CONCEPT MAP

VOCABULARY ENHANCEMENT
COSMIC CALENDAR
Nonscientific Origin of the Universe
Bible and Q’ran (God separated light from darkness)
Rigveda (Oscillating universe)
Nonscientific Origin of the Universe
Modern Theories on the Origin of the Universe
Steady State
Big Bang
Multiverse
Oscillating Universe
BIG BANG
Much later on, electrons started to bind to ionized
protons and nuclei forming neutral atoms in a process called RECOMBINATION.
Gravity caused these atoms to collapse onto
one another to form stars and galaxies and
eventually, other matter. This still happens until today.
Space also continues to expand at an accelerating rate,
thus increasing the distance between the matters inside it.
RED SHIFT
RELATIVE ABUNDANCE
COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND
MULTIVERSE
OSCILLATING UNIVERSE
Among the non-scientific and scientific
theories on the origin of the universe, which do you believe the most? Why?

Our Solar System and Its Origin

What does the solar system look like from far away?
Clues - The Orbits of the Planets
Summary - What do the inner planets look like?
Summary - The Jovian Planets
Quantitative Planetary Facts
Terrestrial and Jovian Planets
The Kuiper Belt and the Oort Cloud
Common Characteristics and Exceptions of the Solar System
Common Characteristics and Exceptions
Planetary Nebula or Close Encounter?
Historically, two hypothesis were put forward to explain the formation of the solar system….
Gravitational Collapse of Planetary Nebula (Latin for “cloud”)
Solar system formed form gravitational collapse of an interstellar cloud or gas
Close Encounter (of the Sun with another star)
Planets are formed from debris pulled out of the Sun during a close encounter with another star. But, it
cannot account for
The angular momentum distribution in the solar system,
Probability for such encounter is small in our neighborhood…
The Nebular Theory* of Solar System Formation
A Pictorial History
The Interstellar Clouds
Collapse of the Solar Nebula
 • EARTH’S VITAL SIGNS
• What is the shape of Planet earth?
• How many seasons are there in planet Earth?
• How long does planet earth revolve completely around the sun?
• What is the nearest star on earth?
• What accounts for 70% of earth’s surface?
• What is the highest peak on earth?
• Where does Earth’s name mean?
• How old is the earth?
• How old is the earth?
• What is the only planet known to have life?
• If all the planets in the Solar System share the same origin with Earth, how come earth is the only planet that can
sustain life?
• Let’s investigate the location of planet Earth to see if it is a possible location for life to form!
• Galactic Neighborhood
 Galactic environment impacts habitability
 Milky Way galaxy’s edge is a life-favorable spot
 Not near active gamma ray source
 Not near galactic center with high star density and ionizing radiation
 Loneliness in galaxy is helpful for life
• Spectral Class of Star Needed for Life:
• Spectral class indicates photospheric temperature
• “HabStars” spectral range
• Early F to Mid-K
• 7000K to 4000K
• Emit high-frequency UV radiation to trigger atmospheric ozone formation
• Emits not so much that ionization destroys life
• Spectral Class of “Sun”
• Earth rotates around the star, the “Sun”
• Sun
• G2 star
• ~6,000K
• Sun is in “Habstar” range!
• Ozone can form in atmosphere
• Ionization is not deadly for life
• Low Stellar Variation?
 All stars change luminosity
 Stars vary in stability… stars that fluctuate luminosity violently are poor candidates for hosting life
 The Sun is relatively stable!
 Solar variation is ~.1% over 11-year cycle
 Slight variations dramatically impact Earth
 Little Ice Age – decline in Sun’s luminosity
• Now that we know the Sun star is a good candidate to support life, let’s look at planet Earth’s position relative to the
Sun!
• Habitable Zone
 Theoretical shell around a star where any planet present would have liquid water on its surface
 HZ range should not vary over time
 Stars increase luminosity as they age
 If this happens too quickly (super-massive star), planets are only in window for life for short amount
of time
 Lowers time to develop life
• The relative position of Earth appears capable of supporting life… so let’s look at the planet itself!
• Planet Characteristics that Support Life
Earth is a terrestrial planet, not a gas giant
• Mass of Planets need to be Just Right for Life
• Low Mass
• Bad news for life
• Lesser gravity – difficult for atmosphere retention
• Smaller planets lose energy from formation quickly geologically dead
• Approximately 0.3 Earth masses needed to sustain life
• High Mass
• Earth is largest by mass and density of terrestrial bodies in the Solar System
• Large enough for molten core (heat engine)
• Large enough for atmosphere through gravity
• Large enough for liquid outer core and metal inner core (magnetic field)
• Magnetic Fields and Life
• Does Earth have a Magnetic Field?
• Yes!
• Earth has solid metal core with liquid outer core, causing magnetic field
• Protects the Earth from solar wind
• Atmosphere and Life
• Atmosphere – layer of gases that surround a material body of sufficient mass
• Held by gravity
• Helps regulate temperature
• Protects planet from meteors and radiation
• Composition favors life (oxygen and carbon dioxide)
• Does Earth have an Atmosphere?
• Yes!
• Earth’s atmosphere is made up of
• Nitrogen (78%)
• Oxygen (20.9%)
• Argon (.93%)
• Carbon Dioxide (.0390%)
• This composition could support life
• Atmosphere absorbs/reflects harmful radiation
• Visible and Radio reach surface
• Composition of Planets
• Four elements vital for life
• Earth’s Composition?
• Tectonic Activity of Planet
• Supply surface with life-sustaining material
• Supply atmosphere with temperature moderators (CO2)
• Recycles important chemicals/materials
• Helps increase environmental complexity
• Earth is tectonically active!!
• The planet Earth itself looks hopeful for supporting life… what about it’s orbit and rotation?
• Life-Supporting Orbits
• Life-Supporting Orbits
• Life-Supporting Rotation
• Rotation around axis at tilt
• Planet should have moderate seasons or biospheric dynamism will disappear
• Without tilt, planet would be colder (warm weather could not move poleward)
• Should not be radically tilted because seasons would be extreme
• Speed of Rotation
• Should be relatively quick so day-night cycle is not too long (temperature differences if long
days/nights)
• Earth’s Rotation?
• SUMMARY
 • Earth COULD have life!
• HOWEVER,
• ESSAY
How does it feel that climate change due to human activity is threatening the very existence of life on this planet which is 13.8
billion years in the making?

 The Hydrosphere, Freshwater Distribution, and the Water Cycle

 What is the hydrosphere?
 The Hydrosphere
 The hydrosphere includes all water on or near the Earth’s surface
 This includes water in the oceans, lakes, rivers, wetlands, polar ice caps, soil, rock layers beneath Earth’s surface, and
clouds
 70% of the Earth’s surface is covered in water
 How is water formed on Earth?
 The Earth’s Water
 97.2% of all of the water on Earth is found in the oceans
 Due to the salt content of ocean water, we are unable to use it
 Salt water can be cleaned by a process known as desalination
 This leaves only 2.8% of the Earth’s water as freshwater
 Only 0.8% of which is drinkable
 Freshwater Distribution
 The 2.8% of freshwater is divided into:
 Glaciers and Ice Caps = 2.15%
 Groundwater = 0.62%
 Surface Water = 0.03%
 Surface Water Distribution
 The 0.03% of surface water is divided into:
 Lakes = 0.017%
 Soil = 0.005%
 Atmosphere = 0.001%
 This refers to water vapor in the air
 Streams = 0.0001%
 The previous percentages referred to all the world’s water but it can be adjusted to reflect percentages based on a
100% scale
 The Water Cycle
 Water constantly moves among the oceans, the atmosphere, the solid Earth, and the biosphere. This unending
circulation of Earth’s water supply is the water cycle
 Steps of the Water Cycle
 _____________________ – the process in which water pools in large bodies (like oceans, seas and lakes)
 _____________________ – the process in which water vapor (a gas) in the air turns into liquid water
 Process by which water forms clouds in the sky
 Process by which water drops form on the outside of a glass of icy water on a hot day
 _____________________ – the process in which liquid water becomes water vapor (a gas)
 Water vaporizes from the surfaces of oceans and lakes, from the surface of the land, and from melts in snow
fields
 Steps of the Water Cycle
 _____________________ – the process in which water (in the form of rain, snow, sleet, or hail) falls from clouds in the
sky
 _____________________ – the draining away of water (or substances carried in it) from the surface of an area
 _____________________ – the process in which some water within plants evaporates into the atmosphere
 Asteroid – Carbonaceous Chondrite
 Water is first absorbed by the plant's roots, then later exits by evaporating through pores in the plant.
 Earth’s Water
 How is water distributed on the Earth?
 97 % of the world’s Water supply is ocean (salt water).
 2 % of the world’s water supply is frozen in icecaps and glaciers.
 How is water distributed on the Earth?
 0.5 % of the world’s water supply is non-consumable water on land.
 0.5% of the world’s water supply is freshwater available for consumption.
 1. What two factors cause the ocean to become salty?
 2. What are the two minerals in the ocean water that make it salty?
 3. Reese said” Mr. Suber, how can we only have 0.5% of consumable fresh water on Earth, and not run out
of our fresh water supply?” Explain this.
 Earth’s Oceans
 All of the oceans are joined in a single large interconnected body of water called the world ocean. The world
ocean play important roles in the regulation of the planet’s environment.
 World’s Oceans
 Can you name the five world oceans?
 World’s Oceans
 Atlantic
 Pacific
 Indian
 Arctic
 Southern
 Pacific Ocean
 Atlantic Ocean
 Indian Ocean
 Arctic Ocean
 Southern Ocean
 Ocean Water
 The difference between ocean water and fresh water is that ocean water contains more salts.
 Salinity is a measure of the amount of dissolved salts in a given amount of liquid.
 The salinity can vary depending upon the amount of rain, temperature, and freshwater that flows into the
ocean.
 Deep water has a higher salinity because it is colder.
 Global Temperature Regulator
 One of the most important functions of the world ocean is to absorb and store energy from sunlight which in
turn regulates temperatures in Earth’s atmosphere.
 If the ocean did not regulate atmospheric and surface temperatures, temperatures would be too extreme for
life to exist on Earth.
 El Nino and La Nina
 El Nino- an episode-occurring every 3 to 7 years- of ocean warming that affects the eastern tropical Pacific;
warm counter currents become usually strong and replace normally cold off shore waters with warm
equatorial waters. Marked by abnormal weather patterns in Equador and Peru.
 La Nina- surface conditions in eastern Pacific are colder than average; can increase hurricane activity.
 Freshwater
 Fresh water is water that contains insignificant amounts of salts. It makes up 3% of the Earth’s water supply.
 Most of the fresh water is locked up in icecaps and glaciers while the rest is found in places like lakes, rivers,
wetlands, the soil and atmosphere.
 A river system is a network of streams that drains an area of land and contains all of the land drained by a
river including the main river and all its smaller streams or rivers that flow into larger ones, or tributaries.
 World’s Freshwater
 Groundwater: water that collects between bits of rock and soil.

 How does groundwater reach the Earth’s surface?
 Water may reach the surface through wells, springs, or geysers.
 What is the main difference between a spring and a geyser?
 What is the difference between a river and a lake or pond?
 Rivers or streams are running water.
 Lakes or ponds are still water.
 90% of the continental surface water is found in lakes.
 Are lakes fresh or salt water?
 Tributary- a stream that empties into another stream
 Running Water
 Streams are most important agents of erosion
 The ability of a stream to erode and transport depends on its velocity.
 Running Water
 Factors that determine velocity:
 Gradient - the slope or steepness of a stream channel. The steeper the gradient, the more energy the stream
has as it flows downhill.
 Channel characteristic - the course the water in a stream follows. As the water flows, it encounters friction
from the sides and the bottom. The amount of friction is affected by the shape, size, and roughness of the
channel.
 Discharge - the volume of water flowing past a certain point in a given unit of time.
 Meandering
 River Basin
 A large area that drains to the ocean
 Ex. Catawba River Basin
 Water Shed- a smaller area that drains to a certain area.
 Aquifer- An underground (groundwater) water source that we use
 Water quality of NC chemical, physical and biotic index
 Groundwater
 Rain and melting snow sink into the ground and run off the land. Most of this water trickles down through
the ground and collects as groundwater.
 Although it makes up only 1 percent of all the water on Earth, groundwater fulfills the human need for fresh
drinking water, and supplies agricultural and industrial need.
 Human Impact on the Hydrosphere
 Water Pollution
 Water Pollution
 Clean Water – A Life Sustaining Liquid
 Remember that freshwater makes up a very small fraction of all water available on Earth.
 Where does water pollution come from?
 Sources of Point Pollution
 23 million septic-tank systems
 190,000 storage lagoons for polluted waste
 9,000 municipal landfills
 About 2 million underground storage tanks containing pollutants such as gasoline
 Thousands of public and industrial wastewater treatment plants
 Sources of Nonpoint Pollution
 Highway construction and maintenance eroding soil and toxic chemicals
 Storm-water runoff from city or suburban streets: oil, gasoline. Dog feces, litter
 Pesticides from 112 million hectares of cropland treated with these substances each year.
 50 million tons of fertilizer applied to lawns and crops
 10 million tons of dry salt applied to highways for snow and ice
 Marine Water Pollution
 Where does pollution come from in our oceans?
 Wells
 Wells are dug or drilled to tap into underground water. With a “dug” well it is hard to prevent contamination
of the water.
 Drilled wells are made into underground aquifers. These are lined, sealed, and do a much better job of
keeping out microorganisms and chemicals.
 Problems with Wells
 Contamination by microorganisms or by chemicals.
 Soil salination – as the water table drops, the salt in the soil dries out which can cause a problem for nearby
vegetation.
 Aquifer Depletion
 Salt water intrusion-occurs when salt water moves in where fresh water should be located.
 Subsidence- When the land level falls due to loss of groundwater.
 Dams and Dam Removal
 Dams are used to provide drinking water, water for agriculture, generate hydroelectric power, and
recreational opportunities.
 Dams can also cause problems:
 Flooding of natural habitats upstream
 Fragmentation of migratory fish population
 Sedimentation behind dam can cause there to be less water available for hydroelectric power
 reservoir is a breeding ground for disease causing insects like mosquitoes.
 Disrupts the natural flow of streams and rivers.
 Dam Removal
 Dam removal benefits
 Avoid catastrophic dam failure
 Benefit aquatic life and migratory fish
 Restore downstream habitats
 Restore the natural flow of streams and rivers
 Importance of Water Conservation
 Goals of water conservation
 Sustainability: withdrawal of water should not exceed its natural replacement rate
 Energy conservation: pumping and treating water takes a lot of energy
 Habitat conservation
 Reduce water consumption per capita – use water more efficiently and responsibly
 NONRENEWABLE
AND
RENEWABLE
RESOURCES
 HMMMM....
 What do you think nonrenewable resources are?
 Break it down...
 Nonrenewable?
 Resource?
 NONRENEWABLE RESOURCES
 A nonrenewable resource is a natural resource that cannot be re-made or re-grown at a scale comparable
to its consumption.
 NUCLEAR ENERGY
 Nuclear fission uses uranium to create energy.
 Nuclear energy is a nonrenewable resource because once the uranium is used, it is gone!
 COAL, PETROLEUM, AND GAS
 Coal, petroleum, and natural gas are considered nonrenewable because they can not be replenished in a
short period of time. These are called fossil fuels.
 HOW IS COAL MADE ???
 HOW ARE OIL AND GAS MADE ???
 WHAT WAS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COAL AND OIL/GAS?
 HMMMM....
 If nonrenewable resources are resources that cannot be re-made at a scale comparable to its consumption,
what are renewable resources?
 RENEWABLE RESOURCES
 Renewable resources are natural resources that can be replenished in a short period of time.
 ● Solar ● Geothermal
 ● Wind ● Biomass
 ● Water
 SOLAR
 Energy from the sun.
 Why is energy from the sun renewable?
 GEOTHERMAL
 Energy from Earth’s heat.
 Why is energy from the heat of the Earth renewable?
 WIND
 Energy from the wind.
 Why is energy from the wind renewable?
 BIOMASS
 Energy from burning organic or living matter.
 Why is energy from biomass renewable?
 WATER or HYDROELECTRIC
 Energy from the flow of water.
 Why is energy of flowing water renewable?
 MINERALS
 General Classification of Nonrenewable Mineral Resources
 The U.S. Geological Survey classifies mineral resources into four major categories:
 Identified: known location, quantity, and quality or existence known based on direct evidence and
measurements.
 Undiscovered: potential supplies that are assumed to exist.
 Reserves: identified resources that can be extracted profitably.
 Other: undiscovered or identified resources not classified as reserves
 General Classification of Nonrenewable Mineral Resources
 Examples are fossil fuels (coal, oil), metallic minerals (copper, iron), and nonmetallic minerals (sand, gravel).
 GEOLOGIC PROCESSES
 Deposits of nonrenewable mineral resources in the earth’s crust vary in their abundance and distribution.
 A very slow chemical cycle recycles three types of rock found in the earth’s crust:
 Sedimentary rock (sandstone, limestone).
 Metamorphic rock (slate, marble, quartzite).
 Igneous rock (granite, pumice, basalt).

 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF USING MINERAL RESOURCES
 Minerals are removed through a variety of methods that vary widely in their costs, safety factors, and levels
of environmental harm.
 A variety of methods are used based on mineral depth.
 Surface mining: shallow deposits are removed.
 Subsurface mining: deep deposits are removed.
 Mining Regulations
 PHILIPPINE ENVIRONMENT LAWS - REPUBLIC ACT NO. 7942 ("Philippine Mining Act of 1995) - AN ACT
INSTITUTING A NEW SYSTEM OF MINERAL RESOURCES EXPLORATION, DEVELOPMENT, UTILIZATION, AND
CONSERVATION
 Policy
 Areas closed to mining
 Areas closed to mining
 Open-pit Mining
 Machines dig holes and remove ores, sand, gravel, and stone.
 Toxic groundwater can accumulate at the bottom.
 Area Strip Mining
 Earth movers strips away overburden, and giant shovels removes mineral deposit.
 Often leaves highly erodible hills of rubble called spoil banks.
 Contour Strip Mining
 Used on hilly or mountainous terrain.
 Unless the land is restored, a wall of dirt is left in front of a highly erodible bank called a highwall.
 Mountaintop Removal
 Machinery removes the tops of mountains to expose coal.
 The resulting waste rock and dirt are dumped into the streams and valleys below.
 THE MILLING PROCESS
 Environmental Impacts of Mining
 Acid Mine Drainage
 Erosion and Sedimentation
 Cyanide & Other Toxic Releases
 Dust Emissions
 Habitat Modification
 Surface and Groundwater Contamination
 Coal mining affects the environment
 Strip mining causes severe soil erosion and chemical runoff
 Acid drainage = sulfide minerals on exposed rock surfaces react with oxygen and rainwater to produce sulfuric
acid
 Mountaintop removal causes enormous damage
 Coal mining harms human health
 Subsurface mining is harmful to human health
 Mine shaft collapses
 Inhalation of coal dust can lead to fatal black lung disease
 Costs to repair damages of mining are very high
 These costs are not included in the market prices of fossil fuels, which are kept inexpensive by government
subsidies
 Mining companies must restore landscapes, but the impacts are still severe
 Looser of restrictions in 2002 allowed companies to dump rock and soil into valleys, regardless of the
consequences
 Now what do we do with it?
 Once the ore is mined and hauled to the surface, it must be processed
 Tailings are what is left behind once the valuable portion of the ore is removed.
 Gangue is the commercially worthless minerals associated with a valuable find.
 Mining Impacts
 Metal ores are smelted or treated with (potentially toxic) chemicals to extract the desired metal.
 Gold Processing
 Gold is treated with a Cyanide compound which produces a Gold-Cyanide complex which is soluble
 Problem: Hydrogen Cyanide gas is toxic
 Hyperaccumulation
 Hyperaccumulator plants accumulate inordinate amounts of one or more Trace Elements (TE)s in their above
ground biomass.
 Hyperaccumulators species may accumulate one or more of a range of TEs that currently includes nickel,
manganese, zinc, cadmium, thallium, copper, cobalt and arsenic.
 Hyperaccumulation may have applications in mining in the future.

 Mining Waste
 Subsidence is a phenomenon where the surface collapses directly above a subsurface mine.
 Spoils are the unwanted rock and other waste left over after mining either on the surface or subsurface
 Tailings are the materials left over after the process of separating the valuable fraction from the worthless
fraction of an ore.
 What to do with the waste
 Incorporate the mine waste into
 Concrete for buildings
 Backfill for roads
 Extraction of other minerals
 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF USING MINERAL RESOURCES
 The extraction, processing, and use of mineral resources has a large environmental impact.
 SUPPLIES OF MINERAL RESOURCES
 The future supply of a resource depends on its affordable supply and how rapidly that supply is used.
 A rising price for a scarce mineral resource can increase supplies and encourage more efficient use.
 SUPPLIES OF MINERAL RESOURCES
 Depletion curves for a renewable resource using three sets of assumptions.
 Dashed vertical lines represent times when 80% depletion occurs.
 SUPPLIES OF MINERAL RESOURCES
 New technologies can increase the mining of low-grade ores at affordable prices, but harmful environmental
effects can limit this approach.
 Most minerals in seawater and on the deep ocean floor cost too much to extract, and there are squabbles
over who owns them.
 Getting More Minerals from the Ocean
 Hydrothermal deposits form when mineral-rich superheated water shoots out of vents in solidified magma
on the ocean floor.
 USING MINERAL RESOURCES MORE SUSTAINABLY
 Scientists and engineers are developing new types of materials as substitutes for many metals.
 Recycling valuable and scarce metals saves money and has a lower environmental impact then mining and
extracting them from their ores.

 Controls
 Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977: regulates active coal mines and reclaims abandoned
mines
 Standards of Performance.
 Permitting.
 Bonding.
 Inspection and Enforcement.
 Land Restrictions.
 SMCRA
 SMCRA and its implementing regulations set environmental standards that mines must follow while
operating, and achieve when reclaiming mined land.
 Requirements
 SMCRA requires that companies obtain permits before conducting surface mining. Permit applications must
describe what the premining environmental conditions and land use are, what the proposed mining and
reclamation will be, how the mine will meet the SMCRA performance standards, and how the land will be
used after reclamation is complete. This information is intended to help the government determine whether
to allow the mine and set requirements in the permit that will protect the environment.
 Bonding. SMCRA requires that mining companies post a bond sufficient to cover the cost of reclaiming the
site. This is meant to ensure that the mining site will be reclaimed even if the company goes out of business
or fails to clean up the land for some other reason. The bond is not released until the mining site has been
 fully reclaimed and the government has (after five years in the East and ten years in the West) found the that
the reclamation was successful.
 Inspection and Enforcement. SMCRA gives government regulators the authority to inspect mining operations,
and to punish companies that violate SMCRA or an equivalent state statute. Inspectors can issue "notices of
violation," which require operators to correct problems within a certain amount of time; levy fines; or order
that mining cease.
 Land Restrictions. SMCRA prohibits surface mining altogether on certain lands, such as in National Parks and
wilderness areas. It also allows citizens to challenge proposed surface mining operations on the ground that
they will cause too much environmental harm.
 Case Study:
The Ecoindustrial Revolution
 Growing signs point to an ecoindustrial revolution taking place over the next 50 years.
 The goal is to redesign industrial manufacturing processes to mimic how nature deals with wastes.
 Industries can interact in complex resource exchange webs in which wastes from manufacturer become raw
materials for another.
 .

 3 Types of Rocks
 There are 3 different types of rocks;
 Igneous
 Sedimentary
 Metamorphic
 Igneous Rock
 Igneous rocks are formed by magma and lava as it cools. Igneous rocks form in two different ways.
 Rock that comes from lava cools very fast and can either be very light and airy or the rocks can be glassy.
 Rocks that come from magma are formed under ground. They are often times very hard and have more colors.
 Igneous rock
 Sedimentary Rock
 Sedimentary rock is made when sediments (sand, gravel, and dirt) are pressed together over time and become a rock
 Sedimentary rock is formed in layers.
 Sedimentary Rocks
 Metamorphic Rock
 Metamorphic rocks are made from other rocks.
 Heat and pressure help change an igneous or sedimentary rock into a new kind of rock (think about how a caterpillar
becomes a butterfly)
 The rock cycle
 Lets Rock!
 The Rock Cycle
 MINERAL RESOURCES