h e runoff v e l o c i t y , and t h e amount of s o i l l o s s .

a. Volume of Runoff. The volume of runoff depends on t h e amount o f

p r e c i p i t a t i o n , ground c o v e r , and topography. For guidance on e v a l u a t i n g t h e
volume of runoff s e e DM-5.3 o r Reference 12, Urban Hydrology f o r Small Water-
sheds, by t h e S o i l Conservation Service.

b. Amount of S o i l Loss. S o i l l o s s e s can be e s t i m a t e d u s i n g t h e Uni-

v e r s a l S o i l Loss Equation developed by t h e S o i l Conservation S e r v i c e :

A = E I ' KLS

where A = ccmputed s o i l l o s s per a c r e , i n t o n s

E I = r a i n f a l l erosion index

K = soil erodibility factor

L = slope length f a c t o r

S = slope gradient f a c t o r
 TABLE 2
Impermeable Reservoir Linings

Method A p p l i c a b i l i t y and Procedures

Buried P l a s t i c Liner Impervious l i n e r formed of b l a c k c o l o r e d p o l y v i n y l

c h l o r i d e p l a s t i c film. Where f o u n d a t i o n i s r o u g h o r
rocky, p l a c e a l a y e r 2 t o 4 i n c h e s t h i c k of f i n e -
g r a i n e d s o i l beneath l i n e r . S e a l l i n e r s e c t i o n s by
bonding w i t h manufacturer's recommended s o l v e n t w i t h
6-inch o v e r l a p a t j o i n t s . P r o t e c t l i n e r by 6-inch
min. cover of f i n e grained s o i l . On s l o p e s add a
6-inch l a y e r of g r a v e l and cobbles 314 t o 3-inch
s i z e . Anchor l i n e r i n a t r e n c h a t t o p of s l o p e .
Avoid d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h s u n l i g h t d u r i n g c o n s t r u c -
t i o n b e f o r e covering with f i l l and i n completed
i n s t a l l a t i o n . Usual t h i c k n e s s range of 20 t o 45
m i l s (.020" t o ,045"). Items t o be s p e c i f i e d
i n c l u d e T e n s i l e S t r e n g t h (ASTM D412), E l o n g a t i o n a t
Break (ASTM D412), Water Absorption (ASIM D471),
Cold Bend (ASTM D2136), B r i t t l e n e s s Temperature
(ASTM D746), Ozone R e s i s t a n c e (ASIM D1149), H e a t
Aging T e n s i l e S t r e n g t h and E l o n g a t i o n a t Break
(ASTM D412), S t r e n g t h - Tear and Grab (ASIM D751).

Buried S y n t h e t i c Impervious l i n e r formed by s y n t h e t i c rubber, most

Rubber L i n e r o f t e n polyester reinforced. Preparation, s e a l i n g ,
p r o t e c t i o n , anchoring, s u n l i g h t , t h i c k n e s s , and ASTM
s t a n d a r d s a r e same a s Buried P l a s t i c Liner.

Bentonite Seal Bentonite placed under water t o seal l e a k s a f t e r

r e s e r v o i r f i l l i n g . For p l a c i n g under water,
b e n t o n i t e may be poured a s a powder o r mixed as a
s l u r r y and placed i n t o t h e r e s e r v o i r u t i l i z i n g
methods recommended by t h e manufacturer. U s e a t
l e a s t 0.8 pounds of b e n t o n i t e f o r each s q u a r e f o o t
of a r e a , w i t h g r e a t e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t l o c a t i o n of
suspected leaks. For s e a l i n g s i l t y o r sandy s o i l s ,
b e n t o n i t e should have no more than 10 p e r c e n t l a r g e r
t h a n 0.05 mm; f o r g r a v e l l y and rocky m a t e r i a l s ,
b e n t o n i t e can have a s much a s 40 p e r c e n t l a r g e r than
0.05 mm. For s e a l i n g channels w i t h flowing w a t e r o r
l a r g e l e a k s , use mixture of 113 each of sodium
b e n t o n i t e , calcium b e n t o n i t e , and sawdust.
 TABLE 2 (continued)
Impermeable Reservoir Linings

L **

Met hod A p p l i c a b i l i t y and Procedures

E a r t h Lining Lining g e n e r a l l y 2 t o 4 f e e t t h i c k of s o i l s having

low permeability. Used on bottom and s i d e s of
r e s e r v o i r extending t o s l i g h t l y above operating
water l e v e l s . Permeability of s o i l should be no
g r e a t e r than about 2 x 1 0 - ~ fpm f o r water supply
l i n i n g s and 2x10'7 fpm f o r p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l
f a c i l i t y linings.

Thin Canpacted S o i l Dispersant i s u t i l i z e d t o minimize t h i c k n e s s of

Lining with Chemical e a r t h l i n i n g required by decreasing permeability of
Dispersant t h e lining. Used where wave a c t i o n i s n o t l i a b l e t o
erode t h e l i n i n g . Dispersant, such a s sodium t e t r a -
phosphate, i s spread on a 6-inch l i f t of clayey s i l t
o r clayey sand. Typical r a t e of a p p l i c a t i o n i s 0.05
lbs/sf. Chemical and s o i l a r e mixed with a mechani-
c a l mixer and compacted by sheepsfoot r o l l e r . Using
a s u i t a b l e d i s p e r s a n t , t h e thickness of compacted
l i n i n g s may be l i m i t e d t o about 1 f o o t ; t h e perme-
a b i l i t y of t h e compacted s o i l can be reduced t o 1/10
of i t s o r i g i n a l value.
 E I , L, and S v a l u e s should be obtained from l o c a l o f f i c e s of t h e U.S.
S o i l Conservation Service. K v a l u e s may be determined from p u b l i s h e d d a t a ona
particular locality . I n t h e absence of such d a t a , i t may be roughly e s t i -
mated from Figure 12 ( a f t e r Reference 13, E r o s i o n Control on Highway
C o n s t r u c t i o n , by t h e Highway Research Board).

2. INVESTIGATION. Where e r o s i o n can be expected d u r i n g earthwork con-

s t r u c t i o n , o n - s i t e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s should i n c l u d e : ( 1 ) f i e l d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n f o r both a g r i c u l t u r a l t e x t u r e s and t h e U n i f i e d system, ( 2 )
sampling f o r g r a i n s i z e d i s t r i b u t i o n , A t t e r b e r g l i m i t s and l a b o r a t o r y classi-
f i c a t i o n , and ( 3 ) d e t e r m i n a t i o n of in-place d e n s i t i e s ( s e e Chapter 2 ) .

3. SURFACE EROSION CONTROL. For t y p i c a l e r o s i o n c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s s e e Table

3 , (modified from Reference 13). General c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t o reduce e r o s i o n
include :

a . C o n s t r u c t i o n Scheduling. Schedule c o n s t r u c t i o n t o avoid s e a s o n s of

heavy r a i n s . Winds a r e a l s o s e a s o n a l , but a r e n e g l i g i b l e i n impact compared
t o ,water erosion.

b. S o i l Type. Avoid o r minimize exposure of h i g h l y e r o d i b l e s o i l s .

Sands e a & l y erode but a r e e a s y t o t r a p . Clays a r e more e r o s i o n r e s i s t a n t ,
b u t once eroded, a r e more, d i f f i c u l t t o t r a p .

c . Slope Length and Steepness. Reduce s l o p e l e n g t h s and s t e e p n e s s t o

reduce v e l o c i t i e s . Provide benches on s l o p e s a t maximum v e r t i c a l i n t e r v a l s of
30 f e e t .

d. Cover. Cover q u i c k l y w i t h v e g e t a t i o n , such a s g r a s s , s h r u b s and

t r e e s , o r o t h e r c o v e r s such a s mulches. A s t r a w mulch a p p l i e d a t 2 t o n s l a c r e
may reduce s o i l l o s s e s a s much a s 98% on g e n t l e slopes. Other mulches i n c l u d e
a s p h a l t emulsion, paper products, j u t e , c l o t h , s t r a w , wood c h i p s , sawdust,
n e t t i n g of v a r i o u s n a t u r a l and man-made f i b e r s , and, i n some c a s e s , g r a v e l .

e . S o i l Surface. Ridges perpendicular t o flow and l o o s e s o i l p r o v i d e

greater infiltration.

f . Exposed Area. Minimize t h e a r e a opened a t any one time. R e t a i n a s

much n a t u r a l v e g e t a t i o n a s p o s s i b l e . Leave v e g e t a t i o n along p e r i m e t e r s t o
c o n t r o l e r o s i o n and a c t a s a sediment t r a p .

g. Diversion. Minimize flow over d i s t u r b e d a r e a s , such a s by p l a c i n g a

berm a t t h e t o p of a d i s t u r b e d slope.

h. Sprinkling. Control dus't by s p r i n k l i n g of exposed a r e a s .

i. Sediment Basins. Construct d e b r i s b a s i n s t o t r a p d e b r i s and s i l t

b e f o r e i t e n t e r s streams.

4. CHANNEL LININGS. Table 4 p r e s e n t s g u i d e l i n e s f o r minimizing e r o s i o n of

e a r t h channels and g r a s s covered channels (modified a f t e r Reference 14,
Minimizing Erosion i n Urbanizing Areas, by t h e S o i l Conservation S e r v i c e ) .
'53,
T'i
IT!
nu-
 TABLE 3
T y p i c a l E r o s i o n Control P r a c t i c e
Treatment
Practice Advantages
FILL SLOPES
Prevent runoff from embankment
BERMS AT 10P OF EMBANKMENT s u r f a c e from flowing over f a c e of
fill
C o l l e c t runoff f o r s l o p e d r a i n s o r
7 protected ditch
Can be placed a s a p a r t of t h e
normal c o n s t r u c t i o n o p e r a t i o n and
incorporated i n t o f i l l o r shoulders
Prevent f i l l s l o p e e r o s i o n caused by
embankment s u r f ace runoff
SLOPE DRAINS
_p."
Can be c o n s t r u c t e d of f u l l o r h a l f
s e c t i o n p i p e , bituminous, metal,
concrete, p l a s t i c , o r other
waterproof m a t e r i a l
Can be extended a s c o n s t r u c t i o n
s progresses
May be e i t h e r temporary o r permanent
FILL BERMS OR BENCHES Slows v e l o c i t y of s l o p e runoff
C o l l e c t s sediments
/ Provides a c c e s s f o r maintenance
C o l l e c t s water f o r s l o p e d r a i n s
May u t i l i z e waste
Timely a p p l i c a t i o n of mulch and
SEEDING/MULCHING
seeding d e c r e a s e s t h e period a s l o p e
i s subject t o severe erosion
/ Mulch t h a t i s c u t i n o r otherwise
anchored w i l l c o l l e c t sediment. The
furrows made w i l l a l s o hold water
and sediment
Problems
Cooperation of c o n s t r u c t i o n
operators t o place f i n a l l i f t s a t
edge o r shaping i n t o berm
D i f f i c u l t t o compact o u t s i d e l i f t
when work i s resumed
Sediment buildup and berm and s l o p e
failure
Permanent c o n s t r u c t i o n a s needed may
n o t be considered d e s i r a b l e by
contractor
Removal of temporary d r a i n s may
d i s t u r b growing v e g e t a t i o n
Energy d i s s i p a t i o n d e v i c e s a r e
required a t the o u t l e t s
Requires a d d i t i o n a l f i l l m a t e r i a l i f
waste i s n o t a v a i l a b l e
May cause sloughing
A d d i t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n a r e a may b e
needed
Seeding season may not be f a v o r a b l e
Not 100 p e r c e n t e f f e c t i v e i n
preventing e r o s i o n
Watering may be n e c e s s a r y
S t e e p s l o p e s o r l o c a t i o n s with h i g h
v e l o c i t i e s may r e q u i r e supplemental
treatment.
 u
* Treatment
Practice
PROTECTION OF ADJACENT PROPERTY

BRUSH BARRIERS

:. :..-...

STRAW BALE BARRIERS

.... . .
I...
.:. t h a n removed
TABLE 3 ( c o n t i n u e d )
T y p i c a l Erosion C o n t r o l P r a c t i c e

Advantages

Use s l a s h i n g and l o g s from c l e a r i n g

operation
Can be covered and seeded r a t h e r

E l i m i n a t e s need f o r burning o r
d i s p o s a l o f f right-of-way
Straw i s r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e i n many
areas
When p r o p e r l y i n s t a l l e d , they f i l t e r
sediment and some t u r b i d i t y from
runoff
Requires removal
Problems

May be c o n s i d e r e d u n s i g h t l y i n urban
areas

S u b j e c t t o vandal damage
Flow i s slow through s t r a w r e q u i r i n g
considerable area
-

C o l l e c t much of t h e sediment s p i l l Does n o t e l i m i n a t e a l l sediment and

SEDIMENT TRAPS from f i l l s l o p e s and storm d r a i n turbidity
Space i s n o t always a v a i l a b l e

SEDIMENT POOLS I f removal i s n e c e s s a r y , c a n p r e s e n t

erosion control plan construction stage

Clean-out volumes can be l a r g e

Some maintenance needed depending on

Temporary measure can be e r e c t e d l e n g t h of t i m e i n p l a c e
 TABLE 3 ( c o n t i n u e d )
Typical Erosion Control P r a c t i c e
Treatment
Practice ' Advantages Problems

PROTECTION OF ADJACENT PROPERTY ( c o n t i n u e d )

Slow v e l o c i t y t o permit sediment C o l l e c t s d e b r i s and r e q u i r e s c l e a n i n g

ENERGY DISSIWTORS
c o l l e c t i o n and t o minimize channel Requires s p e c i a l d e s i g n and
erosion off p r o j e c t c o n s t r u c t i o n of l a r g e s h o t rock o r
o t h e r s u i t a b l e m a t e r i a l from p r o j e c t

Spreads channel o r p i p e Adequate s p r e a d e r l e n g t h may not be

flow t o s h e e t flow available
LEVEL SPREADERS Avoids channel easements and Sodding of overflow berm i s u s u a l l y
construction off project required

v Simple t o c o r l s t r u c t Must be a p a r t of t h e permanent

erosion control e f f o r t
Maintenance f o r c e s must m a i n t a i n
s p r e a d e r u n t i l no l o n g e r r e q u i r e d
PROTECTION OF STREAM

P e r m i t s work t o c o n t i n u e during Usually r e q u i r e s pumping of work

CONSTRUCTION DIKE normal s t r e a m s t a g e s s i t e water i n t o sediment pond

nlc* C o n t r o l l e d f l o o d i n g can be
accomplished during p e r i o d s of
inactivity
Subject t o e r o s i o n from stream and
from d i r e c t r a i n f a l l on d i k e

x*
COFFERDAM Work can be continued d u r i n g most Expensive
a n t i c i p a t e d stream c o n d i t i o n s
C l e a r water can be pumped d i r e c t l y
back i n t o stream
No m a t e r i a l d e p o s i t e d i n stream

TEMPORARY m E A M CHANNEL CHANGE
Prepared channel keeps normal flows New channel u s u a l l y w i l l r e q u i r e
away from c o n s t r u c t i o n protection
Stream must be r e t u r n e d t o o l d chan-
n e l and temporary channel r e f i l l e d
-
 .-
.-
TABLE -3 - (-cQntiikeii)
Typical - ~ r o s - i G
Control P r a c t i c e

-
Treatment Advantages Problems
Practice

PROTECTION OF STREAM (kontinued)

RIP RAP Sacked sand w i t h cement o r s t o n e Brpens i v e

easy t o s t o c k p i l e and place
Can be i n s t a l l e d i n increments a s
needed

Eliminates stream turbulence and Space not always a v a i l a b l e without

TEMPORARY CULVERTS RWI W RWDS
urb idi ty
Provides unobstructed passage f o r
f i s h and other a q u a t i c l i f e
Capacity f o r normal flow can be
provided with storm water flowing
over t h e roadway
c o n f l i c t i n g with permanent s t r u c t u r e
work
May be expensive, e s p e c i a l l y f o r
l a r g e r s i z e s of pipe
Subject t o washout

Minimizes stream t u r b i d i t y May not be fordable during

--LINED LOW-LEVEL CROSSING Inexpensive rainst o m s
May a l s o s e r v e a s d i t c h check o r During periods of low flow,passage
sediment t r a p of f i s h may be blocked
 TABLE 3 (continued)
Tyuical Erosion Control P r a c t i c e
Treatment
Practice Advantages Problems

DITCHES

s
CHECK WMS
Maintains low v e l o c i t i e s
Catches sediment
Can be constructed of l o g s , s h o t
rock, lumber, masonry o r c o n c r e t e ,
gabions, sand bags

Can be l o c a t e d a s necessary t o
c o l l e c t sediment during c o n s t r u c t i o n
Close spacing on s t e e p grades
Require clean-out
Unless keyed a t s i d e s and bottom,
e r o s i o n may occur

SEDIMENT TRAPS/
STRAW BACE FILTERS
Clean-out o f t e n can be done with
on-the- job equipment
Simple t o c o n s t r u c t
L i t t l e d i r e c t i o n on spacing and s i z e
Sediment d i s p o s a l may be d i f f i c u l t
S p e c i f i c a t i o n must include
pravisions f o r p e r i o d i c clean-out
May r e q u i r e seeding, sodding o r
pavement when removed during f i n a l
cleanup

Easy t o p l a c e with a minimum of Requires water during f i r s t few

preparation
Can be r e p a i r e d during c o n s t r u c t i o n
Immediate p r o t e c t i o n
May be used on s i d e s of paved
d i t c h e s t o provide i n c r e a s e d
capacity
weeks
Sod not always a v a i l a b l e
W i l l n o t withstand high v e l o c i t y o r
severe a b r a s i o n from sediment load

I SEEDING WITH MULCH M MATTING

Usually l e a s t expensive
E f f e c t i v e f o r d i t c h e s with low
velocity
W i l l not withstand medium t o high
velocity
Requires anchoring
E a s i l y placed i n small q u a n t i t i e s
with inexperienced personnel

E f f e c t i v e f o r high v e l o c i t i e s Cannot always be placed when needed

W I N G , RIPRAP, RUBBLE
May be p a r t of t h e permanent e r o s i o n because of c o n s t r u c t i o n t r a f f i c and
control effort f i n a l grading and d r e s s i n g
I n i t i a l c o s t i s high
 TABLE 3 (continued)
T Y D ~Erosion
c ~ ~ Control P r a c t i c e
Treatment
Practice Advantages Problems
- -- - - - ~~~~~ - -

ROADWAY SURFACE
I I
CROWNING TO DITCH OR SLOPllYG TO Directing t h e s u r f a c e water t o a Requires good c o n s t r u c t i o n
SINGLE BERM
prepared o r protected d i t c h procedures
minimizes e r o s i o n Can cause l o c a l s t a b i l i t y problems
( sloughing)

The f i n a l l i f t of each day's work Requires good c o n s t r u c t i o n

should be w e l l compacted and bladed procedures
t o d r a i n t o d i t c h o r berm s e c t i o n
Loose o r uncompacted m a t e r i a l i s
more s u b j e c t t o e r o s i o n

Minimizes s u r f a c e e r o s i o n Requires reworking and compaction i f

AGGREGATE COVER
Permits c o n s t r u c t i o n t r a f f i c during exposed f o r long periods of time
adverse weather Loss of s u r f a c e aggregates can be
M a y b e u s e d a s p a r t o f permanent anticipated
---% base c o n s t r u c t i o n

Minimizes s u r f a c e e r o s i o n Must be removed o r is l o s t when

c o n s t r u c t i o n of pavemnt i s
commenced

STOlYE flLLED GABION W A U

Permits s t e e p e r s l o p e High c o s t
No s p e c i a l b a c k f i l l r e q u i r e d Requires s p e c i a l techniques t o
Self d r a i n i n g i n s t a l l properly
 TABLE 3 (continued)
Typical Erosion Control P r a c t i c e
Treatment
Practice Advantages Problems

CUT SLOPES ,

D i v e r t s water from c u t Access t o t o p of c u t

Collects water f o r slope D i f f i c u l t t o b u i l d on s t e e p n a t u r a l
drainslpaved d i t c h e s s l o p e o r rock s u r f a c e
May be c o n s t r u c t e d b e f o r e grading i s Concentrates water and may r e q u i r e
started channel p r o t e c t i o n o r energy
d i s s i p a t i o n devices
Can cause water t o e n t e r ground,
r e s u l t i n g i n sloughing of t h e c u t
slope

C o l l e c t s and d i v e r t s water a t . a Access f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n

l o c a t i o n s e l e c t e d t o reduce e r o s i o n May be c o n t i n u i n g maintenance
potential problem i f n o t paved o r p r o t e c t e d
May be i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e permanent Disturbed m a t e r i a l o r berm i s e a s i l
project drainage eroded

May cause sloughing of s l o p e s i f

SLOPE BENCHES
I I
Slows v e l o c i t y of s u r f a c e runoff water i n f i l t r a t e s
C o l l e c t s sediment
Requires a d d i t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n
Provides access t o slope f o r
area
s e e d i n g , mulching, and maintenance
Not always p o s s i b l e due t o poor
Collects water f o r slope drains or
material, etc.
may d i v e r t water t o n a t u r a l ground Requires maintenance t o be e f f e c t i ~
( Increases excavation q u a n t i t i e s

SLOPE DRAINS P r e v e n t s e r o s i o n on t h e s l o p e Requires s u p p o r t i n g e f f o r t t o

Can be temporary o r p a r t of
permanent c o n s t r u c t i o n
Can be c o n s t r u c t e d o r extended a s
grading p r o g r e s s e s
c o l l e c t water
Permanent c o n s t r u c t i o n i s n o t alwa);
compatible w i t h o t h e r p r o j e c t work
Usually r e q u i r e s some type of energ
dissipation
 TABLE 3 ( c o n t i n u e d )
Typical Erosion Control P r a c t i c e
Treatment
Practice Advantages Problems

CUT SLOPES ( c o n t i n u e d )
SEEDING /MULCHING
The end o b j e c t i v e i s t o have a
completely g r a s s e d slope. E a r l y
placement i s a s t e p i n t h i s
d i r e c t i o n . The mulch p r o v i d e s
temporary e r o s i o n p r o t e c t i o n u n t i l
g r a s s i s rooted. Temporary o r
permanent s e e d i n g may be used.
Mulch should be anchored. Larger
s l o p e s can be seeded and mulched
w i t h s m a l l e r equipment i f s t a g e
t e c h n i q u e s a r e used.
D i f f i c u l t t o schedule high
production u n i t s f o r small
increments
Time of year may be less d e s i r a b l e
May r e q u i r e supplemental w a t e r
C o n t r a c t o r may perform t h i s
operation with untrained o r
unexperienced personnel and
I i n a d e q u a t e equipment i f s t a g e
seeding i s required

P r o v i d e s immediate p r o t e c t i o n D i f f i c u l t t o place u n t i l cut is

Can be used t o p r o t e c t a d j a c e n t complete
p r o p e r t y from sediment and t u r b i d i t y Sod n o t always a v a i l a b l e
May be expens i v e

Provides immediate p r o t e c t i o n f o r Expensive

high r i s k a r e a s and under s t r u c t u r e s D i f f i c u l t t o p l a c e on h i g h s l o p e s
May be c a s t i n p l a c e o r o f f s i t e May be d i f f i c u l t t o m a i n t a i n

I TEMPORARY COVER P l a s t i c s a r e a v a i l a b l e i n wide r o l l s

and l a r g e s h e e t s t h a t may be used t o
provide temporary p r o t e c t i o n f o r c u t
o r f i l l slopes
Easy t o p l a c e and remove
Useful t o p r o t e c t high r i s k a r e a s
from temporary e r o s i o n
Provides o n l y temporary p r o t e c t i o n
Original surface usually requires
a d d i t i o n a l t r e a t m e n t when p l a s t i c i
removed
Must be anchored t o prevent wind
damage
 TABLE 3 ( c o n t i n u e d )
T y p i c a l Erosion Control P r a c t i c e
-
Treatment
Practice Advantages Problems

CUT SLOPES ( c o n t i n u e d )
--
Lowers v e l o c i t y of s u r f a c e runoff May cause minor sloughing i f w a t e r
SERRATED SLOPE C o l l e c t s sediment infiltrates

1
FABRIC MATS
Holds m o i s t u r e
Minimizes amount of sediment
reaching r o a d s i d e d i t c h e s

E f f e c t i v e f o r moderate t o h i g h
C o n s t r u c t i o n compliance

embankment when crown v e t c h
p l a n t i n g s a r e used
Has lower c o s t f e a t u r e s over o t h e r
methods
-
Requires anchoring t i m e t o promote
p l a n t growth.
May r e q u i r e p e r i o d i c maintenance

BORROW AREAS

Water can be d i r e c t e d t o minimize May n o t be most economical work

SELECTIVE GRADING AND SHAPING o f f - s i t e damage method f o r c o n t r a c t o r
F l a t t e r s l o p e s e n a b l e mulch t o be
cut i n t o s o i l

Provides b e t t e r seed bed May r e s t r i c t volume of m a t e r i a l tha

STRIPPING AND REPLACING OF WSOIL
Conventional equipment can be used
t o s t o c k p i l e and spread t o p s o i l
can b e o b t a i n e d f o r a s i t e
Topsoil s t o c k p i l e s must be l o c a t e d
t o minimize sediment damage
Cost of rehandling m a t e r i a l

DIKES, BERMS
DNERSKm DITCHES
SET1LING BASINS See o t h e r p r a c t i c e s See o t h e r p r a c t i c e s
SEDIMENT TRAPS
SEEDING a MULCH
 TABLE 4
Limiting Flow V e l o c i t i e s t o Minimize Erosion

PERMISSIBLE VELOCITY

With Channel Vegetation

Bare 6" t o 10" 11" t o 24" Over 30"

S o i l Type Channel i n height i n height i n height

Sand, S i l t , Sandy 1.5 2.0 t o 3.0 2.5 t o 3.5 3.0 t o 4 . 0

loam, S i l t y loam

S i l t y c l a y loam, S i l t y 2.0 3.0 t o 4.0 3.5 t o 4.5 4.0 t o 5.0

clay

Clay 2.5 1 . 0 t o 5.0 3.0 t o 5.5 3.0 t o 6.0

5. SEDIMENT CONTROL. Typical sediment c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s a r e i n c l u d e d i n
Table 3.

a. Traps. Traps a r e small and temporary, u s u a l l y c r e a t e d by e x c a v a t i n g

a n d / o r diking t o a maximum h e i g h t of f i v e f e e t . Traps should be c l e a n e d
periodically.

b. Ponds.

(1) S i z e t h e o u t l e t s t r u c t u r e t o a c c e p t t h e d e s i g n storm.

( 2 ) S i z e t h e pond l e n g t h , width and d e p t h t o remove t h e d e s i r e d

percentage of sediment. See F i g u r e 1 3 (modified a f t e r Reference 15, T r a p
E f f i c i e n c y of R e s e r v o i r s , by Brune). For design c r i t e r i a s e e Reference 1 6 ,
R e s e r v o i r Sedimentation, by Gottschalk.

( 3 ) I f pond i s permanent, compute volume of a n t i c i p a t e d a v e r a g e

annual s e d i m e n t a t i o n by t h e U n i v e r s a l S o i l Loss Equation. M u l t i p l y by t h e
number of y e a r s between pond c l e a n i n g and by a f a c t o r of s a f e t y . T h i s e q u a l s
minimum r e q u i r e d volume below water l e v e l . Dimensions of t h e pond can t h e n be
c a l c u l a t e d based on t h e a v a i l a b l e a r e a . The d e s i g n d e p t h of t h e pond should
be approximately t h r e e t o f i v e f e e t g r e a t e r than t h e c a l c u l a t e d d e p t h of
sediment a t t h e time of c l e a r i n g .

6. RIPRAP PROTECTION. F r e q u e n t l y c o a r s e rock i s placed on embankments where

e r o d i b l e s o i l s must be p r o t e c t e d from f a s t c u r r e n t s and wave a c t i o n . When
c o a r s e rock i s used, c u r r e n t s and waves may wash s o i l out from under t h e r o c k
and l e a d t o undermining and f a i l u r e . S o i l l o s s under rock s l o p e s can be
prevented by t h e use of f i l t e r f a b r i c s o r by t h e placement of a f i l t e r l a y e r
of i n t e r m e d i a t e s i z e d m a t e r i a l between t h e s o i l and rock. I n some c a s e s s o i l
l o s s can be prevented by t h e use of well-graded rock c o n t a i n i n g s u i t a b l e f i n e s
which work t o t h e bottom during placement. For f u r t h e r guidance s e e Reference
17, T e n t a t i v e Design Procedure f o r Rip Rap Lined Channels, by t h e Highway
Research Board.

For determining rock s i z e s and f i l t e r requirements u s e F i g u r e 14

(Reference 18, Design of Small Dams, by t h e Bureau of Reclamation).
 RATIO OF CAMCITY TO ANNUAL I N F W (C/I)
NOTES :
I. FIND ANNUAL SEDIMENT FLOW (FROM UNIVERSAL SOIL LDSS EQUATION.)
2. GENERALLY ASSUME SEDIMENT OF VARIABLE COMPOSITION, USE MEDIAN CURVE.
3. COMPUTE ANNUAL VOLUME OF RUN OFF. (SEE TEXT.)
4. SELECT 1
' 0OF SEDIMENT TO BE TRAPPED, ENTER CHART FOR C/I .
5. SOLVE FOR C,REQUlRED CAPACITY OF POND.(C AND I MUST HAVE SAME UNITS.)

FIGURE 13
Capacity of Sediment Control Ponds
 7

Example C a l c u l a t i o n :

Annual s o i l l o s s i n watershed = 0.9 a c r e - f e e t l y e a r

(from Universal S o i l Loss Equation o r
o t h e r method, i.e. d e s i g n c h a r t s )

Desired pond e f f i c i e n c y = 70% o r 0.63 a c r e - f e e t of sediment

trapped each year.

Annual volume of runoff from watershed d r a i n i n g i n t o

proposed pond = 400 a c r e - f e e t l y r .

For 70% e f f i c i e n c y using median curve C / I = 0.032

Required pond c a p a c i t y C = 0.032 x 400 = 12.8 a c r e - f e e t .

Assuming average depth of pond of 6 f t , r e q u i r e d pond

a r e a about 2.1 a c r e s . Pond should be cleaned when
c a p a c i t y reduced 50%.

(Note: Trap e f f i c i e n c y d e c r e a s e s a s volume of pond

d e c r e a s e s ; t h i s has not been considered i n t h e example.)

Volume a v a i l a b l e f o r sediment = 50% x 12.8 = 6.4 a c r e - f e e t .

Years between c l e a n i n g = 6 * 4 z 1 0 years.

0.63
.
FIGURE 1 3 (continued)
Capacity of Sediment Control Ponds
 I. FOR EMBANKMENT SLOPES WAVE HEIGHT ROCK SIZE ROCK SIZE THICKNESS
BETWEEN 1:2 AND 4 4 4
DUMPED RIPRAP SHALL
MEET THE FOLLOWING

2. RIPRAP SHALL BE WELL GRADED FROM A MAXIMUM SlZE AT LEAST 1.5 TIMES AVERNE ROCK SEE,
TO I IN. SPALLS SUITABLE TO FILL VOIDS BETWEEN ROCKS.
3. RIPRAP BLANKET SHALL EXTEND TO AT LEAST 8FT. BELOW UWEST U M WATER.
4. UNDER M E MOST EXTREME ICING AND TEMPERATURE CHANGES, ROCK SHOULD MEET SOUNDNESS AND
DENSITY REQUIREMENTS KM CONCRETE WREGATE. OTHERWISE ,ANY UNWEATHERED ROCK WITH
G ) 2.60, OTHER THAN ARGILLACEOUS TYPES,ARE SUITABLE.
5. FILTER SHALL BE PROVIDED BETWEEN MAXIMUM WAVE FILTER Dg6
RIPRAP AND EMBANKMENT SOILS TO HEIGHT,L SIZE AT LEAST :
MEET THE FOLLOWING CRITERIA : 0 TO 4 I TO 1-1/2 IN.
4 TO 10 1-1/2 TO 2 IN.
NO FILTER IS NEEDED IF EMBANKMENT MEETS
THE m E REQUIREMENTS Dg5 SIZE.
I

FIGURE 14
Design C r i t e r i a f o r Riprap and F i l t e r on Earth Embankments
 >

FILTER MAY NOT BE REQUIRED IF EMBANKMENT CONSISTS OF CH OR CL WITH L L ) SO,RESISTAIJT

TO SURFKE EROSION. IF A FILTER IS USED IN THIS CASE IT ORDINARILY MEETS FILTER
CRITERIA AGAINST RIPRAP ONLY.
IF EMBANKMENT CONSISTS OF NONPLASTIC SOILS WHERE SEEP= WILL W E FROM EMBANKMENT
AT W WATER, 2 FILTER LAYERS MAY BE REQUIRED WHICH SHALL MEET FILTER CRITERIA
AGAINST BOTH EMBANKMENT AND RIPRAP. (EXAMPLE IS SHOWN A W E ).
6. MINIMUM THICKNESS OF SINGLE LAYER MAXIMUM WAVE FILTER
FILTERS ARE AS FOLLOWS : HEIGHT, FT. THICKNESS. IN.
OTO4 6
DOUBLE FILTER LAYERS SmXlLD BE AT 4TO8 9
LEAST 6 IN. THICK. 8 TO 12 12

FIGURE 14 (continued)
Design Criteria for Riprap and F i l t e r on Earth Embankments
 REFERENCES

1. Lee, E.W.,.Security from Under Seepage of Masonary Dams on E a r t h

Foundations , T r a n s a c t i o n s , ASCE, Volume 100, Paper 1919, 1935.

2. Marsland, A., Model Experiments t o Study t h e I n f l u e n c e of Seepage on t h e

S t a b i l i t y of a Sheeted Excavation i n Sand, Geotechnique, 1952-1953.

3. Calhoun, C.C., Jr., Campton, J.R., Strohm, W.E. Jr., Performance of

P l a s t i c F i l t e r C l o t h s a s a Replacement f o r Granular M a t e r i a l s , Highway
. Research Record Number 373, Highway Research Board, 1971.

4. W e r n e r , R.M. and Welsh, J.P., C o n s t r u c t i o n and Geotechnical Engineering

Using S y n t h e t i c F a b r i c s , John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1980.

5. Barber, E.W., Subsurface Drainage of Highways, Highway Research Board

B u l l e t i n 209, Highway Research Board, Washington, D. C.

- '6. Cedergen, H.R., Seepage Requirements of F i l t e r s and P e r v i o u s Bases,

J o u r n a l of t h e S o i l Mechanics and Foundation D i v i s i o n , ASCE, Vol. 86,

7. Kirkham, D., Seepage I n t o Ditcheg From a P l a n e Water Table Overlying a

Gravel Substratum, J o u r n a l of ~ e o ~ h y s i c Research,
al American Geophysical
Union, Washington, D.C., A p r i l , 1960.

8. Kirkham, D., Seepage I n t o D i t c h e s i n t h e Case of a P l a n e Water Table and

a n Impervious Substratum, T r a n s a c t i o n s , American Geophysical Union,
Washington, D.C. , June, 1950.

9. Avery, S.B., Analysis of Groundwater Lowering Adjacent t o Open Water,

Proceedings, ASCE, Vol. 77, 1951.

10. Corps of Engineers, S o i l Mechanics Design, Seepage C o n t r o l , Engineering

Manual, C i v i l Works Construction, Chapter I , P a r t CXIX, Department of
t h e Army. .

11. Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Wastewater

S t a b i l i z a t i o n Pond Linings, S p e c i a l Report 28, Department of t h e Army,
November, 1978.

12. S o i l Conservation S e r v i c e , U.S. Department of A g r i c u l t u r e , Urban

Hydrology f o r Small Watersheds, Technical Release No. 55, Engineering
D i v i s i o n , 1975.

13. Highway Research Board, Erosion C o n t r o l on Highway C o n s t r u c t i o n ,

National Cooperative Highway Research Program, S y n t h e s i s of Highway
P r a c t i c e 18, 1973. -

14. S o i l Conservation S e r v i c e , U.S. Department of A g r i c u l t u r e , Minimizing

Erosion i n Urbanizing Areas, Madison, W I , 1972.
15. Brune, G.M., Trap E f f i c i e n c y of R e s e r v o i r s , T r a n s a c t i o n s , American
Geophysical Union, Volume 34, No. 3 , June, 1953.

16. Gottschalk, L.C., R e s e r v o i r Sedimentation, Handbook of Applied

Hydrology, Chow, Ed., S e c t i o n 17-1, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1964.

17. Highway Research Board, T e n t a t i v e Design Procedure f o r Rip-Rap Lined -

Channels, National Cooperative Highway Research Program Report 108,
Washington, D.C, 1970.

18. Bureau of Reclamation, Design of Small Dams, U.S. Department of t h e

I n t e r i o r , U.S. Government P r i n t i n g Off i c e , 1973.

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 CHAPTER 7. SLOPE STABILITY AND PROTECTION

S e c t i o n 1. INTRODUCTION

1. SCOPE. This c h a p t e r p r e s e n t s methods of a n a l y z i n g s t a b i l i t y of n a t u r a l

s l o p e s and s a f e t y of embankments. Diagrams a r e i n c l u d e d f o r ' s t a b i l i t y a n a l y -
sis, and procedures f o r s l o p e s t a b i l i z a t i o n a r e d i s c u s s e d .

2. APPLICATIONS. O v e r s t r e s s i n g of a s l o p e , o r r e d u c t i o n i n s h e a r s t r e n g t h
of t h e s o i l may c a p e r a p i d o r p r o g r e s s i v e displacements. The s t a b i l i t y o f
s l o p e s may be e v a l u a t e d by comparison of t h e f o r c e s r e s i s t i n g f a i l u r e w i t h
t h o s e tending t o cause r u p t u r e along t h e assumed s l i p s u r f a c e . The r a t i o o f
t h e s e f o r c e s i s t h e f a c t o r of s a f e t y .

3. RELATED CRITERIA. Excavations, E a r t h P r e s s u r e s , S p e c i a l Problems - See

DM-7.2, Chapters 1, 2 and 3 and DM-7.3, Chapter 3.

4. REFERENCE. For d e t a i l e d t r e a t m e n t on s u b j e c t s e e Reference 1, L a n d s l i d e

Analyses and C o n t r o l , by t h e T r a n s p o r t a t i o n Research Board.

S e c t i o n 2. TYPES OF FAILURES

1. MODES OF SLOPE FAILURE. P r i n c i p a l modes of f a i l u r e i n s o i l o r r o c k are

( i ) r o t a t i o n on a curved s l i p s u r f a c e approximated by a c i r c u l a r a r c , ( i i )
t r a n s l a t i o n on a p l a n a r s u r f a c e whose l e n g t h i s l a r g e compared t o d e p t h below
ground, and ( i i i ) displacement of a wedge-shaped mass along one o r more p l a n e s
of weakness. Other modes of f a i l u r e i n c l u d e t o p p l i n g of r o c k s l o p e s , f a l l s ,
block s l i d e s , l a t e r a l s p r e a d i n g , e a r t h and mud flow i n c l a y e y and s i l t y s o i l s ,
and d e b r i s flows i n coarse-grained s o i l s . Tables 1 and 2 show examples of
p o t e n t i a l slope f a i l u r e problems i n b o t h n a t u r a l and man-made s l o p e s .

2. CAUSES OF SLOPE FAILURE. Slope f a i l u r e s occur when t h e r u p t u r i n g f o r c e

exceeds r e s i s t i n g f o r c e .

a . N a t u r a l Slopes. Imbalance of f o r c e s may be caused by one o r more of

t h e following f a c t o r s :

(1) . A change i n s l o p e p r o f i l e t h a t adds d r i v i n g weight a t t h e t o p o r

d e c r e a s e s r e s i s t i n g f o r c e a t t h e base. Jkamples i n c l u d e s t e e p e n i n g of t h e
slope o r u n d e r c u t t i n g . o f t h e toe.

( 2 ) An i n c r e a s e of groundwater p r e s s u r e , r e s u l t i n g i n a d e c r e a s e o f
f r i c t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e i n cohesionless s o i l o r swell i n cohesive material.
Groundwater p r e s s u r e s may i n c r e a s e through t h e s a t u r a t i o n of a s l o p e from
r a i n f a l l o r snowmelt, seepage from an a r t i f i c i a l s o u r c e , o r rise of t h e water
table.
 TABLE 1
Analysis of S t a b i l i t y of Natural Slopes
+

FUWRE OF THIN WEWE, FAILWE AT WITH U3W GROUNDWAfER,FiRIUIRE OCCURS ON

FOSITION INFLUENCED BY RELATIVELY S H A L W SHAUOW,STRAIOHT, OR SLKiHnY CURVED SURFME.
TRJSlONQUCKS TOE CIRCLES PRESENCE OF A TENSON CRAM< AT THE n>e OF
THE. SLOPE INFLUENCES FAILURE LOCATION. WlTH
HlGH GROUNDWATER, FAILURE OCCURS ON THE
RELATIVELY SHALLOW TOE CIRCLE WHOSE POSITION
IS DETERMINED PRIMARILY BY GROUND
ELEVATION.
ANALYZE WlTH EFFECTIVE !TRESES USNG
STRENGTHS C'AND 9' FROM CD TESTS. PORE
PRESSURE IS OOVERNED BY SEEP= CONMTION.
LOW GROUNWATER HIGH OROUNDWATER INTERNAL PORE PRESSURES AND EXTERNAL WmER
(I) SLOPE IN 00ARSE-GRAINED SOIL PRESSURES MUST BE INCLUDED.
WlTH SOME COHESION

S W L E S W ANGLE STABLE SLOPE' STABILITY DEPENDS PRIMARILY ON GROUND-

= EFFECTIVE FRICTION ANGLE = 1/2 WATER CONDITIONS. WITH LOW GROUNDWATER,
ANGLE EFFECTIVE FAILURES OCCUR AS SURF= SLOUGHING UNTIL
S W ANGLE FLATTENS TO FRICTION ANGLE. WlTH
HlGH OROUNDWATER, STABLE S W E IS APPROXI-
MATELY 112 FRICTION ANGLE.
- ANALYZE WITH EFFECTIVE STRESSESUSING
STRENGTH 9: SLIGHT COHESION AePEARlNG
IN TEST ENVEUIPE IS IGNORED. SPECIAL CON-
SIDERATION MUST BE GIVEN TO POSSIBLE F U N
LOW GROWDWATER HlOH OROUNDWATER
SLIDES IN LOOSE, SATURATED FINE SANDS.
(2) SU)PE IN COARSE-GRAINED,
CWmIONLESS SO1L

U)CATION OF FAlWRE DEPENDS ON VARIATION FAILURE OCCURS ON CIRCULAR ARCS WHOSE

OF SHEAR S T E S r H WITH DEPTH
f''m
STRENGTH INCREASING
''
(3)S I N E IN NORMALLY CONSOLIMED
OR SLIGHTLY PRECONSOUWTED CLAY
POSITION IS OOVERNED BY THEORY, SEE FIG. 3.
POSITKIN OF GROUNDWATER TABLE DOES
NOT INFLUENCE STABILITY UNLESS ITS F W U -
ATDN CHANGES STRENGTH OF THE CLAY OR *ers
IN TENSION CRACKS.
ANALYZE WITH TOTAL STRESSES, ZONING CROSS
SECTION FOR DIFFERENT VALUES OF SHEAR
STRENGTHS. DETERMINE SHEAR STRENGTH FROM
UNCONFINED COMPRESSION TEST, UNCONSOLIDATED
UNDRAINED TRlAXlAL TEST OR VAMSHEAR.

J
 TABLE I (continued)
Analysis of Stability of Natural Slopes

LOCATON OF FAILURE LOCATION OF FAILURE PLANE IS CONTROLLED

DEPENDS ON RELATIVE BY RELATIVE STRENGTH AND ORlEHTATlON OF
STRENGTH AND STRATA. FAILURE SURFACE IS COMBINATKM OF
ORIENTATION OF ACTIVE AND PASSIVE WEDGES WITH CENTRAL
LAYERS SLIDING BLOCK CHOSEN TO CONFORM TO
STRATIFICATION .
ANALYZE WlTH EFFECTIVE STRESS USING C'AND
+'FOR FINE-GRAINED STRATA AND +' FOR
COHESIONLESS MATERIAL.

(4) SLOPE IN STRATIFIED SOIL PROFILE

BOWL-SHAPED AREA OF LOW SUIPE STRENGTH OF OLD SLIDE MASS DECREASES

(9 TO llOle) BOUNDED AT TOP BY WITH MAGNITUDE OF MOVEMENT THAT HAS
OU) SCARP
* OCCURRED PREVIOUSLY. MOST DANGEROUS
-
SITUATION IS IN STIFF, OVER CONSOLIDATED
CLAY WHICH IS SOFTENED, FRACTURED,OR
SLICKENSIDED IN THE FAILURE ZOF(E.

CURVATURE WHICH IS A PORTION

OF AN OLD SHEAR SURFACE.

(5) DEPTH CREEP MOVEMENTS IN OLD SLIDE MASS

-
 TABLE 2
A n a l y s i s of S t a b i l i t y of Cut and F i l l S l o p e s , C o n d i t i o n s Varying w i t h Time
4

USUALLY MINIMUM STABILITY OCCURS

UCATION OF FAILURE DEPENDS ON GEOMETRY
AND STRENGTH OF CROSS SECTION.
(I) FAILURE OF FILL ON SOFT COHESIVE
FOUNWTDN WITH SAND DRAINS
DURING PLACING OF FILL. IF RATE OF
CONSTRUCTION IS CONTROLLED, ALLOW FOR
GAIN IN STRENGTH WITH CONSOLlDATlON
FROM DRAINAGE.
ANALYZE WITH EFFECTIVE STRESS USING
C' AND 9' FROM CU TEST WlTH PORE
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT. APPLY EST1MATED
PORE PRESSURES OR PIEZOMETRK: PRESSURES.
ANALYZE WlTH m A L STRESS FOR RAPID
CONSTRUCTION WITHOUT OBSERVATON OF PORE
PRESSURES, USE SHEAR STRENGTH FROM
UNCONFINED COMPRESSKM OR UNCONSOLIMTED
UNDRAINED TRIAXIAL.

USUALLY, MINIMUM STABILITY OBTAINED AT

END OF CONSTRUCTION. FAlUlRE MAY BE IN
FAILURE SURFACE MAY BE ROTATION ON
THE FORM OF ROTATION OR TRANSLATKM, AND
CIRCULAR ARC OR TRANSLATION WlTH
BOTH SHOUU) BE W I D E R E D .
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE WEDGES.
FOR RAPID CONSTRUCTION IGNORE WNWLIM-
TlON FROM DRAINAGE AND UTILIZE SHEAR
STRENGTHS DETERMINED FROM U OR UU TESTS
OR VANE SHEAR IN TOTAL STRESS ANALYSIS. IF

'-.. ------#-&-#
0
/'
FAILURE STRAIN OF FILL AND FOUNDATION MATE-
RIALS DIFFER GREATLY, SAFETY FAClUR SHOULD
EXCEED O W , IGNORING SHEAR STRENGTH OF
LLLl'"l~llf'~lrll~'~'f 'LLUl FILL. ANALYZE --TERM STABILITY USING
(2) FA1LURE OF STIFF COMPACTED FILL C AND 9FROM CU TESTS WITH EFFECTIVE
ON SOFT COHESIVE FOUNOATION STRESS ANALYSIS, APPLYING PORE PRESSURES
OF GROUNDWATER ONLY.

ORIGINAL GROUND LINE

RELEASE O f HORIZONTAL STRESSES BY
EXCAVATION CAUSES EXPdNSlON OF CLAY AND
OPENING OF FISSURES, RESULTING IN UlSS
OF COHESIVE STRENGTH.
ANALYZE FOR SHORT TERM STABILITY USING C'
AND 9' WITH WrAL STRESS ANALYSIS. ANALYZE FOR
OF WNG TERM STABILITY WlTH C\ AND &
BASED
FISSURES OR DEPTH OF ON RESIDUAL STRENGTH MEASURED IN
SOFTENING . CONSOLIDATED DRAINED TESTS.
(3) FAILURE FOLLOWING CUT IN STIFF
FISSURED CLAY

-
 (3) Progressive decrease i n shear s t r e n g t h of t h e s o i l o r rock mass
caused by weathering, l e a c h i n g , mineralogical changes, opening and s o f t e n i n g
of f i s s u r e s , o r continuing gradual shear s t r a i n (creep).

(4) Vibrations induced by earthquakes, b l a s t i n g , o r pile-driving.

Induced dynamic f o r c e s cause d e n s i f i c a t i o n of l o o s e sand, s i l t , o r l o e s s below
t h e groundwater t a b l e o r c o l l a p s e of s e n s i t i v e c l a y s , causing i n c r e a s e d pore
pressures. Cyclic s t r e s s e s induced by earthquakes may cause l i q u e f a c t i o n o f
l o o s e , uniform, s a t u r a t e d sand l a y e r s ( s e e DM-7.3, Chapter 1).

. b. Embankment ( F i l l ) Slopes. F a i l u r e of f i l l s l o p e s may be caused by

one o r more of t h e following f a c t o r s :

(1) Overstressing of t h e foundation s o i l . This may occur i n c o h e s i v e

s o i l s , during o r immediately a f t e r embankment c o n s t r u c t i o n . Usually, t h e
short-term s t a b i l i t y of embankments on s o f t cohesive s o i l s i s more c r i t i c a l
than the long-term s t a b i l - i t y , because t h e foundation s o i l w i l l g a i n s t r e n g t h
a s t h e pore water pressure d i s s i p a t e s . It may, however, be necessary t o check
. t h e s t a b i l i t y f o r a number of pore pressure conditions. Usually, t h e c r i t i -
cal f a i l u r e s u r f a c e i s tangent t o t h e f i r m l a y e r s below t h e s o f t s u b s o i l s .

( 2 ) Drawdown and Piping. In e a r t h dams, r a p i d drawdown of t h e

r e s e r v o i r causes increased e f f e c t i v e weight of t h e embankment s o i l t h u s reduc-
i n g s t a b i l i t y . Another p o t e n t i a l cause of f a i l u r e i n embankment s l o p e s i s
subsurface e r o s i o n o r piping ( s e e Chapter 6 f o r guidance on prevention of
piping).

(3) Dynamic Forces. Vibrations may be induced by earthquakes,

blasting, pile driving, etc.

c. Excavation (Cut) Slopes. F a i l u r e may r e s u l t from one o r more of t h e

f a c t o r s described i n (a). An a d d i t i o n a l f a c t o r t h a t should be considered f o r
cuts i n s t i f f clays is the r e l e a s e of h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s e s during excavation
which may cause t h e formation of f i s s u r e s . I f v a t e r e n t e r s t h e f i s s u r e s , t h e
s t r e n g t h of t h e c l a y w i l l decrease progressively. Therefore, t h e long-term
s t a b i l i t y of slopes excavated i n cohesive s o i l s i s normally more c r i t i c a l t h a n
the short-term.stability. When excavations a r e open over a long period and
water i s a c c e s s i b l e , t h e r e i s p o t e n t i a l f o r swelling and l o s s of s t r e n g t h with
time .
3. EFFECT 0F.SOIL OR ROCK TYPE.

a. F a i l u r e Surface. In homogeneous cohesive s o i l s , t h e critical failure

s u r f a c e u s u a l l y i s deep whereas shallow s u r f a c e sloughing and s l i d i n g i s more
t y p i c a l i n homogeneous cohesionless s o i l s . In nonhomogeneous s o i l foundations
t h e shape and l o c a t i o n of t h e f a i l u r e depends on the s t r e n g t h and s t r a t i f i c a -
t i o n of t h e various s o i l types.

-
b. Rock. Slope f a i l u r e s a r e common i n s t r a t i f i e d sedimentary rocks, i n
weathered s h a l e s , and i n rocks containing p l a t y minerals such a s t a l c , mica,
and t h e s e r p e n t i n e minerals. F a i l u r e planes i n rock occur along zones of
weakness o r d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s ( f i s s u r e s , j o i n t s , f a u l t s ) and bedding planes
( s t r a t a ) . The o r i e n t a t i o n and s t r e n g t h of t h e d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s a r e t h e most
important f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g t h e s t a b i l i t y of rock s l o p e s . D i s c o n t i n u i t i e s
can develop o r s t r e n g t h can change as a r e s u l t of t h e f o l l o w i n g environmental
factors:

(1) Chemical weathering.

(2) Freezing and thawing of w a t e r l i c e i n j o i n t s .

(3) Tectonic movements.

(4) I n c r e a s e of water p r e s s u r e s w i t h i n d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s .

(5) A l t e r n a t e wetting and d r y i n g ( e s p e c i a l l y expansive s h a l e s ) .

(6) 1ncr.ease of t e n s i l e s t r e s s e s due t o d i f f e r e n t i a l e r o s i o n .

F u r t h e r guidance p e r t i n e n t t o rock s l o p e s can be found i n DM-7.2,

Chapter 1.

S e c t i o n 3. METHODS OF ANALYSIS

1. TYPES OF ANALYSIS. For s l o p e s i n r e l a t i v e l y homogeneous s o i l , t h e f a i l -

u r e s u r f a c e i s approximated by a c i r c u l a r a r c , along which t h e r e s i s t i n g and
r u p t u r i n g f o r c e s can be analyzed. Various techniques of s l o p e s t a b i l i t y
a n a l y s i s may be c l a s s i f i e d i n t o t h r e e broad c a t e g o r i e s .

a. Limit E q u i l i b r i u m Method. Most l i m i t e q u i l i b r i u m methods used i n

g e o t e c h n i c a l p r a c t i c e assume t h e v a l i d i t y of Coulomb's f a i l u r e c r i t e r i o n along
a n assumed f a i l u r e s u r f a c e . A f r e e body of t h e s l o p e i s considered t o be
a c t e d upon by known o r assumed f o r c e s . Shear s t r e s s e s induced on t h e assumed
f a i l u r e s u r f a c e by t h e body and e x t e r n a l f o r c e s a r e compared w i t h t h e a v a i l a -
b l e s h e a r s t r e n g t h of t h e m a t e r i a l . This method does n o t account f o r t h e l o a d
deformation c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e m a t e r i a l s i n question. Most of t h e methods
of s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s c u r r e n t l y i n use f a l l i n t h i s category.

The method of s l i c e s , which i s a r o t a t i o n a l f a i l u r e a n a l y s i s , i s most

commonly used i n l i m i t e q u i l i b r i u m s o l u t i o n s . The minimum f a c t o r of s a f e t y i s
computed by t r y i n g s e v e r a l c i r c l e s . The d i f f e r e n c e between v a r i o u s approaches
stems from ( a ) t h e assumptions t h a t make t h e problem d e t e r m i n a t e , and ( b ) t h e
e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n s that a r e s a t i s f i e d . The s o i l mass w i t h i n t h e assumed
s l i p s u r f a c e i s divided i n t o s e v e r a l s l i c e s , and the f o r c e s a c t i n g on each
s l i c e a r e considered. The e f f e c t o f an earthquake may be considered by apply-
i n g a p p r o p r i a t e h o r i z o n t a l f o r c e on t h e s l i c e s . Figure 1 (Reference 2, S o i l
Mechanics, by Lambe and Whitman) i l l u s t r a t e s t h i s method of a n a l y s i s a p p l i e d
t o a s l o p e of homogeneous sandy s o i l s u b j e c t e d t o the f o r c e s of water seeping
l a t e r a l l y toward a d r a i n a t t h e toe.

b. Limit Analysis. This method c o n s i d e r s y i e l d c r i t e r i a and t h e s t r e s s -

s t r a i n relationship. It i s based on lower bound and upper bound theorems f o r
bodies of e l a s t i c -
perfectly p l a s t i c materials. See Reference 3, S t a b i l i t y
of E a r t h Slopes, by Fang, f o r f u r t h e r guidance.
o n s i d e r i n g t h e e q u i l i b r i u m of f o r c e s i n t h e v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n but n e g l e c t i n g
he s h e a r i n g f o r c e s between s l i c e s t h e f a c t o r of s a f e t y f o r moment e q u i l i b r i u m
ecomes ( n e g l e c t i n g earthquake f o r c e s ) :
i:N

Fm '
ifi [chi +lWi -uibi 1 TAN $]/MQi
i=N

WHERE Mqi= c0sqi(l+

TANQi TAN # 1
Fm
rhe above e q u a t i o n i s solved by s u c c e s s i v e approximations. Value of M=i: i s
~ b t a i n e dfrom F i g u r e 1 ( c o n t i n u e d ) Graph f o r Determination of Ma f o r a n
sssumed value of Fm.

CENTER OF FAILURE CIRCLE

RADIUS O f CIRCLE 8 30 I T .

DRAIN \ SURFACE OF FIRM STRATUM

Find F, f o r t h e t r i a l s l i p c i r c l e shown.

Properties

c = 90 p s f , $ = 32O, Y = 125 PCF

Slope 1-112 h o r i z o n t a l t o 1 v e r t i c a l .

Flow c o n d i t i o n s a s shown.
FIGURE 1
Method of S l i c e s - S i m p l i f i e d Bishop Method ( C i r c u l a r S l i p S u r f a c e )
7.1-315
Procedure (numbers i n p a r e n t h e s i s corresponds t o column i n example):
1. Divide c r o s s s e c t i o n i n t o v e r t i c a l s l i c e s , ( l ) .
2. C a l c u l a t e weight of each s l i c e (Wi) u s i n g t o t a l u n i t w e i g h t s , where
bi i s t h e width of t h e s l i c e and H i s t h e average h e i g h t of t h e s l i c e ,
( 2 ) , ( 3 ) , (4).
3. C a l c u l a t e W i s i n a i f o r each s l i c e , wherelai i s t h e a n g l e between t h e
t a n g e n t of t h e f a i l u r e s u r f a c e and t h e h o r i z o n t a l , ( 5 ) ( 6 ) .
4. Multiply t h e cohesive s t r e n g t h ( E ) t i m e s t h e width of each s l i c e ( b i ) ,
(7).
5. M u l t i p l y t h e average pore w a t e r p r e s s u r e [ ( u i ) = (hi)(.0624 KSF)]
along t h e f a i l u r e s u r f a c e of each s l i c e , t i m e s t h e width of each s l i c e ,
(8)- -
6. -
C a l c u l a t e (Wi u i b i ) t a n Q f o r each s l i c e , (9).
7. Add Ebi p l u s (Wi - uibi)tan$ f o r each s l i c e , (10).
8. S e l e c t two f a c t o r s of s a f e t y (F,), and f i n d Mai f o r each s l i c e u s i n g
graph below (11).
9. Divide Ebi + (Wi - uibi) t a n g by Mat f o r each s l i c e and sum
r e s u l t a n t s , (12).
10. Dividei,, i=n
hbf+ (Wi- ~ i b i ) by rWiSINai t o o b t a i n c a l c u l a t e d F,
C
i=l Mai i=1
Compare t o Fmts assumed i n S t e p 8. R e i t e r a t e S t e p s 8 , 9, and 10 u n t i l
assumed Fm of S t e p 8 e q u a l s c a l c u l a t e d Fm of S t e p 10.

11. Repeat above a n a l y s i s v a r y i n g c e n t e r l o c a t i o n and r a d i u s of f a i l u r e

c i r c l e t o e s t a b l i s h l e a s t f a c t o r of s a f e t y .
1.6

1.4

1.2

0
= 1.0
IL
0
r,

3"-'
4
>

01)
-40' -30' -20' -lo0
- 0 IO0 40'
VALUES OF a
GRAPH FOR D E T E RMlNATlON OF
- 300

Ma
40° SO0 600

FIGURE 1 ( c o n t i n u e d )
Method of S l i c e s - S i m p l i f i e d Bishop Method ( C i r c u l a r S l i p S u r f a c e )
7.1-316
 he
I' V)
0
0 .
0
q
0 0
m . m . . m
" "
0 m 0
-- - ~ d O N N N N 0 4
4
\ D
+-2
n -
2
u In II
LL 2
EN
0 0
. . . . . . .
0 0 0 m 0 m
O c r l m m h 0 3 m c r )
4
LL
En
- -
. . h N m
m
0
o
4

C
o
4

0
o
4
~
4

C O
o
4
.No m
0

N
m
0
m
0--
.-
--
. . . . .
5 h N \ O Q I N Z m O O m
11 10 m o o 0 4 9 . : " :
EN
LL - 0 ~ 4 4 4 4 4 0 0
--
mu)-
m m m
m m m f -
o o
?
m
? o
m
. .
m
m
"
m
. . .
+0-2
r - Y - 0 4 O N m m m 0 4
-I
I
F r
m
-
m
o
0
y
o
m
y
o
m
m
0
~
.J . ~
m
a
0
m
m
m
o d
6
u
-
.-cn ,O o
m
q
m
q
m
p
m
N . o
m o O
?E
- 0 4 4 4 0
nab
l

o
. e N
-
m
4 ae e
~

m
y
. . .
em pm q o Cm \ mi
~ 0 0 0
. . 0 0 0 0 0 0
-
.- n
u V ) n
.-c a w
m y -
o . .
4 c J c V m u p - J . m
4
g-
-- 0. 0 ~ .4
.-
€2
.-c m
U)

m m e
0 0 0

m
N
0

N
0

m
. . .
u
e m h C
0 0 0

N
O
h
C
0
. O
-
V)-
m h m \ . . .D \ D ? ' 4 " 1 " 1
g
Y
u
-~ * O 4 e m m e O 4
= I-;
I
'? N y 9 9 ; " " 0 3
n m m o
. . o a ~
m N y ? ? q ~ a N
4 N N m e m a a h
 c. F i n i t e Element Method. T h i s method i s e x t e n s i v e l y used i n more com-
plex problems of slope s t a b i l i t y and where earthquake and v i b r a t i o n s a r e p a r t
of t o t a l l o a d i n g system. This procedure accounts f o r deformation and i s use-
f u l where s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t material p r o p e r t i e s a r e encountered.

2. FAILURE CHARACTERISTICS. Table 1 shows some s i t u a t i o n s t h a t may a r i s e i n

n a t u r a l slopes. Table 2 shows s i t u a t i o n s a p p l i c a b l e t o man-made s l o p e s .
S t r e n g t h parameters, flow c o n d i t i o n s , pore water p r e s s u r e , f a i l u r e modes, e t c .
should be s e l e c t e d a s described i n S e c t i o n 4.

3. SLOPE STABILITY CHARTS.

a. R o t a t i o n a l F a i l u r e i n Cohesive S o i l s (0 = 0)

( 1) For s l o p e s i n cohesive s o i l s having approximately c o n s t a n t

s t r e n g t h with depth u s e Figure 2 (Reference 4, s f a b i i i t y ~ n a l ~ s of
i s Slopes
w i t h Dimensionless Parameters, by Janbu) t o determine t h e f a c t o r of s a f e t y .

( 2 ) For s l o p e i n cohesive s o i l w i t h more than one s o i l l a y e r , d e t e r -

mine c e n t e r s of p o t e n t i a l l y c r i t i c a l c i r c l e s from Figure 3 (Reference 4). Use
t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s h e a r s t r e n g t h of s e c t i o n s of t h e a r c i n each stratum. Use
t h e following guide f o r p o s i t i o n i n g t h e c i r c l e .

( a ) I f t h e lower s o i l l a y e r i s weaker, a c i r c l e t a n g e n t t o t h e
b a s e of t h e weaker l a y e r w i l l be c r i t i c a l .

( b ) I f t h e lower s o i l l a y e r i s s t r o n g e r , two c i r c l e s , one tan-

g e n t t o t h e base of t h e upper weaker l a y e r and t h e o t h e r t a n g e n t t o t h e base
of t h e lower s t r o n g e r l a y e r , should be i n v e s t i g a t e d .

( 3 ) With surcharge, t e n s i o n c r a c k s , o r submergence of s l o p e , a p p l y

c o r r e c t i o n s of Figure 4 t o determine s a f e t y f a c t o r .

( 4 ) Embankments on S o f t Clay. See Figure 5 (Reference 5, The Design

of Embankments on S o f t Clays, by Jakobsen) f o r approximate a n a l y s i s of embank-
ment with s t a b i l i z i n g berms on foundations of c o n s t a n t s t r e n g t h . Determine
t h e probable form of f a i l u r e from r e l a t i o n s h i p of berm and embankment widths
and foundation t h i c k n e s s i n top l e f t panel of Figure 5.

4. TRANSLATIONAL FAILURE ANALYSIS. I n s t r a t i f i e d s o i l s , t h e f a i l u r e s u r f a c e

may be c o n t r o l l e d by a r e l a t i v e l y t h i n and weak l a y e r . Analyze t h e s t a b i l i t y
of t h e p o t e n t i a l l y t r a n s l a t i n g mass a s shown i n Figure 6 by comparing t h e
d e s t a b i l i z i n g f o r c e s of t h e a c t i v e p r e s s u r e wedge with t h e s t a b i l i z i n g f o r c e
of t h e passive wedge a t t h e toe plus t h e s h e a r s t r e n g t h along t h e base of t h e
c e n t r a l s o i l mass. See Figure 7 f o r an example of t r a n s l a t i o n a l f a i l u r e
a n a l y s i s i n s o i l and Figure 8 f o r an example of t r a n s l a t i o n a l f a i l u r e i n rock.

J o i n t e d rocks i n v o l v e m u l t i p l e planes of weakness. This type of problem

cannot be analyzed by two-dimensional cross-sections. See Reference 6 , The
P r a c t i c a l and R e a l i s t i c S o l u t i o n of Rock Slope S t a b i l i t y , by Von Thun.
-
5. REQUIRED SAFETY FACTORS. The following v a l u e s should be provided f o r
r e a s o n a b l e assurance of s t a b i l i t y :
 ASSUMOD m D l TIONS:
I. N O ~ # ~ W A T € R O U T ~ ~ D E O F S U ) # .
8 . NO SURCHMGE OR TENSION CRKKS.
3. 301L IS )(OMOOENgXIS TO DEPTH D.
4. SEAR slnmml IS m V E D moM
COMESION W A N D I S O O W S l A N T ~
m.
5. eAlUlRE TA#S PLACE M MITATKm CU fi=IlSPCF C=b00PSF +=o
ClllCUCAR ARC.
d = WH=?!WS=O.#), @=So
NOTES:
.
I CWI LOCATION OF CENTER O f CRlTICAL
CIRCLE SEE R6.3.
2. RMt FACTORS SUBME-E, FAJIJRE SURF= IS BASE CIRCLE.
SUllCHAClOE OR TENSON CRACKS,SEE
m.4.
-
FIGURE 2
S t a b i l i t y Analysis for Slopes i n Cohesive S o i l s , Undrained Conditions,
i . e . , Assumed 0 = 0
 FIGURE 3
Center of Critical Circle, Slope in Cohesive Soil
 FIGURE 4
Influence 0.f Surcharge, Submergence, and Tension Cracks on S t a b i l i t y
 ALLOWABLE SmAR Call
1-
EMBANKMENT U D PI
I

'4.
P
xp 2 I. GIVEN bll PI 10.
SAFETY FACTOR =
SHEAR STRENGTH = C

i I
2. ALLOWABLE SHEAR STIIESS, Cqll: C/Fs
3. DETERMINE P2: q = PI -5.5 (Call)
P2: MUST NOT EXCEED 5.5 (Call )
4. ~ ~ - # N J D % A N D LOCATE~INUPRR~
bl
ORAPH.
IF CQlDITKlW INDICATE CLSE X RILURE,$b
IS DETERMINED FROM THIS GRAPH.
5. IF DONOITIONS INDICATE CASE IOR CASEm
FAlWRE,ENTER APPROPRIATE GRAPH WITH
b
*AND% TO DETERMINE #OR
PI
'05 .O1(1 .I0 .I25
ALUMABLE SHEAR
.I5
Cgll
6. FOR CASE ICHECK BY mERMlNlNG -& .
f=2
EMBANKMENT W 7 X<bl FORCASEI FA1WRE.A=plxb2
;

FIGURE 5
Design of Berms for Embankments on Soft Clays
 POTENTIALSLIDING

RESULTANT HORIZONTAL FORCE FOR A WEDGE

SLIDING ALONG e f g (P@).(A GENERAL CASE)

FIGURE 6
S t a b i l i t y Analysis of Translational F a i l u r e
7.1-323
. DEFINITION OF TERMS
P1a r RESULTANT HORIZONTAL FORCE FOR AN ACTIVE OR CENTRAL WEDGE AUING
POTENTIAL SLIDING SURFACE a b c d e .
PC m RESULTANT HORIZONTAL FORCE FOR A W I V E WEDGE AUNG POTENTIAL
SLIDING SURFACE e f a .
W = fOTK WEIGHT OF SOlL AND WATER IN WE- MKM WKNTIAL SLIDING SURFACE.
R r RESULT OF NORMAL AND TANGENTIAL m S ON MENTIAL SLIMNG SUMWE
CONSIDERING FRICTION ANGLE OF MATERIAL.
Pw R RESULTANT FORCE DUE TO FWE WATER PFIESSURE ON POTENTIAL SLIDING SURFACE
CAGULATED AS : hwi + hw
Pw= [ ii](LHIw)

= FRICTION ANGLE OF LAYER ALONG M N T I A L SLIDING SURFKE.

C = COHESION OF LAYER ALONG POTENTIAL SLIDING SURFACE.
L t LENGTH OF POTENnAL SLIDW SURFACE A#K)SS WEDGE.
hw r DEPTH BELW PHREATIC SURFWE AT OOUNDARY OF WEDGE.
yw = UNIT WEIGHT OF WATER.

PROCEDURES

1.) EXCEPT FORCENTRAL WEDGEWHERE a IS MCTATEDBY STRATIGRAPHY

USE a = 450 +
2 ' 8 = 4!i0 - FOR ESTIMATING FAILURE SURFACE.

2.1 SOLVE FOR Pa AND PB FOR EACH WEDGE IN TERMS OF THE SAFETY FACTOR ( FS
USING THE EQUATIONS SmmM BEUIW. THE SAFETY FACTOR IS APPLIED TO SOlL
9
STRENGTH VALUES (TAN AND C 1.
MOBILIZED STRENGTH MAMETERS
AND Cm=
ARE THERE- CONSIDERED AS (x
= TAN-I
F8
fs

IN WHICH THE FOUOmNG EXPANSONS ARE TO BE USED:

TAN(@-+,) =
TAN^-v TAN (@++,I =
TAN
TAN 4
8 + --r;--
TAN 4 TAN 4
l+TANa
Fs I-TAN 8 -r
s

3.) FOR EWlLlBRlUM B Pa = C PB. SUM Pa AND PB FORCES ly TERMS OF Fs, SELECT TRIAL F l
CALCULATE Pa AND XP@. IF CPa # P P p , REPEAT. PLOT Pa AND P ' VS.
FS WITH SUFFICIENT TRIALS TO ESTABLISH THE eOlNT OF INfERSOMW
( I.&, XPa = ZPB 1, WHICH IS THECORRECT SAFETY FACTOR.

4.) DEPENDING ON STRATIGRAPHY AND SOIL STRENGTH, THE CENTER WEDGE MAY AM
TO MAINTAIN OR UPSET EQUILIBRIUM.

5 NOTE THAT FOR +-0, ABOVE EQUATIONS EDUCE TO:

C, L
Pa = W TAN a -
COSa '
6.) THE SAFETY FACTOR FOR SEVERAL POTENTIAL SLIDING SURFKES MAY HAVE TO BE
COMWTED IN ORDER TO FIND THE MINIMUM SAFETY FACTOR FQR THE GIVEN SI_RATKiRAPH
FIGURE 6 (continued)
S t a b i l i t y Analysis of Translational Failure
C
-
m r s Pa
WEDGE 1: 9 = 2S0, C = 0, y = 0.12 KCF (SLIMNG SURFACE o b 1
al x 45 +#l/2tS7.S0
20
W= 7 X 20 TAN 32.S0X0.12 1 15.29 KlPS
Pw = (w ( ~ 0 6 2x(,&6)
) = 3.68KIPS

Pa I =(W-P,COSal)

(1.57-
= (1529 - 1.98)

m f f i E 2: 9 =O,C = 0.0
KSF, y r0.092 KCF S
(LD
IN
IG SURFACE bc
a 2 = 45'
W = I ~ X ~ ~ X O . I ~ + I ~ X ~ O X O . ~ ~ + ~ X I ~ X O . ~ ~ ~ = ~ ~ ~ ~ K I P S

~35.42 -
WEDGE 3: 9 =O,C ~0.60KSF, y ~ 0 . 0 9 2KCF (SLIDING SURFACE cd 1
0.1 = 5.70
a 3 = TAN-I

W= -$ X 4 2 X0.12 + 12+ 16 2 X 4 2 XO.092 :104.88 KIPS

Pa3=WTANa3-
4-L (FOR+=O)

FORCES P
2 WEDGE 4: 4 =O,C =a60KSF, y - 0 . 0 9 2 KCF (SLIDING SURFACE d e )
8, = 45'
W = FX
l6.2 XO.092 = 12.07 KlPS

PCI = W TAN @ + -&' (FOR 9.0)

= 12.07 + k:~] = 12.07 +

Z P =l2.07+
~
I -
FIGURE 7 (continued)
Example of S t a b i l i t y Analysis of Translational F a i l u r e
7.1-32 6
.

SOLVE FOR FS , FROM X Pa = H PB

1.3 * f _I

7 .
21.7
31.5
29.7
1.2 - I
\
1.2
1.3
25.3
28.5
28.3
27.0
L!
1.1 - /'
I 0' 1
\
F, = 1.27 /' \
1.0 3
0 a # # \ a

20 25 30 35
xp. ,zpfi

FIGURE 7 (continued)
Example of S t a b i l i t y Analysis of Translational F a i l u r e
 i

FAILURE
PLANE

W = WEI6HT OF W D O E

1 2
' J
W
= WAER FORCE ON TME JOINT REACTION =r&.b
PWR = WATER FORCE OM T N ASSUMED
PLANE = tyw=
hW-L

k = SEISMIC COEFFICIENT TO ACCOUNT FOR

DYNAMlC HORIZONTAL FORCE.

eL + r w ~ o s a- t w Sina - P,-P~ sin=] t o n +

Fs =
W S h a + kWC06a +PwJ C o r a

FIGURE 8
S t a b i l i t y o f Rock S l o p e
 (1) S a f e t y f a c t o r no less t h a n 1.5 f o r permanent o r S u s t a i n e d l o a d i n g
conditions.

( 2 ) For foundations of s t r u c t u r e s , a s a f e t y f a c t o r no l e s s t h a n 2.0

i s d e s i r a b l e t o l i m i t c r i t i c a l movements a t foundation edge. See ,DM-7.2,
Chapter 4 f o r d e t a i l e d requirements f o r s a f e t y f a c t o r s i n b e a r i n g , c a p a c i t y
analysis.

(3) For temporary l o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n s o r where s t a b i l i t y r e a c h e s a

minimum during c o n s t r u c t i o n , s a f e t y f a c t o r s may be reduced t o 1.3 o r 1.25 i f
c o n t r o l s a r e maintained on load a p p l i c a t i o n .

( 4 ) For t r a n s i e n t l o a d s , such a s earthquake, s a f e t y f a c t o r s a s low a s

1.2 o r 1.15 may be t o l e r a t e d .

6. EARTHQUAKE LOADING. Earthquake e f f e c t s can be introduced i n t o t h e analy-

s i s by a s s i g n i n g a d i s t u r b i n g f o r c e on t h e s l i d i n g mass e q u a l t o kW where W i s
t h e weight of t h e s l i d i n g mass and k i s t h e seismic c o e f f i c i e n t . For t h e
a n a l y s e s of s t a b i l i t y shown i n Figure 9 a , ksW i s assumed t o a c t p a r a l l e l t o
t h e slope and through t h e c e n t e r of mass of t h e s l i d i n g mass. Thus, f o r a
f a c t o r of s a f e t y of 1.0:

The f a c t o r of s a f e t y under an earthquake loading then becomes

To determine t h e c r i t i c a l value of t h e seismic e f f i c i e n t (kks) which

w i l l reduce a given f a c t o r of s a f e t y f o r a s t a b l e s t a t i c c o n d i t i o n (FSo) t o
a f a c t o r of s a f e t y of 1.0 w i t h a n earthquake loading (FSe = 1 . 0 ) , use
b
= -
h (FSo' 1 ) = (FSo-1) s i n 8

I f t h e s e i s m i c f o r c e i s i n t h e h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n and denoting s u c h
f o r c e a s kch W, then kc-, = (FSo-1) tan@.

For g r a n u l a r , f r e e - d r a i n i n g m a t e r i a l with plane s l i d i n g s u r f a c e ( F i g u r e

9b): Fso = tan01tan0, and kcs = (FSo-1)sine.

Based on s e v e r a l numerical experiments r e p o r t e d i n Reference 7, C r i t i c a l

A c c e l e r a t i o n Versus S t a t i c F a c t o r of S a f e t y i n S t a b i l i t y Analysis of E a r t h
Dams and Embankments, by Sarma and Bhave, kch may be c o n s e r v a t i v e l y
r e p r e s e n t e d a s kchs(FSo-1)0.25.

The downslope movement U may be c o n s e r v a t i v e l y p r e d i c t e d based on

Reference 8, E f f e c t of Earthquakes on Dams and Embankments, by Newmark a s :

u = - 0
v2 A
-
2g kcs kc s
 (a 1 CIRCULAR SLIDING SURFACE

(b) PLANE SLIDING SURFACE

FIGURE 9
Earthquake Loading on Slopes
where A = peak ground a c c e l e r a t i o n , g ' s

g = a c c e l e r a t i o n of g r a v i t y

V = peak ground v e l o c i t y

The above equations a r e based on s e v e r a l s i m p l i f y i n g assumptions: ( a ) f a i l u r e

occurs along well defined s l i p s u r f a c e , ( b ) t h e s l i d i n g mass behaves as a
r i g i d body; ( c ) s o i l s a r e not s e n s i t i v e . and would not c o l l a p s e a t small
deformation; and ( d ) t h e r e i s no reduction i n s o i l s t r e n g t h due t o ground
shaking.

Section 4. EFFECTS OF SOIL PARAMETERS AND GROUNDWATER ON STABILITY

1. INTRODUCTION. The choice of s o i l parameters and t h e methods of a n a l y s e s .

a r e d i c t a t e d by t h e types of m a t e r i a l s encountered, t h e a n t i c i p a t e d ground-
water c o n d i t i o n s , t h e time frame of c o n s t r u c t i o n , and c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s .
S o i l s t r e n g t h parameters a r e s e l e c t e d e i t h e r on t h e b a s i s of t o t a l s t r e s s ,
ignoring the e f f e c t of t h e pore water pressure, o r on t h e b a s i s of e f f e c t i v e
stress where t h e a n a l y s i s of the slope r e q u i r e s t h a t the pore water p r e s s u r e s
be t r e a t e d s e p a r a t e l y .

2. TOTAL VS. EFFECTIVE STRESS ANALYSIS. The choice between t o t a l stress and
e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s parameters i s governed by t h e drainage c o n d i t i o n s which occur
w i t h i n t h e s l i d i n g mass and along i t s boundaries. Drainage i s dependent upon
s o i l permeability, boundary c o n d i t i o n s , and time.

a. T o t a l S t r e s s Analysis. Where e f f e c t i v e drainage cannot occur d u r i n g

s h e a r , use t h e undrained shear s t r e n g t h parameters such a s vane s h e a r , uncon-
f i n e d compression, and unconsolidated undrained (UU o r Q) t r i a x i a l compression
t e s t s . F i e l d vane shear and cone p e n e t r a t i o n tests may be used. Assume
0 = 0. Examples where a t o t a l stress a n a l y s i s a r e a p p l i c a b l e include:
(1) Analysis of c u t slopes of normally consolidated o r s l i g h t l y
preconsolidaied clays. I n t h i s c a s e l i t t l e d i s s i p a t i o n of pore water pres-
s u r e occurs p r i o r t o c r i t i c a l s t a b i l i t y conditions.

( 2 ) Analysis of embankments on a s o f t c l a y stratum. This i s a

s p e c i a l c a s e - a s d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e
embankment and t h e foundation may lead t o progressive f a i l u r e . The undrained
s t r e n g t h of both t h e foundation s o i l and t h e embankment s o i l should be reduced
i n accordance with t h e s t r e n g t h reduction f a c t o r s RE and RF i n Figure 10
(Reference 9, An Engineering Manual f o r Slope ~ t a b i i i t ys t u d i e s , by Duncan and
Buchignani) .
(3) Rapid drawdown of water l e v e l providing i n s u f f i c i e n t t i m e f o r
drainage. U s e t h e undrained s t r e n g t h corresponding t o t h e overburden condi-
t i o n within t h e s t r u c t u r e p r i o r t o drawdown.
 STRESS

STRESS

MEMUM DENSE SANDS, OR WaRYALLY

1 2 3 5 6 7 9 CONSOLIDATED CLAYS
SI A W R M E IWUWKNkNT STRtNOTM TYPED
- I
% AVERAOL COUWDATION STREROTM #IS= ~ , W ~ C O M S O U M T L D
OR bNSITIYE,NORMALLY
CONSOLIDATED a A Y s
EXAMPLES8
FmM LAB : EMBAWMENT SOlL IS TYPE A, WDRAIED SHEAR STRENGTH = IOOOPSF
FOUNDATION SOIL IS T YPE 8, UNDRAINED SHEAR STRENGTH = 400 PSF
x z m = 2 . 5
3c
RE = 0.67
RF = 0.93
USE UNDRAlNED SHEAR STRENGTHS =6MAND SF = 372 FOR ANALYSIS
N0TE:UNDRANUED SHEAR STRENGTH IS INDEPENDENT OF TOTAL NORMAL STRESS
v
FIGURE 10
Correction
-- Factors RE and RF t o Account f o r Progressive
-

Failure i n Embankments on Soft Clay Foundations

 ( 4 ) End-of-construction c o n d i t i o n f o r f i l l s b u i l t of cohesive s o i l s .
Use t h e undrained s t r e n g t h of samples compacted t o f i e l d d e n s i t y and a t w a t e r
content r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e embankment.

b. E f f e c t i v e S t r e s s Analysis. The e f f e c t i v e shear s t r e n g t h parameters

( c ' , $') should be used f o r t h e following cases:

(1) Long-term s t a b i l i t y of c l a y f i l l s . Use s t e a d y s t a t e seepage

p r e s s u r e s where applicable.

( 2 ) Short-term o r end-of-construction c o n d i t i o n f o r f i l l s b u i l t of
f r e e draining sand and gravel. F r i c t i o n angle i s u s u a l l y approximated by
c o r r e l a t i o n f o r t h i s case. See Chapter 1.

( 3 ) Rapid drawdown condition of s l o p e s i n pervious, r e l a t i v e l y

incompressible, coarse-grained s o i l s . Use pore p r e s s u r e s corresponding t o new
lower'water l e v e l with steady s t a t e flow.

( 4 ) Long-term s t a b i l i t y of c u t s i n s a t u r a t e d clays. Use s t e a d y

s t a t e seepage pressures where applicable.

(5) Cases of p a r t i a l d i s s i p a t i o n of pore pressure i n t h e f i e l d .

Here, pore water p r e s s u r e s must be measured by piezometers o r estimated from
c o n s o l i d a t i o n data.

3. EFFECT OF GROUNDWATER AND EXCESS PORE PRESSURE. Subsurface water move-

ment and a s s o c i a t e d seepage p r e s s u r e s a r e the most frequent cause of s l o p e
instability. See Table 1 f o r i l l u s t r a t i o n s of t h e e f f e c t s of water on s l o p e
stability.

a. Seepage Pressures. Subsurface water seeping toward the f a c e o r t o e

of a slope produces d e s t a b i l i z i n g f o r c e s which can be evaluated by flow n e t
construction. The piezometric heads which occur along t h e assumed f a i l u r e
s u r f a c e produce outward f o r c e s which must be considered i n t h e s t a b i l i t y
a n a l y s i s . See Table 3 and t h e example of Figure 1.

b. Construction Pore Pressures. When compressible f i l l m a t e r i a l s a r e

used i n embankment c o n s t r u c t i o n , excess pore pressure may develop and must be
considered i n t h e s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s . Normally, f i e l d piezometric measure-
ments a r e required t o evaluate t h i s condition.

c. Excess' Pore P r e s s u r e s i n Embankment Foundations. Where embankments

a r e constructed over compressible s o i l s , t h e foundation pore p r e s s u r e s must be
considered i n t h e s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s . See top panel of Table 3.

d. A r t e s i a n Pressures. Artesian pressures beneath s l o p e s can have

s e r i o u s e f f e c t s on the s t a b i l i t y . Should such p r e s s u r e s be found t o e x i s t ,
they must be used t o determine e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s e s and u n i t weights, and t h e
slope and foundation s t a b i l i t y should be evaluated by e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s
methods.
 TABLE 3
Pore Pressure Conditions for Stability Analysis Homogeneous Embankment

i N l n u Y E ~ S pSo n PRESSURES
~ AM: WILT UPAT THE CENTER
OF THE I M P Q I V W COMPRESSIBLE mATLMIEOUK TDTQTAL
PRESSURE OF- UMI). IF M STRATUM IS VARVED OR
EXCESS mSSURE . LENSED WITH GREATER HORIZONTAL THAN VERTICAL
WITH HOeW20NTALMAINAI)a PERWEMILlTY,mMlZOnTAL DRAINAPEW E S D€CREME OF
#ME:PRESWIIE UNDER THE W A N D A N IMCREASE BEYOW
TnE~OF3U)PE.

I
(11CON~OLIMTION PORE PRESSURES DEVELOPED m COMPUEWBLE FOUNDATION
t
MUFAILURE CIRCLE PORE PRESSURESkJhREDETERMINED FROM
FLOW NET FOR STEADY STATE S E E M E FROM

PIEZOMETRIC LEVEL

PERVIOUS TDE

(2) SlEADY STATE S E E M PRESSURES

L
C
nmE PRESSJES (U) BENEATH THE UPSTREAM
--
UPSTREW SmPE U P € FOLUrWlNG RAPID DRAWDOWN ARE
HYDROS'WTK:WITH SUR- OF UPSTREAM

( 31 PORE PRESSURES RESIDUM FROM MPlD D M W D W N

 4. STABILITY PROBLEMS I N SPECIAL MATERIALS

a. C o n t r o l l i n g F a c t o r s . See Table 1, DM-7.2, Chapter 1, f o r p r i m a r y

f a c t o r s c o n t r o l l i n g s l o p e s t a b i l i t y i n some s p e c i a l problem s o i l s .

b. S t r e n g t h Parameters.

( 1 ) Overconsolidated, F i s s u r e d Clays and Clayshales. See T a b l e 2.

Cuts i n t h e s e m a t e r i a l s cause opening of f i s s u r e s and f r a c t u r e s w i t h conse-
quent s o f t e n i n g and s t r e n g t h l o s s .

( a ) A n a l y s i s of Cut Slopes. For long-term s t a b i l i t y of c u t

s l o p e s use r e s i d u a l s t r e n g t h parameters c t r and atr from d r a i n e d t e s t s .
See Chapter 3. The most r e l i a b l e s t r e n g t h i n f o r m a t i o n f o r f i s s u r e d c l a y s i s
f r e q u e n t l y o b t a i n e d by back f i g u r i n g t h e s t r e n g t h from l o c a l f a i l u r e s .

( b ) Old S l i d e Masses. Movements i n o l d s l i d e masses f r e q u e n t l y

occur on r e l a t i v e l y f l a t s l o p e s because of g r a d u a l c r e e p a t depth. Explora-
t i o n may show t h e f a i l u r e mass t o be s t i f f o r hard; but a narrow f a i l u r e p l a n e
of low s t r e n g t h with s l i c k e n s i d e s o r f r a c t u r e s may be undetected. In such
l o c a t i o n s avoid c o n s t r u c t i o n which i n v o l v e s r e g r a d i n g o r groundwater r i s e t h a t
may u p s e t a d e l i c a t e e q u i l i b r i u m .

( 2 ) S a t u r a t e d Granular S o i l s i n Seismic Areas. Ground s h a k i n g may

r e s u l t i n l i q u e f a c t i o n and s t r e n g t h r e d u c t i o n of c e r t a i n s a t u r a t e d g r a n u l a r
s o i l s . Empirical methods a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r e s t i m a t i n g t h e l i q u e f a c t i o n poten-
t i a l . See DM-7.3, Chapter 1 f o r guidance. Methods of s t a b i l i z a t i o n f o r such
s o i l s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n DM-7.3, Chapter 2.

( 3 ) Loess and Other C o l l a p s i b l e s o i l s . C o l l a p s e of t h e s t r u c t u r e o f

t h e s e s o i l s can c a u s e a r e d u c t i o n of cohesion and a r i s e i n pore p r e s s u r e .

E v a l u a t e t h e s a t u r a t i o n e f f e c t s w i t h u n c o n s o l i d a t e d undrained
t e s t s , s a t u r a t i n g samples under low chamber p r e s s u r e p r i o r t o s h e a r . See
Chapter 1 f o r e v a l u a t i n g c o l l a p s e p o t e n t i a l .

( 4 ) Talus. For t a l u s s l o p e s composed of f r i a b l e m a t e r i a l , 0 may

range from 20" t o 25". I f c o n s i s t i n g of d e b r i s d e r i v e d from s l a t e o r s h a l e ,
may range from 20" t o 2g0, l i m e s t o n e about 32", g n e i s s 34", g r a n i t e 35" t o
40'. These a r e crude e s t i m a t e s of f r i c t i o n a n g l e s and should be supplemented
by a n a l y s i s of e x i s t i n g t a l u s s l o p e s i n t h e a r e a .

S e c t i o n 5. SLOPE STABILIZATION

1. METHODS. See Table 4, f o r a summary of s l o p e s t a b i l i z a t i o n methods. A

d e s c r i p t i o n of some of t h e s e follows:

a. Regrading P r o f i l e . F l a t t e n i n g and/or benching t h e s l o p e , o r adding

m a t e r i a l a t t h e t o e , a s w i t h t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of an e a r t h berm, w i l l i n c r e a s e
t h e s t a b i l i t y . Analyze by procedures above t o determine most e f f e c t i v e
regrading.
 TABLE 4
Methods of S t a b i l i z i n g Excavation Slopes

Scheme Applicable Methods Comments

1. Changing Geometry 1. Reduce slope h e i g h t 1. Area has t o be

by excavation a t top a c c e s s i b l e t o con-
EXCAVATION of slope. s t r u c t i o n equipment.
Disposal s i t e needed
2. F l a t t e n t h e slope f o r excavated s o i l .
-/===== angle. Drainage sometimes

1 3. Excavate a bench i n
incorporated i n t h i s
method.

f upper p a r t of slope.

2. Earth Berm F i l l 1. Compacted e a r t h o r 1. S u f f i c i e n t width and

rock berm placed a t t h i c k n e s s of berm

J and beyond t h e toe.

Drainage may be
provided behind
berm.
required so f a i l u r e
w i l l not occur below
o r through berm.

3. Retaining S t r u c t u r e s 1. Retaining w a l l - 1. Usually expensive.

c r i b or cantilever Cantilever walls
type* might have t o be
RETAINING STRUCTURES t i e d back.

J- 2. D r i l l e d , cast-in-
place v e r t i c a l
p i l e s , founded well
below bottom of
s l i d e plane. Gen-
2. Spacing should be
such t h a t s o i l can
a r c h between p i l e s .
Grade beam can be
used t o t i e p i l e s
e r a l l y 18 t o 36 together. Very
inches i n diameter l a r g e diameter ( 6
and 4- t o 8-foot f e e t 5 ) p i l e s have
spacing. Larger been used f o r deep
diameter p i l e s a t slides.
c l o s e r spacing may
be required i n some
cases t o mitigate
f a i l u r e s of c u t s i n
highly f i s s u r e d
clays.
 TABLE 4 (continued)
Methods of S t a b i l i z i n g Excavation Slopes

. Scheme Applicable Methods Comments

/K 3. D r i l l e d , cast-in-
place v e r t i c a l p i l e s
t i e d back with bat-
tered p i l e s or a
deadman. P i l e s
founded w e l l below
3. Space c l o s e enough
so s o i l w i l l a r c h
between p i l e s ,
P i l e s can be t i e d
together w i t h g r a d e
beam.
s l i d e plane. Gen-
e r a l l y , 1 2 t o 30
inches i n diameter
and a t 4- t o 8-foot
spacing.

4. E a r t h and rock 4. Can be used f o r h i g h

anchors and rock s l o p e s , and i n v e r y
bolts. restricted areas.

4
Conservative d e s i g n
should be used,
e s p e c i a l l y f o r per-
manent support. Use
may be e s s e n t i a l f o r
slopes i n rocks
where j o i n t s d i p
toward excavation,
and such j o i n t s
daylight i n t h e

-7iE
slope.

5. Reinforced earth. 5. Usually expensive.

4, Other Methods See Table 7, DM-7.2,

Chapter 1
 b. Seepage and Groundwater Control. Surface c o n t r o l of d r a i n a g e
d e c r e a s e s i n f i l t r a t i o n t o p o t e n t i a l s l i d e a r e a . Lowering of groundwater
i n c r e a s e s e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s e s and e l i m i n a t e s s o f t e n i n g of fine-grained s o i l s a t
- -
f i s s u r e s . D e t a i l s on seepage and groundwater c o n t r o l a r e found i n Chapter 6 .

c. Retaining Structures.

( 1 ) Application. Walls o r l a r g e diameter p i l i n g can be used t o sta-

b i l i z e s l i d e s of r e l a t i v e l y small dimension i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of movement o r t o
r e t a i n s t e e p t o e s l o p e s so t h a t f a i l u r e w i l l n o t extend back i n t o a l a r g e r
mass.

( 2 ) Analysis. Retaining s t r u c t u r e s a r e f r e q u e n t l y misused where

a c t i v e f o r c e s on w a l l a r e computed from a f a i l u r e wedge comprising o n l y a
s m a l l percentage of t h e t o t a l weight of t h e s l i d i n g mass. Such f a i l u r e s may
pass e n t i r e l y beneath t h e w a l l , o r t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e s may be l a r g e enough t o
s h e a r through t h e r e t a i n i n g s t r u c t u r e . S t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s should e v a l u a t e a
p o s s i b l e i n c r e a s e of p r e s s u r e s a p p l i e d t o w a l l by an a c t i v e wedge extending
f a r bakk i n t o f a i l i n g mass ( s e e Figure 4 , DM-7.2, Chapter 3 ) , and p o s s i b l e
f a i l u r e $n s l i d i n g s u r f a c e a t any l e v e l beneath t h e base of t h e r e t a i n i n g
structure.

( 3 ) P i l e s o r Caissons. To be e f f e c t i v e , t h e p i l e s should extend

s u f f i c i e n t l y below t h e f a i l u r e s u r f a c e t o develop t h e n e c e s s a r y l a t e r a l r e s i s -
tance. Figure 11 shows how t h e e f f e c t of t h e p i l e s i s considered i n c a l c u l a t -
i n g t h e f a c t o r of s a f e t y . The d i s t r i b u t i o n of p r e s s u r e along t h e p i l e can b e
computed from c h a r t s shown i n Figure 12. T h i s assumes f u l l m o b i l i z a t i o n of
s o i l s h e a r s t r e n g t h along t h e f a i l u r e s u r f a c e and should be used o n l y when t h e
s a f e t y f a c t o r without t h e p i l e s i s l e s s than 1.4. This c r i t e r i a i s based on
r e s u l t s of a n a l y s i s presented i n Reference 10, Forces Induced i n P i l e s by
Unsymmetrical Surcharges on t h e S o i l Around t h e P i l e , by DeBeer and Wallays.

See Figure 13 f o r example computations. Note t h e computations

shown a r e f o r o n l y one of t h e many p o s s i b l e s l i p s u r f a c e s .

d. Other Methods.

( 1 ) Other p o t e n t i a l procedures f o r s t a b i l i z i n g s l o p e s i n c l u d e g r o u t -
i n g , f r e e z i n g , e l e c t r o osmosis, vacuum pumping, and diaphragm w a l l s . See
Table 7 of DM-7.2, Chapter 1 f o r f u r t h e r guidance on t h e s e methods.

S e c t i o h 6. SLOPE PROTECTION

1. SLOPE EROSION. Slopes which a r e s u s c e p t i b l e t o e r o s i o n by wind and r a i n -

f a l l should be p r o t e c t e d . P r o t e c t i o n i s a l s o r e q u i r e d f o r s l o p e s s u b j e c t e d t o
wave a c t i o n a s i n the upstream s l o p e of a dam, o r t h e r i v e r and c a n a l banks

.
along n a v i g a t i o n a l channels. I n some c a s e s , p r o v i s i o n must be made a g a i n s t
burrowing animals
b 7'

WTENTIAL SLIUNG S U R W

SAFETY M O R (Fs) MOMENT MUILleRIUM 'FDR METHOO W SUCES WITH

CIRCULAR FOTENTIAL SLIDING SURF= (WITHOUT SEISMIC LOADS, S
U
-
W S ,OR RPRTlAL SUBMERGENCE OF W I P E ) IS TYPlCAUY O€
Fm AS :
E C'LR+Z(P-UL) RTAN
Fs = x WX

WHERE : c' = EFFECTIVE COHESION .

+' = EFFECTIVE FRICTION ANGLE.
W = T(JTAL WEIGHT OF SUCE .
P = T O T A L ~ M A L F W I E O NBASEOFSLICE.
L = LENGTH OF POTENTIAL SLIDING SURFACE MROSS S I X € .
u = AVERAGE PORE WATER PRESSURE ON MENTIAL SLlMNG
S U R W KROSS S L E .
R = RADIUS OF MOMENT ARM FOR POTENTIAL SLIDING S U R W
X = HORIZONTAL MSTANCE FROM CENTROID OF SLICE TO CIENTER
OF ROTATION.
>

FIGURE 11
Influence of S t a b i l i z i n g P i l e on Safety Factor
SAFETY FACTOR FOR MOMENT EQUILIBRIUM CONSIDERING THE SAME FORCES
AS ABOVE PLUS THE EFFECT OFTHE STABILIZING PILE IS EXPRESSED AS :

WHERE : T =AVERAGE TOTALTHRUST (PER UN. FT,HORIZ.) RESISTING SOIL

MOVEMENT.
Z =DISTANCE FROM CENTROlD OF RESISTING PRESSURE (THRUST) TO
CENTER OF ROTATION.

FIGURE 11 ( c o n t i n u e d )
I n f l u e n c e of S t a b i l i z i n g P i l e on S a f e t y F a c t o r
 LATERAL STRESS ON PILES ( u L )
0 ) S O I L W I T H C AND +,UL=eVK q + c K c -(I)
b) SOIL wlTn c ONLY ( + = o ) , uL=E,, + C KO ~ - ( 2 )
cv = €ERECTIVE VERTICAL STRESS AT DEPTM
Kg =EARTH PRESSURE COEFFICIENT Kc FOR =O
SEE (B) AND (C) BELOW FOR DMNlfDN OF Kq AND Kc

STABILIZING PILE

1
+ (A)
, , %

FOR Z = aO, FOR Z =a,

Kqr222 '

5.m

z /e
z/e EARTH PRESSURE COEFFICIENT FOR
EARTH PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS FOR COHESION
OVERBURDEN PRESSURE
(B) (C)
FIGURE 12
P i l e Stabilized Slope
 - .
4

STABILIZING PlLE

PLAN

STAB1LIZ lNG PlLE

A. PRESSURE DIAGRAM ON STABILIZING PlLE

WENTI& SLIDING
SURFACE

FIGURE^ 3
Example Calculation - Pile Stabilized Slopes
 i

B. For t r i a l s l i p s u r f a c e a-a compute

l a t e r a l . r e s i s t a n c e , generated by
presence of p i l e i f f a c t o r of s a f e t y
without p i l e s i s l e s s than 1.4.
Compute p r e s s u r e s using Figure 1 2 .
L v Kq + C K ~ ]SEE FIGURE 12 FOR DEFINITIONS
c =
Lateral
Depth Below Vertical Effective Resistance t o
Top of P i l e S t r e s s zV S o i l Movement
--
E (f t) ZIB Kq
--
.& (kips/f t 2 ) q KSF

0 0 1.5 4.0 0 0.8

3 2 2.1 10.8 0.15 2.48
6 4 2.4 12.8 0.30 3.28
9 6 2.6 14.0 0.45 3.97

C. Compute c e n t r o i d of l a t e r a l r e s i s t a n c e ( i . e . , l o c a t i o n of f o r c e T)

Resultant Resistance ( f )
Depth Range Over Depth Range Z fZ

0 -3 3 0.8 + 2.48 1.5 7.38B

2

3-6 8.64B 4.5 38.88B

6-9 10.87B 7.5 81.53B

CT =24.43B 127.79B
-
Z = 127.79124.43 = 5.23 f t

D. L a t e r a l r e s i s t a n c e p e r l i n e a r f o o t of slope

Tf CT/S = 24.43 x 1.514.5 = 8.14k

Note t h a t T accounts f o r t h r e e dimensional condition and need not be

corrected.

E. U s e T1 i n Step D and Z i n Step C t o compute a d d i t i o n a l s t a b i l i z i n g

moment f o r e v a l u a t i n g s a f e t y f a c t o r including e f f e c t of p i l e s ( s e e
Figure in.
FIGURE 13 (continued)
Example Calculation -
P i l e S t a b i l i z e d Slopes
I

F. Compute L a t d e p t h corresponding t o z/B = 20 (Z = 30) i n o r d e r t o

compute average i n c r e a s e of p o s i t i v e r e s i s t a n c e w i t h depth:

Kq = 3.1, Kc = 16

UL = 3.1 x 30 x 0.05 + 16 x 0.2 = 7.85 KSF

Average i n c r e a s e i n l a t e r a l r e s i s t a n c e below Ds:

OLavg
= (7.85 - 3.97)/(30 - 9 ) = 0.185 KSF/ft

Assume t h a t t h e d i r e c t i o n of l a t e r a l r e s i s t a n c e changes a t d e p t h d l
beneath f a i l u r e s u r f a c e , then:

G. C a l c u l a t e d e p t h of p e n e t r a t i o n d by s o l v i n g t h e following e q u a t i o n s and
i n c r e a s e d by 30% f o r s a f e t y :

T+F2-F1=O (1)

FILl = F2L2 (2)

Canpute f o r c e s per u n i t p i l e width:

T = 24.43k

F1 = 3.97d1 + 0.092d12

F2 = (3.97 + 0.185dl)(d-dl) + 0.092 (d-d1l2

= 0.092d2 + 3.97d - 3.97d1 - 0.092d12
H. Use Eq ( 1 ) i n S t e p G t o c a l c u l a t e dl f o r g i v e n v a l u e s of d.

24.43 + 0.092d2 + 3.97d - 7.94d1 - 0.185d12 = 0

dl2 + 42.9d1 - 24.43 + 0.092d2 + 3.97d =

0.185

Let d = 15.8', t h e n dl = 11.0'

From Eq ( 2 ) S t e p G ( c o n s i d e r e a c h s e c t i o n of p r e s s u r e diagram broken down

a s a r e c t a n g l e and t r i a n g l e ) .

FIGURE 13 (continued)
Example C a l c u l a t i o n -
P i l e S t a b i l i z e d Slopes
 -
= 529.1 FT KPS
d-dl = 4.8

= 533.2
FI LI - F2 L2= -4.1
d X 15.8' O.K.

I. Design

'Increase d by 30% t o o b t a i n t h e p r a c t i c a l d r i v i n g depth

d = 15.8 X 1.3 = 20.5'

LOCATE POINT OF ZERO SHEAR
24.43 = 3.97 X +0.092 x2
~2 + 43.15 X -265.54 -0

= 5.46'
COMPUTE MAXIMUM BENDING ON PlLE (8=1.5')

= 241.9 Kp-FT
CHECK PlLE SECTION VS MmaX

NOTES :

a. Higher embedment may be required t o minimize slope movements.

b. Use r e s i d u a l shear s t r e n g t h parameters i f appropriate.

c. Analysis a p p l i c a b l e f o r s a f e t y f a c t o r < 1.4 without p i l e s .

S o i l movement assumed t o be l a r g e enouih t o j u s t i f y assumption
on r u p t u r e conditions.

FIGURE 13 (continued)
Example Calculation -
P i l e S t a b i l i z e d Slopes
2. TYPES OF PROTECTION AVAILABLE. The u s u a l p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t e r o s i o n by
wind and r a i n f a l l i s a l a y e r of r o c k , c o b b l e s , o r sod. P r o t e c t i o n from wave
a c t i o n may be provided by rock r i p r a p ( e i t h e r d r y dumped o r hand p l a c e d ) ,
c o n c r e t e pavement, p r e c a s t c o n c r e t e b l o c k s , soil-cement, f a b r i c , and wood.
See Table 8, Chapter 6 f o r a d d i t i o n a l guidance.

a . Stone Cover. A r o c k o r c o b b l e s c o v e r of 12" t h i c k n e s s i s s u f f i c i e n t

t o p r o t e c t a g a i n s t wind and r a i n .

b. - Sod. Grasses s u i t a b l e f o r a g i v e n l o c a l i t y should be s e l e c t e d w i t h

p r o v i s i o n f o r f e r t i l i z i n g and uniform watering.

c. Dumped Rock Riprap. This p r o v i d e s t h e b e s t p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t wave

a c t i o n . It c o n s i s t s of rock fragments dumped on a p r o p e r l y graded f i l t e r .
Rock used should be h a r d , dense, and d u r a b l e a g a i n s t weathering and a l s o heavy
enough t o resist displacement by wave a c t i o n . See Table 5 f o r d e s i g n guide-
l i n e s . For a d d i t i o n a l d e s i g n c r i t e r i a s e e F i g u r e 15, Chapter 6.

d. Hand-placed Riprap. Riprap i s c a r e f u l l y l a i d w i t h minimum amount of

v o i d s and a r e l a t i v e l y smooth t o p s u r f a c e . Thickness should be one-half of
t h e dumped rock r i p r a p but n o t l e s s than 12". A f i l t e r b l a n k e t must be
provided and enough openings should be l e f t i n t h e r i p r a p f a c i n g t o permit
e a s y flow of water i n t o o r out of t h e r i p r a p .

e. Concrete Paving. A s a s u c c e s s f u l p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t wave a c t i o n

c o n c r e t e paving should be m o n o l i t h i c and of h i g h d u r a b i l i t y . Underlying
m a t e r i a l s should be pervious t o prevent development of u p l i f t water p r e s s u r e .
Use a ~ i n i m u mt h i c k n e s s of 6".

When m o n o l i t h i c c o n s t r u c t i o n i s n o t p o s s i b l e , keep t h e j o i n t s t o a
minimum and s e a l e d . Reinforce t h e s l a b a t mid depth i n b o t h d i r e c t i o n s w i t h
continuous reinforcement through t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n j o i n t s . Use s t e e l a r e a i n
e a c h d i r e c t i o n e q u a l t o 0.5% of t h e c o n c r e t e a r e a .

f . Gabions. Slopes can be p r o t e c t e d by gabions. U s e of t h e s e i s

d i s c u s s e d i n DM-7.2, Chapter 3.
 TABLE 5
Thickness and Gradation L i m i t s of Dumped R i p r a p

Gradation, percentage of s t o n e s of
v a r i o u s weights, pounds1

Nominal 40 t o 50 50 t o 60 0 t o 10
thick- percent percent percent
ness Maximum greater from - to less
inches Size than than2
Slope

3:l 30 2,500 1,250 75 - 1,250 75

2:l 36 4,500 2,250 100 - 2,250 100

Sand and rock d u s t s h a l l be l e s s t h a n 5 p e r c e n t , by weight, of t h e t o t a l

riprap material.

2 The percentage of t h i s s i z e m a t e r i a l s h a l l not exceed a n amount which w i l l

f i l l t h e v o i d s i n l a r g e r rock.
 REFERENCES

1. T r a n s p o r t a t i o n Research Board, L a n d s l i d e A n a l y s i s and C o n t r o l , S p e c i a l

Report 176, 1978.

2. Lambe, T.W. and Whitman, R.V., S o i l Mechanics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
1969.

3. Fang, H.Y., S t a b i l i t y of E a r t h Slopes, Foundation Engineering Handbook,

Winterkorn and Fang, ed., Chapter 10, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New
York ,,1975.

4. Janbu, N., S t a b i l i t y Analysis of Slopes w i t h Dimensionless Parameters,

Harvard S o i l Mechanics S e r i e s No. 46, Harvard U n i v e r s i t y , Cambridge, MA.

5. Jakobsen, R.E., The Design of Embankments on S o f t Clays, Geotechnique,

1948.

6. Von Thun, J.L., The P r a c t i c a l and R e a l i s t i c S o l u t i o n of Rock Slope

S t a b i l i t y Problems, Design Methods i n Rock Mechanics, Proceedings of
S i x t e e n t h Symposium on Rock Mechanics, ASCE, September 22-24, 1977.

7 Sarma, S.K. and Bhave, M.V., C r i t i c a l A c c e l e r a t i o n Versus S t a t i c F a c t o r

of S a f e t y i n S t a b i l i t y Analysis of E a r t h Dams and Embankments,
Geotechnique, Vol. 24, No. 4, 1974.

8. Newmark, N.M., E f f e c t s of Earthquakes on D a m s and Embankments,

Geotechnique, Vol. 15, No. 2, 1965.

9. Duncan, J.M. and Buchignani, A.L., An Engineering Manual f o r Slope

S t a b i l i t y S t u d i e s , Department of C i v i l Engineering, I n s t i t u t e of
T r a n s p o r t a t i o n and T r a f f i c Engineering, U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a ,
Berkeley, March, 1975.

10. DeBeer, E.E. and Wallays, M., Forces Induced i n P i l e s by Unsymmetrical

Surcharges on t h e S o i l Around t h e P i l e , Proceedings of F i f t h European
Conference S o i l Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Madrid, Volume 1,
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

American-~ocie ty of Photogrammetry, Manual of Photo Interpretation,

Washington, D.C., 1960.
ASTM STP 447, Determination of the In Situ Modulus of Deformation of
-
Rock, Symposium, Denver, February 2-7, 1969.
/
Ash, J.L. et al., Improved Subsurface Investigation for Highway Tunnel
Design and Construction, Vol. 1, Subsurface Investigation System
'Planning, FHWA, May 1974.

Burmister, D.M., Physical, Stress-Strain, and Strength Responses of

Granular Soils, ASTM Spec. Pub. No. 322, ASTM, Philadelphia, pp 67-97,
1962.
Cedergren, H., Seepage, Drainage and Flow Nets, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
Inc., New York, 1967.

Chen, W.F., Limit Analysis and Soil Plasticity, Elsevier Scientific

Publishing Co., New York, 1975.

Dallaire, G., Controlling Erosion and Sedgmentation at Construction

Sites, Civil Engineering, ASCE, pp 73-77, 1976.

Foster, C.R. and Ahlvin, P.G., Stresses and Deflections Induced by

Uniform Circular Load.. Hiehwav
- -Research Board Proceedings. Hinhwav
Research Board,,Washington, D.C., 1954.

Harr, M.E., Groundwater and Seepage, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New
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Hoek, E. and Bray, J.W., Rock Slope Engineering, 2nd Edition, The
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Menard, L.F., Interpretation and Application of Pressuremeter Test

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Mooney, H.M., Handbook of Engineering Seismology, Bison Instruments,

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Noorany, I. and Gizienski, S.F., Engineering Properties of Submarine

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Poulos, H.G. and Davis,E.H., Elastic Solutions for Soil and Rock
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 APPENDIX A
L i s t i n g of Computer Programs

Subject Program Description -

a Availability

F i e l d Exploration, SOILS 1 Geotechnical d a t a f i l e f o r Navy Naval F a c i l i t i e s

T e s t i n g and I\ facilities. Engineering Command HQ ,
Instrumentation Alexandria, VA
(Chapter 2 )
I,
SOILS 2 R e t r i e v a l of d a t a from SOILS 1.
I.
SOILS 3 Modification o r addition t o
e x i s t i n g d a t a base f i l e .

D i s t r i b u t i o n of HSPACE S t r e s s e s and displacements i n Geotechnical Engineering

S t r e s s e s (Chapter 4 ) GESA Catalog No. a n e l a s t i c half-space with Software A c t i v i t y
and S e t t l e m e n t E01-0002-00030 i n t e r i o r loads. U n i v e r s i t y of Colorado
Analyses (Chapter 5 ) Boulder, CO 80309
( GE SA)

SAS3D S t r e s s e s and displacements i n

GESA Catalog No. a n i s o t r o p i c e l a s t i c half-space
E0l-0003-00042 due t o r e c t a n g u l a r s u r f a c e
loads.

CAN DE Analysis f o r design of b u r i e d F e d e r a l Highway

c o n d u i t s . S o l u t i o n methods . A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , O f f i c e of
i n c l u d e c l o s e d form e l a s t i c Research and Development
methods and a g e n e r a l f i n i t e Washington, D.C.
element s o l u t i o n .

ICES SEPOL 1 Analysis of s t r e s s d i s t r i b u - ICES Users Group, Inc.

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 APPENDIX A (continued)
L i s t i n g of Computer Programs

- Subject Program Description Availability

Seepage and Drainage

(Chapter 6 )
SEEP-2DFE F i n i t e element program f o r Virginia Polytechnic
s o l v i n g g e n e r a l two-dimensional I n s t i t u t e and S t a t e
seepage problems. University

Slope S t a b i l i t y ICES LEASE 1 Analyzing s l o p e s u s i n g t h e ICES Users Group, Inc.

(Chapter 7 ) Bishop method, F e l l e n i u s
method and Morgenstern and
P r i c e method. T o t a l o r
e f f e c t i v e a n a l y s i s can b e
performed. P e r m i t s considera-
t i o n of p s e u d o - s t a t i c s e i s m i c
force.

STABR Slope s t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s by P r o f e s s o r J. Duncan

o r d i n a r y method of s l i c e s and 437 Davis H a l l
Bishop's modified method. U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a
T o t a l o r e f f e c t i v e stress Berkeley, CA. 94720
a n a l y s i s can be performed w i t h
o r without seismic f o r c e .

TWOPLN Analysis of rock s l o p e s w i t h Program l i s t i n g and l o g i c

s l i d i n g on two planes.
available i n a report:
A n a l y t i c a l and G r a p h i c a l
Methods f o r t h e A n a l y s i s
of S l o p e s i n Rock Masses,
by A. Hendron, E. Cording
and A. Aiyer, T e c h n i c a l
Report No. GL80-2, U.S.
Army Waterways Experi-
mental S t a t i o n , Vicks-
burg, MS, March, 1980.
 APPENDIX A (continued)'
L i s t i n g of Computer Programs

Subject Program Description Availability

Slope S t a b i l i t y
(Chapter 7 ) FEECON A f i n i t e element a n a l y s i s f o r Massachusetts I n s t i t u t e
computing undrained deformation of Technology
of s o f t c l a y f o u n d a t i o n s under
g r a n u l a r embankments. Stresses
c a l c u l a t e d can be used t o
e v a l u a t e y i e l d c o n d i t i o n s and
stability.
 GLOSSARY

Activ'ity of Clay -The r a t i o of p l a s t i c i t y index t o p e r c e n t by weight of t h e

t o t a l sample t h a t i s s m a l l a r than 0.002 mm i n g r a i n s i z e . This p r o p e r t y i s
c o r r e l a t e d with t h e type of c l a y m a t e r i a l .

Anisotropic S o i l -
A s o i l mass having d i f f e r e n t p r o p e r t i e s i n d i f f e r e n t d i r e c -
t i o n s a t any given p o i n t r e f e r r i n g p r i m a r i l y t o s t r e s s - s t r a i n o r p e r m e a b i l i t y
characteristics.
I
C a p i l l a r y S t r e s s e s - Pore water p r e s s u r e s l e s s t h a n atmospheric v a l u e s pro-
duced by s u r f a c e t e n s i o n of pore water a c t i n g on t h e meniscus formed i n v o i d
s p a c e s between s o i l p a r t i c l e s .

Clay S i z e F r a c t i o n -
That p o r t i o n of t h e s o i l which i s f i n e r t h a n 0.002 mm,
n o t a p o s i t i v e measure of t h e p l a s t i c i t y of t h e m a t e r i a l o r i t s c h a r a c t e r i s -
t i c s as a c l a y .

Desiccation -
The process of s h r i n k a g e o r c o n s o l i d a t i o n of t h e f i n e - g r a i n e d
s o i l produced by i n c r e a s e of e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s e s i n t h e g r a i n s k e l e t o n accom-
panying t h e development of c a p i l l a r y s t r e s s e s i n t h e pore water.

Effective Stress -
The n e t s t r e s s a c r o s s ' p o i n t s of c o n t a c t of s o i l p a r t i c l e s ,
g e n e r a l l y considered a s e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e t o t a l s t r e s s minus t h e pore w a t e r
pressure.

Equivalent F l u i d P r e s s u r e - Horizontal p r e s s u r e s of s o i l , o r s o i l and w a t e r ,

i n cambination', which i n c r e a s e l i n e a r l y w i t h d e p t h and a r e e q u i v a l e n t t o t h o s e
t h a t would be produced by a heavy f l u i d of a s e l e c t e d u n i t weight.

Excess Pore P r e s s u r e s - That increment of pore water p r e s s u r e s g r e a t e r t h a n

h y d r o - s t a t i c v a l u e s , produced by c o n s o l i d a t i o n s t r e s s e s i n compressible m a t e -
r i a l s o r by s h e a r s t r a i n .

E x i t G r a d i e n t - The h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t ( d i f f e r e n c e i n p i e z o m e t r i c l e v e l s a t
two p o i n t s d i v i d e d by t h e d i s t a n c e between them) n e a r t o a n exposed s u r f a c e
through which seepage i s moving.

Plow S l i d e - Shear f a i l u r e i n which a s o i l mass moves over a r e l a t i v e l y l o n g

d i s t a n c e -in a f l u i d l i k e manner, o c c u r r i n g r a p i d l y on f l a t s l o p e s i n l o o s e ,
s a t u r a t e d , uniform s a n d s , o r i n h i g h l y s e n s i t i v e c l a y s .

H y d r o s t a t i c Pore P r e s s u r e s -
Pore water p r e s s u r e s o r groundwater p r e s s u r e s
e x e r t e d under c o n d i t i o n s of no flow where t h e magnitude of pore p r e s s u r e s
i n c r e a s e l i n e a r l y with depth below t h e ground s u r f a c e .

Isotropic Soil - A s o i l mass having e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same p r o p e r t i e s i n a l l

d i r e c t i o n s a t any given p o i n t , r e f e r r i n g d i r e c t i o n s a t any g i v e n p o i n t ,
r e f e r r i n g primarily t o s t r e s s - s t r a i n o r permeability c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
Normal Consolidation -
The c o n d i t i o n t h a t e x i s t s i f a s o i l d e p o s i t h a s never
been s u b j e c t e d t o an e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e e x i s t i n g overburden
p r e s s u r e and i f the d e p o s i t i s completely c o n s o l i d a t e d under t h e e x i s t i n g
overburden pressure.

Overconsolidation - The c o n d i t i o n t h a t e x i s t s i f a s o i l d e p o s i t h a s been sub-

j e c t e d t o an e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s g r e a t e r than t h e e x i s t i n g overburden pressure.

Piezometer - A d e v i c e i n s t a l l e d f o r measuring t h e p r e s s u r e head of pore water

a t a s p e c i f i c point w i t h i n t h e s o i l mass.

Piping - The movement of s o i l p a r t i c l e s . a s t h e r e s u l t of unbalanced seepage

f o r c e s produced by p e r c o l a t i n g water, l e a d i n g t o t h e development of b o i l s o r
e r o s i o n channels.

P l a s t i c Equilibrium -
The s t a t e of s t r e s s of a s o i l mass t h a t h a s been loaded
and de.formed t o such an e x t e n t t h a t i t s u l t i m a t e s h e a r i n g r e s i s t a n c e i s
mobilized a t one o r more points.

P o s i t i v e Cutoff -
The provision of a l i n e of t i g h t s h e e t i n g o r a b a r r i e r of
impervious m a t e r i a l extending downward t o an e s s e n t i a l l y impervious lower
boundary t o i n t e r c e p t completely t h e p a t h of s u b s u r f a c e seepage.

Primary Consolidation -
The compression of t h e s o i l under l o a d t h a t o c c u r s
w h i l e e x c e s s pore p r e s s u r e s d i s s i p a t e w i t h time.

Rippability -
The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of dense and rocky s o i l s t h a t can be exca-
v a t e d without b l a s t i n g a f t e r r i p p i n g w i t h a rock r a k e o r r i p p e r .

Slickensides -
Surfaces with a s o i l mass which heve been smoothed and s t r i a t e d
by s h e a r movements on t h e s e s u r f a c e s .

Standard P e n e t r a t i o n R e s i s t a n c e - The number of blows of a 140-pound hammer,

f a l l i n g 30 i n c h e s , r e q u i r e d t o advance a 2-inch O.D., s p l i t b a r r e l sampler 1 2
i n c h e s through a s o i l mass.

Total Stress - A t a given p o i n t i n a s o i l mass t h e sum of t h e n e t s t r e s s

a c r o s s c o n t a c t p o i n t s of s o i l p a r t i c l e s ( e f f e c t i v e s t r e s s ) p l u s t h e pore water
p r e s s u r e a t t h e point.

-
~ n ~ e r c o n s o l i d a t i o n The c o n d i t i o n t h a t e x i s t s i f a s o i l d e p o s i t i s n o t f u l l y
c o n s o l i d a t e d under t h e e x i s t i n g overburden p r e s s u r e and excess h y d r o s t a t i c
pore p r e s s u r e s e x i s t w i t h i n t h e m a t e r i a l .

Varved S i l t o r Clay -
A fine-grained g l a c i a l l a k e d e p o s i t w i t h a l t e r n a t i n g
t h i n l a y e r s of s i l t o r f i n e sand and c l a y , formed by v a r i a t i o n s i n sedimenta-
t i o n from w i n t e r t o summer during t h e year.
 SYMBOLS

Symbol Designation

A Cross-sectional area.
A,
av
B,b
A c t i v i t y of fine-grained s o i l .
.
C o e f f i c i e n t of c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y
Width i n g e n e r a l , o r narrow dimension of a foundation unit.
CBR C a l i f o r n i a Bearing Ratio.
cc Compression index f o r v i r g i n consolidation.
CD Consolidated-drained shear test.
Recompression index i n reconsolidation.
Swelling index.
Consolidated-undrained shear test.
C o e f f i c i e n t of uniformity of g r a i n size curve.
C o e f f i c i e n t of curvation of g r a d a t i o n curve.
C o e f f i c i e n t of secondary compression.
Cohesion i n t e r c e p t f o r Mohrls envelop of shear s t r e n g t h based on
t o t a l stresses.
Cohesion i n t e r c e p t f o r Mohr's envelope of shear s t r e n g t h based on
e f f e c t i v e stresses.
Horizontal c o e f f i c i e n t of consolidation.
V e r t i c a l c o e f f i c i e n t of consolidation.
Depth, diameter, o r distance.
Relative density.
E f f e c t i v e g r a i n s i z e of s o i l sample; 10% by dry weight of sample
i s smaller than t h i s g r a i n s i z e .
Grain s i z e d i v i s i o n of a s o i l sample, percent of dry weight
smaller than t h i s g r a i n s i z e i s i n d i c a t e d by s u b s c r i p t .
Modulus of e l a s t i c i t y o f s t r u c t u r a l material.
Modulus of e l a s t i c i t y o r "modulus of deformation" of s o i l .
Void r a t i o .
F i n a l void r a t i o reached i n loading phase of c o n s o l i d a t i o n test.
I n i t i a l void r a t i o i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n t e s t , g e n e r a l l y equal t o
n a t u r a l void i n s i t u .
Void r a t i o e x i s t i n g a t t h e s t a r t of rebound i n a c o n s o l i d a t i o n
test.
Shape f a c t o r describing t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e flow f i e l d i n
underseepage analysis.
Safety f a c t o r i n s t a b i l i t y o r shear s t r e n g t h a n a l y s i s .
S p e c i f i c g r a v i t y of s o l i d p a r t i c l e s i n s o i l sample, o r shear
modulus of s o i l .
I n general, height o r thickness. For a n a l y s i s of t i m e r a t e o f
consolidation, H i s t h e maximum v e r t i c a l dimension of t h e
drainage path f o r pore water.
C a p i l l a r y head formed by s u r f a c e tension i n pore water.
Depth of tension cracks o r t o t a l thickness of c o n s o l i d a t i n g
stratum o r depth used i n computing loads on tunnels.
Height of groundwater o r of open water above a base l e v e l .
Influence value f o r v e r t i c a l stress produced by superimposed
load, equals r a t i o of stresses a t a point i n t h e foundation
t o i n t e n s i t y of applied load.
Symbol Designation

Gradient of groundwater p r e s s u r e s i n underseepage a n a l y s i s .

C o e f f i c i e n t of a c t i v e e a r t h pressures.
C o e f f i c i e n t of p a s s i v e e a r t h p r e s s u r e s .
Modulus of subgrade r e a c t i o n f o r b e a r i n g p l a t e o r f o u n d a t i o n of
width b.
Modulus of subgrade r e a c t i o n f o r 1 f t s q u a r e b e a r i n g p l a t e a t
ground s u r f a c e .
k C o e f f i c i e n t of p e r m e a b i l i t y i n g e n e r a l .
kH C o e f f i c i e n t of p e r m e a b i l i t y i n h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n .
k, Mean c o e f f i c i e n t of p e r m e a b i l i t y of a n i s o t r o p i c s u b s o i l .
ksf Kips per sq f t p r e s s u r e i n t e n s i t y .
k si Kips per s q i n p r e s s u r e i n t e n s i t y .
kv C o e f f i c i e n t of p e r m e a b i l i t y i n v e r t i c a l d i r e c t i o n .
L,1 Length i n g e n e r a l o r l o n g e s t dimension of foundation u n i t .
LI L i q u i d i t y index.
LL Liquid l i m i t .
mv C o e f f i c i e n t of volume c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n t e s t .
n P o r o s i t y of s o i l sample.
"d Number of e q u i p o t e n t i a l drops i n flow n e t a n a l y s i s of under-
seepage.
E f f e c t i v e p o r o s i t y , p e r c e n t by volume of water d r a i n a b l e by
g r a v i t y i n t o t a l volume of s o i l sample.
Number of flow p a t h s i n flow n e t a n a l y s i s of underseepage.
Optimum moisture c o n t e n t of compacted s o i l .
Resultant a c t i v e e a r t h force.
Component of r e s u l t a n t a c t i v e f o r c e i n h o r i z o n t a l d i r e c t i o n .
Density i n pounds per c u b i c f o o t .
Preconsolidation s t r e s s .
Resultant horizontal e a r t h force.
E x i s t i n g e f f e c t i v e overburden p r e s s u r e a c t i n g a t a s p e c i f i c
h e i g h t i n t h e s o i l p r o f i l e o r on a s o i l sample.
P l a s t i c i t y index.
Plastic l i m i t .
Resultant passive e a r t h force.
Component of r e s u l t a n t p a s s i v e e a r t h f o r c e i n h o r i z o n t a l
d i r e c t ion.
Resultant v e r t i c a l e a r t h force.
R e s u l t a n t f o r c e of water p r e s s u r e .
I n t e n s i t y of a p p l i e d load.
I n t e n s i t y of v e r t i c a l l o a d a p p l i e d t o foundat ion uni t .
Unconfined compressive s t r e n g t h of s o i l sample.
Ultimate b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y t h a t c a u s e s s h e a r f a i l u r e of
foundation u n i t .
Radius of p i l e , c a i s s o n w e l l o r o t h e r r i g h t c i r c u l a r c y l i n d e r .
Radius of i n f l u e n c e of a w e l l , d i s t a n c e from t h e w e l l a l o n g a
r a d i a l l i n e t o t h e p o i n t where i n i t i a l groundwater l e v e l i s
unaltered .
E f f e c t i v e r a d i u s of sand d r a i n .
Radius of smear zone surrounding sand d r a i n .
Actual r a d i u s of sand d r a i n .
Percent s a t u r a t i o n of s o i l mass.
Shrinkage index.
Symbol Designation

Shrinkage l i m i t .
S e n s i t i v i t y of s o i l , e q u a l s r a t i o of remolded t o undisturbed
shear strength.
Shear s t r e n g t h of s o i l f o r a s p e c i f i c s t r e s s o r c o n d i t i o n i n s i t u ,
used i n s t e a d of s t r e n g h parameters c and 8 .
Time f a c t o r f o r time a t end of c o n s t r u c t i o n i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n
a n a-.l y s i s f o r g r a d u a l loading.
~ i m ef a c t o r i n c o n s o l i d a t i o n a n a l y s i s f o r i n s t a n t a n e o u s l o a d
application.
tsf Tons per sq f t p r e s s u r e i n t e n s i t y .
t,tl¶ Time i n t e r v a l s from s t a r t of l o a d i n g t o t h e p o i n t s 1, 2, o r n.
t 2 rtn
t50~t100 Time r e q u i r e d f o r a p e r c e n t c o n s o l i d a t i o n t o be completed
i n d i c a t e d by s u b s c r i p t
R e s u l t a n t f o r c e of pore water o r groundwater p r e s s u r e s a c t i n g on
a s p e c i f i c surface within the subsoils.
Average degree of c o n s o l i d a t i o n a t any t i m e .
I n t e n s i t y of pore water pressure.
Unconsolidated-undrained s h e a r t e s t .
Volume of a i r o r gas i n a u n i t t o t a l volume of s o i l mass.
Volume of s o l i d s i n a u n i t t o t a l volume of s o i l mass.
Volume of v o i d s i n a u n i t t o t a l volume of s o i l mass.
Volume of water i n a u n i t t o t a l volume of s o i l mass.
Weight of s o l i d s i n a s o i l utass o r s o i l sample.
T o t a l weight of s o i l mass o r s o i l sample.
Weight of water i n a s o i l mass o r s o i l sample.
Moisture c o n t e n t of s o i l .
Dry u n i t weight of s o i l
Maximum d r y u n i t weight of s o i l determined from m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t
d r y u n i t weight curve.
S a t u r a t e d u n i t weight of s o i l .
Submerged (buoyant) u n i t weight of s o i l mass.
Wet u n i t weight of s o i l above t h e groundwater t a b l e .
Unit weight of water, varying from 62.4 pcf f o r f r e s h water t o 6 4
pcf f o r s e a water.
Unit s t r a i n i n g e n e r a l .
Axial s t r a i n i n t r i a x i a l s h e a r t e s t .
Change i n void r a t i o corresponding t o a change i n e f f e c t i v e
s t r e s s , Ap.
Magnitude of s e t t l e m e n t f o r v a r i o u s c o n d i t i o n s .
Angle of i n t e r n a l f r i c t i o n o r "angle of s h e a r i n g r e s i s t a n c e , "
o b t a i n e d from Mohr's f a i l u r e envelope f o r s h e a r s t r e n g t h .
T o t a l major p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s .
T o t a l minor p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s
E f f e c t i v e major p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s
E f f e c t i v e minor p r i n c i p a l stress.
Normal s t r e s s e s i n c o o r d i n a t e d i r e c t i o n s .
I n t e n s i t y of s h e a r s t r e s s .
I n t e n s i t y of maximum shear s t r e s s .
Poisson's Ratio
 INDEX

E x p l o r a t i o n and sampling ( c o n t i n u e d )

A n i s o t r o p i c foundations........7.1-1 76 requirements ..............

Program. e x p l o r a t i o n .

...
Depths of t e s t b o r i n g s
7. 1-65
7. 1-65
See S t r e s s e s . E l a s t i c .

...............7. 1-137
Layered o r Anis t r o p i c
Atterberg l i m i t s
.........
.......
Check b o r i n g s 7. 1-71

See T e s t s . l a b o r a t o r y .
.
Index P r o p e r t i e s
Types of s t r a t a
..
.........
Layout of t e s t b o r i n g s .7. 1-65
7. 1-65

Final borings
Preliminary borings ...
Spacing requirements ..7. 1-65
7. 1-65
7. 1-65

Bibliography ...................7.1B.1 ....

Procedures. d e t a i l e d .
...
Sample p r e s e r v a t i o n
7. 1-73
7. 1-73
....
Sampling o p e r a t i o n 7. 1-63

Compaction tests ...............

7. 1-153
Sampling program
requirements ...........
Representative dry
7. 1-73

In-place d e n s i t y
Laboratory t e s t s
............
7. 1-109
............
7. 1-153 ...
samples .............7,1 -73
Undisturbed samples 7. 1-73
Computer Programs. L i s t i n g of ..7.1- A-1 Undisturbed samples.

obtaining ..............
equipment f o r

Undisturbed samples.
7. 1-73

D i s t r i b u t i o n of s t r e s s e s and
.................... obtaining ..............
....... 7. 1-73
pressures
. 7. 1-162
See S t r e s s e s and p r e s s u r e s
..............
Programs. e x p l o r a t i o n
Detailed exploration ..... 7. 1-49
7. 1-51
Drainage a n a l y s i s
.
See Seepage and d r a i n a g e
7. 1-260

........7. 1-151
Dynamic S o i l P r o p e r t i e s
P r e l i m i n a r y e x p l o r a t i o n ..7. 1-51
Reconnaissance
Remote Sensing Methods
...........
...... 7. 1-49
7. 1-51
Limitations
Sources
..............
.................. 7. 1-59
7. 1-51
..
.......
E x p l o r a t i o n and sampling
E x i s t i n g s o i l and g e o l o g i c a l
7. 1-49
Coverage and a e r i a l
photographs......... 7. 1-59

maps ......................
.....
Previous i n v e s t i g a t i o n s
7. 1-51
7. 1-51
S e r v i c e s . photo
interpretation ......
.............. 7. 1-59

Evaluation...............
Shipyard o r w a t e r f r o n t
7. 1-51
Utilization
.........
........
Flight s t r i p s
7. 1-51
7. 1-59

..................
areas
Geophysical methods ........ 7. 1-51
.7. 1-59
Sampling d e v i c e s ............
Interpretation 7. 1-59
7. 1-73

Limitations..............
......... 7. 1-65
Thick-wall. spoon.
auger. and c o r e b a r r e l
...............
Utilization
......
Check b o r i n g s

..............
Sources of e r r o r
7. 1-65
7. 1-65
7. 1-59
samplers
...
Core b a r r e l samples
7. 1-73
7. 1-80

...........
Advantages
..........
Applications
4.7.1-59
7. 1-59
T e s t borings ................
Thin-wall t u b e samplers ..7. 1-73

Procedures. s p e c i f i c..... 7. 1-65

7. 1-66
Groundwater measurements.
Penetration Resistance
... 7. 1-93 S e l e c t i o n of boring

Tests .....................
.....
Standard p e n e t r a t i o n
7. 1-85
7. 1-85
11~eth0d
Types
.................7.
.................... 1-66
7. 1-66
....
Cone p e n e t r a t i o n t e s t 7. 1-86
 Pressure on buried structures
......
Exploration and sampling (continued)
.........
Test its and trenches 7. 1.71 (continued)
Hand-cut samples
Machine excavation .......
7. 1-80
7. 1-72
Tunnels (continued)
In cohesive soil .........7. 1-196
Types ....................
7. 1-72 Pressures during
construction ........7. 1-198
Foundations. elastic. stress ...7. 1-162
construction
In rock
........7.7. 1-198
Pressures following

.................. 1-194
See Stresses and pressures
Frost. regional penetration
.
....
7. 1.39

...
Reservoir impermeabilization 7. 1.286

Glossary.......................7.1- G-1 Rock:

Reservoirs .
See Seepage and drainage.

Classification and descrip-

tion (see Soil and rock
Isotropic foundations ..........
7. 1-162 classification. Rock) .....
7. 1.19

infinite .
See Stresses. Elastic. Semi-
S
Sampling....................... 7.1-73
See Explorati~nand sampling
Sand drains. vertical .......... 7.1-246
Laboratory tests and test
properties ...................7. 1-117 accelerating .
See Settlement. Reducing or

Seepage and drainage analysis..7. 1.259

Applications
%;inage
................
at intermediate
7. 1-259

Mohr's circle of stress ........7. 1-161 depths ....................

Electro-osmosis .......... 7.1-282
7. 1-283
Methods ..................7. 1-279

Pore pressure analysis .........

. 7. 1-333 Settlement effects
Sheeted sumps
....
Construction controls.7.1-282

............ 7. 1-282
7.1-282
See Stability analysis
Pressure distribution ..........7. 1-161 Wellpoint systems ........
.............. 7. 1-279

Shafts. vertical ............

Pressure on buried structures..7. 1.161

..................7. 1-198
Analysis
Applicability
Capacity
.........
..............
7.1.282
7.1-282
7. 1-282
In clay
In sand ..................7.1-198
7. 1-198 ..............
..................
Drainage. deep 7. 1-279
Shallow pipes and conduits..7. 1-181
Conduits beneath embank-
..................
Methods
Pumping wells ............
..........
7. 1-283
7. 1-283
7. 1-283
ments
Joint rotation ........7. 1-190
7. 1-192
Applications
Relief wells
......
.............
Special methods .7.1-28 3.

sion ................
Longitudinal exten-

Selection of pipe .....7. 1-192

7. 1-192
Analysis..............
Applications..........
7. 1-283
7.1-283
7. 1-283
Pipe. concrete ...........
.....7. 1-184 Drainage. shallow. and
pressure relief ...........
Tunnels .....................
pipe. flexible steel
.....
7. 1-188
7. 1-192
7. 1-196 drainage ...............
Blanket. shallow
7. 1-275
7.1-275
In cohesionless soil
Permeability
..
Capacity of drainage 7.1-275
.......... 7. 1-275
Intercepting drains ...... 7. 1-279
Seepage and drainage analysis Settlement analysis (continued)
(continued) Reducing or accelerating settle-
Drainage. shallow. and pressure ment methods (continued)
relief (continued) Removal of compressible
Protective filters .......
Investigations required ..... 7. 1-271
7. 1-259 ..........
soil ...................7.
Displacement
1-241
7. 1-244
Reservoir impermeabili-
zation .................... 7. 1-286
Excavation ............
Sand drains. vertical .... 7. 1-244
7. 1-246
Seepage analysis
Flow net
............
................. 7. 1-259
7. 1-259
Allowance for smear
and disturbance ..... 7. 1-246
Groundwater pressures.7.1-259
Seepage quantity ...... 7. 1-262
Characteristics .......
.... 7. 1-246
...
Three-dimensional flow 7. 1-263
...
Seepage control by cutoff 7. 1-263
Consolidation rate
Construction control
........
7. 1-246

Grouted cutoff ...........7. 1-271

Impervious soil barriers.7. 1-271
requirements
Design requirements.
.............
7. 1-253

Methods ..................
Sheet piling .............7. 1-263
7. 1-263
general
Sand drains plus sur-
..............
7. 1-253

Applicability .........7. 1-263

Penetration required..7. 1.267
charge

Initial stresses
.
.........
7. 1-253
Stress . conditions analysis .7. 1-205
7. 1-205
Supplementary Added stresses com-
measures
Settlement analysis
............
............7. 1-267
7. 1-205
putation ............
Existing conditions
7. 1-209
Accelerating. settlements
methods ...................7. 1-241
evaluation ..........
Preconsolidation ...... 7. 1-209
7. 1-209
See Reducing or
accelerating . Underconsolidation
Swell magnitude
....
............. 7. 1-209
7. 1-253
...
Computation of settlement 7. 1.210
Differential settlement..7. 1-238
Cause ....................
Changes in capillary
7. 1-253
Structure rigidity
.............. stresses ............ 7. 1-255
effect

Tolerable settlement of
...7. 1-241
Values. approximate 7. 1-238
Reduction of over-
burden ..............
Time rate of settlement ..... 7. 1-254
7. 1-226
structures .............
Reduction of differ-
7. 1-238 Applications .............
...7. 1.226
.....
ential settlement -7.1-238
Structural criteria 7. 1-238
Compression. secondary 7. 1-231
Combining secondary
and primary consoli-
Consolidation mechanics
Reducing or accelerating
.....7. 1-205 dation ..............
Computation of settle-
7. 1-231

settlement methods
Balancing load by
........7. 1-241 ment ................
...7. 1-231
excavation .............
Computation of total
7. 1-244
Consolidation. primary 7. 1-223
Gradual load applica-
................
settlement ..........
Dewatering effect .....7. 1-244
7. 1-244
tion
...7. 1-231
Prediction accuracy 7. 1-226
Pressure distribution
Preconsolidation by sur-
charge .................7. 1-244
effect ..............
Two-layer system con-
7. 1-226
Elimination of pri- solidation
mary consolidation..7. 1-244 Shafts. vertical
..........
............... 7. 1-231
7. 1-198
Elimination of secon-.
dary compression
Limitations on sur-
....7. 1-246
See Pressures on buried
structures .
charge ...............7. 1-246
Slopes :
......
Embankment. p r o t e c t i o n 7. 1-338
S t a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s (continued)
Pore p r e s s u r e a n a l y i s ( c o n t i n u e d )
........
Stabilization (see
Stability analysis.
................... Methods
........
Seepage p r e s s u r e s
Slope S t a b i l i z a t i o n
..................
7. 1-333
.7. 1-335
7. 1-335
Slope)
...
S o i l and rock c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
.7. 1.335
7. 11. Regrading................
..... 7. 1-335

description ...............
Rock c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and

Soil deposits. principal .... 7. 1-19

7. 1-1
. . . . . .
Retaining s t r u c t u r e s
S t r e s s e s and ~ r e s s u r ed i s -
tribution ....................
7. 1-338

7. 1-161
Alluvial deposits ........
.........
Geologic o r i g i n s
7. 1-3
7. 1-1
E l a s t i c foundations s t r e s s
distribution.............. 7. 1 4 6 2
.....
.........
Major s o i l d i v i s i o n s
Organic d e p o s i t s
7. 1-2
7. 1-2
Layered o r a n i s t r o p i c
............
foundations 7. 1 4 7 5
Soil identification ......... 7. 1-7 Semi-infinite. i s o t r o p i c
............
Appearance and structure.7.1-7
Compactness ..............7.l
.....
Field c l a s s i f i c a t i o n 7. 1-7
-7
foundations
....
...
Assumed c o n d i t i o n s
Horizontal s t r e s s e s
7. 1-162
7. 1-162
7. 1-175
Special materials ...........
..........
Expansive s o i l s
7. 1-34
7. 1-34
........
Shear s t r e s s e s
V e r t i c a l stresses
7. 1-175

Permafrost
.........
Collapsing s o i l s
............... 7. 1-39
7. 1-39
beneath i r r e g u l a r
...............
loads 7. 1-163
.
Limestone ................
..............
Quick c l a y s
7. 1-39
7. 1-44
V e r t i c a l stresses
beneath r e g u l a r
Unified s o i l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n
system .................... 7. 1-9
...............
loads
.....
P o i n t stress c o n d i t i o n s
7. 1-163
7. 1-161
Utilization ..............
............. 7. 1-15 E f f e c t i v e and n e u t r a l
...............
Stability analysis
Applications ................
Failure varieties ...........
7. 1-309
7. 1-309
7. 1-309
stresses
..........
Applied Load
......
E f f e c t i v e stress
7. 1-161
7. 1-162
7. 1-162
M a t e r i a l s . s p e c i a l problems.7.1-335 Mohr's c i r c l e of s t r e s s ..7. 1-161
L o e s s i a l s i l t s and f i n e
sands .................. 7. 1-335 Swell magnitude
.............
S t a t e of s t r e s s
................ 7. 1-161
7. 1-253
Overconsolidated. See S e t t l e m e n t a n a l y s i s .
fissured clays ........
Cut s l o p e s and
.7. 1-335
Symbols
.
Swell
........................ 7.1- S-1
............
analysis
......
Old s l i d e masses
7. 1-335
7. 1-335

Talus
...
....................
S a t u r a t e d . l o o s e sands 7. 1-335
7. 1-335 Tests. e x p l o r a t i o n and
.........
Methods of a n a l y s i s
.........
Effective s t r e s s
7. 1-314
7. 1-333
sampling ...................
See E x p l o r a t i o n and
..7. 1-49

Procedures ...............
.... 7. 1-314 .
s ampl i n g
Earthquake l o a d i n g
Embankments on s o f t
................
clay
7. 1-329

7.1-318 Loads
.......
T e s t s . f i e l d . and measurements.7.1-49
Field instrumentation
.................... 7. 1-110
7. 1-112
...
Rotational f a i l u r e s
S a f e t y f a c t o r re-
7. 1-318 .....
Movement. h o r i z o n t a l
.......
Movement. v e r t i c a l
7. 1-110
7. 1-110
.............
quired
... 7.1-318 ...
P r e s s u r e s . groundwater 7. 1-93

.............
Translation f a i l u r e
Total s t r e s s
......
Pore P r e s s u r e a n a l y s i s
7. 1-318
7. 1-331
7. 1-333
H y d r o s t a t i c condi-
..............
tions
H y d r o s t a t i c excess
7.1-93

C o n s t r u c t i o n pore
pressures .............. 7. 1-333 Temperature
...........
pressures
.............. 7. 1-93
7. 1-112
T e s t s . f i e l d . and measurements T e s t s . l a b o r a t o r y . and test p r o p e r t i e s
(c o n t i n u e d ) (continued)
Measurement of s o i l proper-
..............
ties i n s i t u 7. 1-97
........
Shear s t r e n g t h tests
...
Laboratory s h e a r tests
7. 1-145
7. 1.145
. .

.........
In-place d e n s i t y
Penetration resistance ... 7. 1-109
7. 1-85
.....
...
Direct s h e a r test
T r i a x i a l s h e a r test
7. 1.145
7. 1.145
Permeability .............
Borehole p e r m e a b i l i t y
7. 1-103 Unconfined compres-
...........
s i o n test 7. 1.145
...............
tests
..........
Pumping t e s t
7. 1-103
7. 1-108
........
S e l e c t i o n of test
Tunnels. p r e s s u r e s on b u r i e d
7. 1.148

V a r i a b l e head permea-
.........
b i l i t y test 7. 1-108
structures ...................
See P r e s s u r e s on b u r i e d
7. 1.192

...........
Shear s t r e n g t h
T e s t s . l a b o r a t o r y . and t e s t
7. 1-97 structures. tunnels .
properties ...................
Compacted s o i l s tests ....... 7. 1-117
7. 1-153
C a l i f o r n i a b e a r i n g ratio.7.1-154
Moisture-density
relationships ..........
P r o c t o r t e s t . modi-
7. 1.153

................
fied
P r o c t o r test. s t a n -
7. 1-154

................
dard
Structural properties .... 7. 1-154
7. 1-154
.........
C o n s o l i d a t i o n tests
C o e f f i c i e n t of c o n s o l i -
7. 1-139

dation .................
Determination......... 7. 1-143
7. 1-143
Values. approximate
Compression. secondary
...
... 7. 1-143
7. 1-143
.....
Organic m a t e r i a l s
..
Values. approximate .7. 1-143
7. 1-143

Pressure. preconsolida-
tion ...................
Determination......... 7. 1-141
7. 1-141
Values. approximate...
Recompression and s w e l l ..7. 1.141
7. 1.141

Index. recompression ..7. 1-143

.......
Index. s w e l l i n g
.......
Sample d i s t u r b a n c e
7. 1-141
7. 1-143
Utilization ..............
Loading sequence ..... 7. 1-138
.7. 1-138
.......
Equipment. l a b o r a t o r y
...... 7.1-117

.........
Index p r o p e r t i e s tests
Atterberg l i m i t s
Gradation ................
7. 1.13
7.1-13,4
7. 1.137
plloistuiw c o n t e n t . u n i t
weight. s p e c i f i c
gravity
Permeability tests
................
.......... 7. 1-134
7. 1-137
S e l e c t i o n of t e s t f o r
design .................... 7. 1-117

U.S. GOVEIWMENT PRINTTNG OFFICE : 1984 0 .452-636