CHAPTER 2
Soil Formation
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2.1 INTRODUCTION
The variety of geomaterials encountered in engineering
problems is almost limitless, ranging from hard, dense,
large pieces of rock, through gravel, sand, silt, and clay
to organic deposits of soft, compressible peat. All these
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materials may exist over a wide range of densities and
water contents. A number of different soil types may
be present at any site, and the composition may vary
over intervals as small as a few millimeters.
It is not surprising, therefore, that much of the
geoengineer’s effort is directed at the identification of
soils and the evaluation of the appropriate properties
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for use in a particular analysis or design. Perhaps what
is surprising is that the application of the principles of
mechanics to a material as diverse as soil meets with
as much success as it does.
To understand and appreciate the characteristics of
any soil deposit require an understanding of what the
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material is and how it reached its present state. This
requires consideration of rock and soil weathering, the
erosion and transportation of soil materials, deposi-
tional processes, and postdepositional changes in sed-
py
iments. Some important aspects of these processes and
their effects are presented in this chapter and in Chap-
ter 8. Each has been the subject of numerous books
and articles, and the amount of available information
is enormous. Thus, it is possible only to summarize the
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subject and to encourage consultation of the references
for more detail.
2.2 THE EARTH’S CRUST
The continental crust covers 29 percent of Earth’s sur-
face. Seismic measurements indicate that the continen-
tal crust is about 30 to 40 km thick, which is 6 to 8
times thicker than the crust beneath the ocean. Granitic
Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons
(acid) rocks predominate beneath the continents, and
basaltic (basic) rocks predominate beneath the oceans.
Because of these lithologic differences, the continental
crust average density of 2.7 is slightly less than the
oceanic crust average density of 2.8. The elemental
compositions of the whole Earth and the crust are in-
dicated in Fig. 2.1. There are more than 100 elements,
but 90 percent of Earth consists of iron, oxygen, sili-
con, and magnesium. Less iron is found in the crust
than in the core because its higher density causes it to
sink. Silicon, aluminum, calcium, potassium, and so-
dium are more abundant in the crust than in the core
because they are lighter elements. Oxygen is the only
anion that has an abundance of more than 1 percent
by weight; however, it is very abundant by volume.
Silicon, aluminum, magnesium, and oxygen are the
most commonly observed elements in soils.
Within depths up to 2 km, the rocks are 75 percent
secondary (sedimentary and metamorphic) and 25 per-
cent igneous. From depths of 2 to 15 km, the rocks are
about 95 percent igneous and 5 percent secondary.
Soils may extend from the ground surface to depths of
several hundred meters. In many cases the distinction
between soil and rock is difficult, as the boundary be-
tween soft rock and hard soil is not precisely defined.
Earth materials that fall in this range are sometimes
difficult to deal with in engineering and construction,
as it is not always clear whether they should be treated
as soils or rocks.
A temperature gradient of about 1C per 30 m exists
between the bottom of Earth’s crust at 1200C and the
surface.1 The rate of cooling as molten rock magma
1
In some localized areas, usually within regions of recent crustal
movement (e.g., fault lines, volcanic zones) the gradient may exceed
20C per 100 m. Such regions are of interest both because of their
potential as geologic hazards and because of their possible value as
sources of geothermal energy.
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6 2 SOIL FORMATION

Other <1% Other <1%

Sodium 2.1% Sulfur 1.9%
100% Potassium 2.3% Nickel 2.4%
Calcium 2.4% Calcium 1.1%
90% Magnesium 4%
Magnesium 13%
Iron 6%
80% Aluminum 8%

70%
Iron 35%
60% Silicon 28%

50%
Aluminum 1.1%

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40%
Silicon 15%

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30%
Oxygen 46%
20%
Oxygen 30%
10%

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Figure 2.2 Geologic cycle.
0%
Earth's Crust Whole Earth
Figure 2.1 Elemental composition of the whole Earth and from some other area. Sediment formation pertains to
the crust (percent by weight) (data from Press and Siever, processes by which accumulated sediments are densi-
1994). dM fied, altered in composition, and converted into rock.
Crustal movement involves both gradual rising of
unloaded areas and slow subsidence of depositional ba-
moves from the interior of Earth toward the surface sins (epirogenic movements) and abrupt movements
has a significant influence on the characteristics of the (tectonic movements) such as those associated with
resulting rock. The more rapid the cooling, the smaller faulting and earthquakes. Crustal movements may also
are the crystals that form because of the reduced time result in the formation of new rock masses through
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for atoms to attain minimum energy configurations.
Cooling may be so rapid in a volcanic eruption that no
crystalline structure develops before solidification, and
an amorphous material such as obsidian (volcanic
glass) is formed.
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igneous or plutonic activity. The interrelationships of
these processes are shown in Fig. 2.3.
More than one process acts simultaneously in na-
ture. For example, both weathering and erosion take
place at the surface during periods of uplift, or oro-
genic activity (mountain building), and deposition, sed-

iment formation, and regional subsidence are generally

contemporaneous. This accounts in part for the wide
2.3 GEOLOGIC CYCLE AND GEOLOGICAL
variety of topographic and soil conditions in any area.
TIME
The surface of Earth is acted on by four basic proc-
py

esses that proceed in a never-ending cycle, as indi-

cated in Fig. 2.2. Denudation includes all of those pro-
cesses that act to wear down land masses. These in-
clude landslides, debris flows, avalanche transport,
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wind abrasion, and overland flows such as rivers and

streams. Weathering includes all of the destructive me-
chanical and chemical processes that break down
existing rock masses in situ. Erosion initiates the
transportation of weathering products by various
agents from one region to another—generally from
high areas to low. Weathering and erosion convert
rocks into sediment and form soil. Deposition involves
the accumulation of sediments transported previously Figure 2.3 Simplified version of the rock cycle.

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The stratigraphic timescale column shown in Fig.
2.4 gives the sequence of rocks formed during geolog-
ical time. Rocks are grouped by age into eons, eras,
periods, and epochs. Each time period of the column
is represented by its appropriate system of rocks ob-
served on Earth’s surface along with radioactive age
dating. Among various periods, the Quaternary period
(from 1.6 million years ago to the present) deserves
special attention since the top few tens of meters of
Earth’s surface, which geotechnical engineers often
work in, were developed during this period. The Qua-
ROCK AND MINERAL STABILITY 7
2.4 ROCK AND MINERAL STABILITY
Rocks are heterogeneous assemblages of smaller com-
ponents. The smallest and chemically purest of these
components are elements, which combine to form in-
organic compounds of fixed composition known as
minerals. Hence, rocks are composed of minerals or
aggregates of minerals. Rocks are sometimes glassy
(volcanic glass, obsidian, e.g.), but usually consist of
minerals that crystallized together or in sequence
(metamorphic and igneous rocks), or of aggregates

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ternary period is subdivided into the Holocene (the of detrital components (most sedimentary rocks).

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10,000 years after the last glacial period) and the Pleis-
tocene. The deposits during this period are controlled
mainly by the change in climate, as it was too short a
time for any major tectonic changes to occur in the
positions of land masses and seas. There were as many
Sometimes, rocks are composed entirely of one type
of mineral (say flint or rock salt), but generally they
contain many different minerals, and often the rock is
a collection or aggregation of small particles that are
themselves pieces of rocks. Books on petrography may

ate
as 20 glacial and interglacial periods during the Qua- list more than 1000 species of rock types. Fortunately,
ternary. At one time, ice sheets covered more than however, many of them fall into groups with similar
three times their present extent. Worldwide sea level engineering attributes, so that only about 40 rock
oscillations due to glacial and interglacial cycles affect names will suffice for most geotechnical engineering
soil formation (weathering, erosion, and sedimenta- purposes.
Minerals have a definite chemical composition and
solidation and leaching.
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tion) as well as postdepositional changes such as con-
an ordered arrangement of components (a crystal lat-
tice); a few minerals are disordered and without defin-
able crystal structure (amorphous). Crystal size and
structure have an important influence on the resistance
of different rocks to weathering. Factors controlling the
Eon Era Period Epoch stability of different crystal structures are considered
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in Chapter 3. The greatest electrochemical stability of

Holocene
Quaternary 0.01 a crystal is reached at its crystallization temperature.
Pleistocene
1.6 As temperature falls below the crystallization temper-
Pliocene
Neogene 5 ature, the structural stability decreases. For example,
Cenozoic Miocene
Tertiary

23 olivine crystallizes from igneous rock magma at high

Oligocene
35 temperature, and it is one of the most unstable igneous-
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Paleogene Eocene
57 rock-forming minerals. On the other hand, quartz does
Paleocene
65 not assume its final crystal structure until the temper-
Cretaceous
146 ature drops below 573C. Because of its high stability,
Phanerozoic Mesozoic Jurassic
208 quartz is the most abundant nonclay mineral in soils,
Triassic although it comprises only about 12 percent of igneous
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245
Permian rocks.
290
Pennsylvanian
323
As magma cools, minerals may form and remain, or
Mississippian
363
they may react progressively to form other minerals at
Paleozoic Devonian lower temperatures. Bowen’s reaction series, shown in
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409
Silurian Fig. 2.5, indicates the crystallization sequence of
439
Ordovician the silicate minerals as temperature decreases from
510
Cambrian 1200C. This reaction series closely parallels various
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Proterozoic
weathering stability series as shown later in Table 2.2.
2500 Precambrian For example, in an intermediate granitic rock, horn-
Archean blende and plagioclase feldspar would be expected to
chemically weather before orthoclase feldspar, which
Figure 2.4 Stratigraphic timescale column. Numbers repre- would chemically weather before muscovite mica, and
sent millions of years before the present. so on.

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8 2 SOIL FORMATION
Figure 2.5 Bowen’s reaction series of mineral stability. Each
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mineral is more stable than the one above it on the list.
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Mineralogy textbooks commonly list determinative
properties for about 200 minerals. The list of the most
ate
common rock- or soil-forming minerals is rather short,
however. Common minerals found in soils are listed in
Table 2.1. The top six silicates originate from rocks by
physical weathering processes, whereas the other min-
erals are formed by chemical weathering processes.
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Further description of important minerals found in
soils is given in Chapter 3.
2.5 WEATHERING
Weathering of rocks and soils is a destructive process
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whereby debris of various sizes, compositions, and
shapes is formed.2 The new compositions are usually
more stable than the old and involve a decrease in the
internal energy of the materials. As erosion moves the
ground surface downward, pressures and temperatures
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in the rocks are decreased, so they then possess an
internal energy above that for equilibrium in the new
environment. This, in conjunction with exposure to the
atmosphere, water, and various chemical and biological
agents, results in processes of alteration.
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A variety of physical, chemical, and biological proc-
esses act to break down rock masses. Physical proc-
esses reduce particle size, increase surface area, and
increase bulk volume. Chemical and biological proc-
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esses can cause complete changes in both physical and
chemical properties.
2
A general definition of weathering (Reiche, 1945; Keller, 1957) is:
the response of materials within the lithosphere to conditions at or
near its contact with the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, and perhaps
more importantly, the biosphere. The biosphere is the entire space
occupied by living organisms; the hydrosphere is the aqueous enve-
lope of Earth; and the lithosphere is the solid part of Earth.
Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons
Physical Processes of Weathering
Physical weathering processes cause in situ breakdown
without chemical change. Five processes are impor-
tant:
1. Unloading Cracks and joints may form to
depths of hundreds of meters below the ground
surface when the effective confining pressure is
reduced. Reduction in confining pressure may re-
sult from uplift, erosion, or changes in fluid pres-
sure. Exfoliation is the spalling or peeling off of
surface layers of rocks. Exfoliation may occur
during rock excavation and tunneling. The term
popping rock is used to describe the sudden spall-
ing of rock slabs as a result of stress release.
2. Thermal Expansion and Contraction The ef-
fects of thermal expansion and contraction range
from creation of planes of weakness from strains
already present in a rock to complete fracture.
Repeated frost and insolation (daytime heating)
may be important in some desert areas. Fires can
cause very rapid temperature increase and rock
weathering.
3. Crystal Growth, Including Frost Action The
crystallization pressures of salts and the pressure
associated with the freezing of water in saturated
rocks may cause significant disintegration. Many
talus deposits have been formed by frost action.
However, the role of freeze–thaw in physical
weathering has been debated (Birkeland, 1984).
The rapid rates and high amplitude of tempera-
ture change required to produce necessary pres-
sure have not been confirmed in the field. Instead,
some researchers favor the process in which thin
films of adsorbed water is the agent that promotes
weathering. These films can be adsorbed so
tightly that they cannot freeze. However, the wa-
ter is attracted to a freezing front and pressures
exerted during the migration of these films can
break the rock apart.
4. Colloid Plucking The shrinkage of colloidal
materials on drying can exert a tensile stress on
surfaces with which they are in contact.3
5. Organic Activity The growth of plant roots in
existing fractures in rocks is an important weath-
ering process. In addition, the activities of
worms, rodents, and humans may cause consid-
erable mixing in the zone of weathering.
3
To appreciate this phenomenon, smear a film of highly plastic clay
paste on the back of your hand and let it dry.
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 WEATHERING 9
Table 2.1 Common Soil Minerals

Name Chemical Formula Characteristics

Quartz SiO2 Abundant in sand and silt
Feldspar (Na,K)AlO2[SiO2]3 Abundant in soil that is not leached extensively
CaAl2O4[SiO2]2
Mica K2Al2O5[Si2O5]3Al4(OH)4 Source of K in most temperate-zone soils
K2Al2O5[Si2O5]3(Mg,Fe)6(OH)4
Amphibole (Ca,Na,K)2,3(Mg,Fe,Al)5(OH)2[(Si,Al)4O11]2 Easily weathered to clay minerals and oxides
Pyroxene (Ca,Mg,Fe,Ti,Al)(Si.Al)O3 Easily weathered

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Olivine (Mg,Fe)2SiO4 Easily weathered

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Epidote Ca2(Al,Fe)3(OH)Si3O12 Highly resistant to chemical weathering; used
Tourmaline NaMg3Al6B3Si6O27(OH,F)4 as ‘‘index mineral’’ in pedologic studies
Zircon ZrSiO4
Rutile TiO2
Kaolinite Si4Al4O10(OH)8

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Smectite, Mx(Si,Al)8(Al,Fe,Mg)4O20(OH)4, Abundant in clays as products of weathering;
vermiculite, where M ⫽ interlayer cation source of exchangeable cations in soils
chlorite
Allophane Si3Al4O12  nH2O Abundant in soils derived from volcanic ash
deposits
Imogolite Si2Al4O10  5H2O
Gibbsite
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Al(OH)3 Abundant in leached soils
Goethite FeO(OH) Most abundant Fe oxide
Hematite Fe2O3 Abundant in warm region
Ferrihydrate Fe10O15  9H2O Abundant in organic horizons
Birnessite (Na,Ca)Mn7O14  2.8H2O Most abundant Mn oxide
Calcite CaCO3 Most abundant carbonate
CaSO4  2H2O
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Gypsum Abundant in arid regions

Adapted from Sposito (1989).

Physical weathering processes are generally the the ion enables it to enter the lattice of minerals
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forerunners of chemical weathering. Their main con- and replace existing cations. For feldspar,
tributions are to loosen rock masses, reduce particle Orthoclase feldspar:
sizes, and increase the available surface area for chem-
ical attack. K silicate ⫹ H⫹OH⫺
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→ H silicate ⫹ K⫹OH⫺ (alkaline)

Chemical Processes of Weathering
Chemical weathering transforms one mineral to an- Anorthite:
other or completely dissolves the mineral. Practically
all chemical weathering processes depend on the pres- Ca silicate ⫹ 2H⫹OH⫺
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ence of water. Hydration, that is, the surface adsorption

of water, is the forerunner of all the more complex
chemical reactions, many of which proceed simulta-
neously. Some important chemical processes are listed
below.
1. Hydrolysis, probably the most important chemi-
cal process, is the reaction between the mineral
and H⫹ and (OH)⫺ of water. The small size of
→ H silicate ⫹ Ca(OH)2 (basic)
As water is absorbed into feldspar, kaolinite is
often produced. In a similar way, other clay min-
erals and zeolites (microporous aluminosilicates)
may form by weathering of silicate minerals as
the associated ions such as silica, sodium, potas-
sium, calcium, and magnesium are lost into so-

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10 2 SOIL FORMATION
lution.
Hydrolysis will not continue in the presence of
static water. Continued driving of the reaction to
the right requires removal of soluble materials by
leaching, complexing, adsorption, and precipita-
tion, as well as the continued introduction of H⫹
ions.
Carbonic acid (H2CO3) speeds chemical
weathering. This weak acid is formed by the so-
lution in rainwater of a small amount of carbon
dioxide gas from the atmosphere. Additional car-
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bonic acid and other acids are produced by the
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roots of plants, by insects that live in the soil,
and by the bacteria that degrade plant and animal
remains.
The pH of the system is important because it
influences the amount of available H⫹, the solu-
ate
bility of SiO2 and Al2O3, and the type of clay
mineral that may form. The solubility of silica
and alumina as a function of pH is shown in Fig.
2.6.
2. Chelation involves the complexing and removal
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of metal ions. It helps to drive hydrolysis reac-
tions. For example,
Muscovite:
K2[Si6Al2]Al4O20(OH)4 ⫹ 6C2O4H2 ⫹ 8H2O
→ 2K⫹ ⫹ 6C2O4Al⫹ ⫹ 6Si(OH)40 ⫹ 8OH⫺
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py
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Figure 2.6 Solubility of alumina and amorphous silica in
water (Keller, 1964b).
Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons
Oxalic acid (C2O4H2), the chelating agent, re-
leases C2O42⫺, which forms a soluble complex
with Al3⫹ to enhance dissolution of muscovite.
Ring-structured organic compounds derived from
humus can act as chelating agents by holding
metal ions within the rings by covalent bonding.
3. Cation exchange is important in chemical weath-
ering in at least three ways:
a. It may cause replacement of hydrogen on
hydrogen bearing colloids. This reduces the
ability of the colloids to bring H⫹ to unweath-
ered surfaces.
b. The ions held by Al2O3 and SiO2 colloids in-
fluence the types of clay minerals that form.
c. Physical properties of the system such as the
permeability may depend on the adsorbed ion
concentrations and types.
4. Oxidation is the loss of electrons by cations, and
reduction is the gain of electrons. Both are im-
portant in chemical weathering. Most important
oxidation products depend on dissolved oxygen
in the water. The oxidation of pyrite is typical of
many oxidation reactions during weathering
(Keller, 1957):
2FeS2 ⫹ 2H2O ⫹ 7O2 → 2FeSO4 ⫹ 2H2SO4
FeSO4 ⫹ 2H2O → Fe(OH)2 ⫹ H2SO4
(hydrolysis)
Oxidation of Fe(OH)2 gives
4Fe(OH)2 ⫹ O2 ⫹ 2H2O → 4Fe(OH)3
2Fe(OH)3 → Fe2O3  nH2O (limonite)
The H2SO4 formed in these reactions rejuvenates
the process. It may also drive the hydrolysis of
silicates and weather limestone to produce gyp-
sum and carbonic acid. During the construction
of the Carsington Dam in England in the early
1980s, soil in the reservoir area that contained
pyrite was uncovered during construction follow-
ing the excavation and exposure of air and water
of the Namurian shale used in the embankment.
The sulfuric acid that was released as a result of
the pyrite oxidation reacted with limestone to
form gypsum and CO2. Accumulation of CO2 in
construction shafts led to the asphyxiation of
workers who were unaware of its presence. It is
believed that the oxidation process was mediated
by bacteria (Cripps et al., 1993), as discussed fur-
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 WEATHERING 11
ther in the next section.
Many iron minerals weather to iron oxide
(Fe2O3, hematite). The red soils of warm, humid
regions are colored by iron oxides. Oxides can
act as cementing agents between soil particles.
Reduction reactions, which are of importance
relative to the influences of bacterial action and
plants on weathering, store energy that may be
used in later stages of weathering.
5. Carbonation is the combination of carbonate or
bicarbonate ions with earth materials. Atmos-

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pheric CO2 is the source of the ions. Limestone

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made of calcite and dolomite is one of the rocks
that weather most quickly especially in humid
regions. The carbonation of dolomitic limestone
proceeds as follows:

ate
CaMg(CO3)2 ⫹ 2CO2 ⫹ 2H2O
→ Ca(HCO3)2 ⫹ Mg(HCO3)2

The dissolved components can be carried off in

dM
water solution. They may also be precipitated at
locations away from the original formation.

Microbiological Effects
Several types of microorganisms are found in soils;
there are cellular microorganisms (bacteria, archea, al-
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gae, fungi, protozoa, and slime molds) and noncellular

microorganisms (viruses). They may be nearly round,
rodlike, or spiral and range in size from less than 1 to
100 m, which is equivalent to coarse clay size to fine
sand size. Figure 2.7a shows bacteria adhering to
quartz sand grains, and Fig. 2.7b shows clay minerals
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coating around the cell envelope, forming what are

called bacterial microaggregates.4 A few billion to 3
trillion microorganisms exist in a kilogram of soil near
the ground surface and bacteria are dominant. Micro-
organisms can reproduce very rapidly. The replication
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rate is controlled by factors such as temperature, pH,

ionic concentrations, nutrients, and water availability.
Under ideal conditions, the ‘‘generation time’’ for bac-
terial fission can be as short as 10 min; however, an
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hour scale is typical. These high-speed generation

rates, mutation, and natural selection lead to very fast
adaptation and extraordinary biodiversity.
Autotrophic photosynthetic bacteria, that is, photo-
Figure 2.7 Microogranisms attached to soil particle sur-
autotrophs, played a crucial role in the geological de-
faces: (a) bacteria attached to sand particle (from Robertson
et al. 1993 in Chenu and Stotzky, 2002), (b) bacterial mi-
croaggregate [from Robert and Chenu (1992) in Chenu and
4
Further details of how microorganisms adhere to soil surfaces are Stotzky (2002)], and (c) biofilm on soil surface (from Chenu
given in Chenu and Stotzky (2002). and Stotzky (2002).

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12 2 SOIL FORMATION
velopment of Earth (Hattori, 1973; McCarty, 2004).
Photosynthetic bacteria, cyanobacteria, or ‘‘blue-green
bacteria’’ evolved about 3.5 billion years ago (Proter-
ozoic era—Precambrian), and they are the oldest
known fossils. Cyanobacteria use energy from the sun
to reduce the carbon in CO2 to cellular carbon and to
obtain the needed electrons for oxidizing the oxygen
in water to molecular oxygen. During the Archaean
period (2.5 billion years ago), cyanobacteria converted
the atmosphere from reducing to oxidizing and
changed the mineral nature of Earth.
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Eukaryotic algae evolved later, followed by the mul-
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ticellular eukaryotes including plants. Photosynthesis
is the primary producer of the organic particulate mat-
ter in shale, sand, silt, and clay, as well as in coal,
petroleum, and methane deposits. Furthermore, cyano-
ate
bacteria and algae increase the water pH when they
consume CO2 dissolved in water, resulting in carbonate
formation and precipitation of magnesium and calcium
carbonates, leading to Earth’s major carbonate forma-
tions.
Aerobic bacteria live in the presence of dissolved
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oxygen. Anaerobic bacteria survive only in the absence
of oxygen. Facultative bacteria can live with or without
oxygen. Some bacteria may resort to fermentation to
sustain their metabolism under anaerobic conditions
(Purves et al., 1997). For example, in the case of an-
aerobic conditions, fermenting bacteria oxidize carbo-
hydrates to produce simple organic acids and H2 that
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are used to reduction of ferric (Fe3⫹) iron, sulfate re-
duction, and the generation of methane (Chapelle,
2001). Microbial energy metabolism involves electron
transfers, and the electron sources and acceptors can
be both organic and inorganic compounds (Horn and
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Meike, 1995). Most soil bacteria derive their carbon
and energy directly from organic matter and its oxi-
dation. Some other bacteria derive their energy from
oxidation of inorganic substances such as ammonium,
sulfur, and iron and most of their carbon from carbon
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dioxide. Therefore, biological activity mediates geo-
chemical reactions, causing them to proceed at rates
that are sometimes orders of magnitude more rapid
than would be predicted solely on the basis of the ther-
Co
mochemical reactions involved.
Bacteria tend to adhere to mineral surfaces and form
microcolonies known as biofilms as shown in Fig. 2.7c.
Some biofilms are made of single-type bacteria, while
others involve symbiotic communities where two or
more bacteria types coexist and complement each
other. For example, biofilms involved in rock weath-
ering may involve an upper aerobic layer, followed by
an intermediate facultative layer that rests on top of the
aerobic layer that produces the weathering agents
Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons
(e.g., acids) directly on the rock surface (Ehrlich,
1998). Biofilms bind cations in the pore fluid and fa-
cilitate nucleation and crystal growth even at low ionic
concentrations in the pore fluid (Konhauser and Urru-
tia, 1999). After nucleation is initiated, further mineral
growth or precipitation can occur abiotically, including
the precipitation of amorphous iron–aluminum sili-
cates and poorly crystallized claylike minerals, such as
allophone, imogolite, and smectite (Urrutia and Bev-
eridge, 1995; Ehrlich, 1999; Barton et al., 2001).
In the case of the Carsington Dam construction,
Cripps et al. (1993) hypothesized that autotrophic bac-
teria greatly accelerated the oxidation rate of the pyrite,
so that it occurred within months during construction.
The resulting sulfuric acid reacted with the drainage
blanket constructed of carboniferous limestone, which
then resulted in precipitation of gypsum and iron hy-
droxide, clogging of drains and generation of carbon
dioxide.
Weathering Products
The products of weathering, several of which will gen-
erally coexist at one time, include:
1. Unaltered minerals that are either highly resistant
or freshly exposed
2. Newly formed, more stable minerals having the
same structure as the original mineral
3. Newly formed minerals having a form similar to
the original, but a changed internal structure
4. Products of disrupted minerals, either at or trans-
ported from the site. Such minerals might include
a. Colloidal gels of Al2O3 and SiO2
b. Clay minerals
c. Zeolites
d. Cations and anions in solution
e. Mineral precipitates
5. Unused guest reactants
The relationship between minerals and different
weathering stages is given in Table 2.2. The similarity
between the order of representative minerals for the
different weathering stages and Bowen’s reaction se-
ries given earlier (Fig. 2.5) may be noted.
Contrasts in compositions between terrestrial and lu-
nar soils can be accounted for largely in terms of dif-
ferences in chemical weathering. Soils on Earth are
composed mainly of quartz and clay minerals because
the minerals of lower stability, such as feldspar, oli-
vine, hornblende, and glasses, are rapidly removed by
chemical weathering. On the Moon, however, the ab-
sence of water and free oxygen prevent chemical
weathering. Hence, lunar soils are made up mainly of
fragmented parent rock and rapidly crystallized
Retrieved from: www.knovel.com
 WEATHERING 13
Table 2.2 Representative Minerals and Soils Effects of Climate, Topography, Parent Material,
Associated with Weathering Stages Time, and Biotic Factors
The rate at which weathering can proceed is controlled
Weath- by parent material and climate. Topography, apart from
ering Representative its influence on climate, determines primarily the rate
Stage Minerals Typical Soil Groups of erosion, and this controls the depth of soil accu-
Early Weathering Stages mulation and the time available for weathering prior to
removal of material from the site. In areas of steep
1 Gypsum (also halite, Soils dominated by topography, rapid mechanical weathering followed by
sodium nitrate) these minerals in the rapid down-slope movement of the debris results in
2 Calcite (also dolomite fine silt and clay frac- formation of talus slopes (piles of relatively unweath-

l
apatite) tions are the youthful ered coarse rock fragments).

ria
3 Olivine-hornblende soils all over the Climate determines the amount of water present, the
(also pyroxenes) world, but mainly temperature, and the character of the vegetative cover,
4 Biotite (also glauco- soils of the desert and these, in turn, affect the biologic complex. Some
nite, nontronite) regions where limited general influences of climate are:

ate
5 Albite (also anorthite water keeps chemical
microcline, ortho- weathering to a mini- 1. For a given amount of rainfall, chemical weath-
clase) mum. ering proceeds more rapidly in warm than in cool
climates. At normal temperatures, reaction rates
Intermediate Weathering Stages approximately double for each 10C rise in tem-
perature.
6 Quartz Soils dominated by
7
dM
Muscovite (also illite) these minerals in the
2. At a given temperature, weathering proceeds
more rapidly in a wet climate than in a dry cli-
8 2⬊1 layer silicates (in- fine silt and clay frac- mate provided there is good drainage.
cluding vermiculite, tions are mainly those 3. The depth to the water table influences weather-
expanded hydrous of temperate regions ing by determining the depth to which air is
mica) developed under grass available as a gas or in solution and by its effect
Montmorillonite or trees. Includes the on the type of biotic activity.
hte

major soils of the 4. Type of rainfall is important: short, intense rains

wheat and corn belts erode and run off, whereas light-intensity, long-
of the world. duration rains soak in and aid in leaching.
Advanced weathering stages Table 2.3 summarizes geomorphologic processes in
10 Kaolinite Many intensely weath- different morphoclimatic zones. The nature and rate of
rig

11 Gibbsite ered soils of the warm these geomorphologic processes control landform as-
12 Hematite (also geothite, and humid equatorial semblages.
limonite) regions have clay During the early stages of weathering and soil for-
13 Anatase (also rutile, fractions dominated mation, the parent material is much more important
than it is after intense weathering for long periods of
py

zircon) by these minerals.

They are frequently time. Climate ultimately becomes a more dominant
characterized by their factor in residual soil formation than parent material.
infertility. Of the igneous rock-forming minerals, only quartz
and, to a much lesser extent, feldspar, have sufficient
Co

From Jackson and Sherman (1953).
glasses. Mineral fragments in lunar soils include pla-
gioclase feldspar, pyroxene, ilmenite, olivine, and po-
tassium feldspar. Quartz is extremely rare because it is
not abundant in the source rocks. Carrier et al. (1991)
present an excellent compilation of information about
the composition and properties of lunar soil.
chemical durability to persist over long periods of
weathering. Quartz is most abundant in coarse-grained
granular rocks such as granite, granodiorite, and
gneiss, where it typically occurs in grains in the mil-
limeter size range. Consequently, granitic rocks are the
main source of sand.
In addition to the microbiological activities dis-
cussed previously, biological factors of importance in-
clude the influences of vegetation on erosion rate and
the cycling of elements between plants and soils. Mi-

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

14 2 SOIL FORMATION

Table 2.3 Morphoclimatic Zones and the Associated Geomorphologic Processes

Mean Mean
Annual Annual
Morphoclimatic Temperature Precipitation
Zone (C) (mm) Relative Importance of Geomorphologic Processes
Glacial ⬍0 0–1000 Mechanical weathering rates (especially frost action)
high; chemical weathering rates low, mass
movement rates low except locally; fluvial action
confined to seasonal melt; glacial action at a

l
maximum; wind action significant

ria
Periglacial ⫺1 to 2 100–1000 Mechanical weathering very active with frost action at
a maximum; chemical weathering rates low to
moderate; mass movement very active; fluvial
processes seasonally active; wind action rates
locally high. Effects of the repeated formation and

ate
decay of permafrost.
Wet midlatitude 0–20 400–1800 Chemical weathering rates moderate, increasing to
high at lower latitudes; mechanical weathering
activity moderate with frost action important at
higher latitudes; mass movement activity moderate
to high; moderate rates of fluvial processes; wind
dM action confined to coasts.
Dry continental 0–10 100–400 Chemical weathering rates low to moderate;
mechanical weathering, especially frost action,
seasonally active; mass movement moderate and
episodic; fluvial processes active in wet season;
wind action locally moderate.
hte

Hot dry (arid 10–30 0–300 Mechanical weathering rates high (especially salt
tropical) weathering), chemical weathering minimum, mass
movement minimal; rates of fluvial activity
generally very low but sporadically high; wind
action at maximum.
Hot semidry 10–30 300–600 Chemical weathering rates moderate to low;
rig

(semiarid mechanical weathering locally active especially on

tropical) drier and cooler margins; mass movement locally
active but sporadic; fluvial action rates high but
episodic; wind action moderate to high.
Hot wet–dry 20–30 600–1500 Chemical weathering active during wet season; rates
py

(humid–arid of mechanical weathering low to moderate; mass

tropical) movement fairly active; fluvial action high during
wet season with overland and channel flow; wind
action generally minimum but locally moderate in
Co

dry season.
Hot wet 20–30 ⬎1500 High potential rates of chemical weathering;
(humid mechanical weathering limited; active, highly
tropical) episodic mass movement; moderate to low rates of
stream corrosion but locally high rates of dissolved
and suspended load transport.
Azonal Highly Highly Rates of all processes vary significantly with altitude;
Mountain variable variable mechanical and glacial action becomes significant at
zone high elevations.
From Fookes et al. (2000).

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com


crobial decomposition of the heavy layers of organic
matter in top soils formed through photosynthesis re-
sults in oxygen depletion and carbon oxidation back to
CO2, which is leached by rainwater that penetrates into
the subsurface. The high CO2 concentration, lowered
pH, and anaerobic nature of these penetrating waters
cause reduction and solutioning of iron and manganese
minerals, the reduction of sulfates, and dissolution of
carbonate rocks. If the moving waters become co-
mingled with oxygenated water in the ground, or as
groundwater emerges into rivers and streams, iron,
l
manganese, and sulfide oxidation results, and carbon-
ria
ate precipitation can occur (McCarty, 2004).
The time needed to weather different materials var-
ies greatly. The more unconsolidated and permeable
the parent material, and the warmer and more humid
the climate, the shorter the time needed to achieve
ate
some given amount of soil formation. The rates of
weathering and soil development decrease with in-
creasing time.
The time for soil formation from hard rock parent
materials may be very great; however, young soils can
dM
develop in less than 100 years from loessial, glacial,
and volcanic parent material (Millar et al., 1965). Py-
rite bearing rocks are known to break apart and un-
dergo chemical and mineral transformations in only a
few years.
hte
2.6 ORIGIN OF CLAY MINERALS AND CLAY
GENESIS
There are three general mechanisms of clay formation
by weathering (Eberl, 1984): (1) inheritance, (2) neo-
formation, and (3) transformation. Inheritance means
rig
that a clay mineral originated from reactions that oc-
curred in another area during a previous stage in the
rock cycle and that the clay is stable enough to remain
in its present environment. Origin by neoformation
means that the clay has precipitated from solution or
py
formed from reactions of amorphous materials. Trans-
formation genesis requires that the clay has kept some
of its inherited structure while undergoing chemical
reactions. These reactions are typically characterized
Co
by ion exchange with the surrounding environment
and/or layer transformation in which the structure of
octahedral, tetrahedral, or fixed interlayer cations is
modified.
The behavior of nonclay colloids such as silica and
alumina during crystallization is important in deter-
mining the specific clay minerals that form. Certain
general principles apply.5
5
The considerations in Chapter 6 provide a basis for these statements.
Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons
ORIGIN OF CLAY MINERALS AND CLAY GENESIS 15
1. Alkaline earths (Ca2⫹, Mg2⫹) flocculate silica.
2. Alkalis (K⫹, Na⫹, Li⫹) disperse silica.
3. Low pH flocculates colloids.
4. High electrolyte content flocculates colloids.
5. Aluminous suspensions are more easily floccu-
lated than siliceous suspensions.
6. Dispersed phases are more easily removed by
groundwater than flocculated phases.
Factors important in determining the formation of
specific clay minerals are discussed below. The struc-
ture and detailed characterization of these minerals are
covered in Chapter 3.
Kaolinite Minerals
Kaolinite formation is favored when alumina is abun-
dant and silica is scarce because of the 1⬊1 sil-
ica⬊alumina structure, as opposed to the 2⬊1 silica to
alumina structure of the three-layer minerals. Condi-
tions leading to kaolinite formation usually include low
electrolyte content, low pH, and the removal of ions
that tend to flocculate silica (Mg, Ca, Fe) by leaching.
Most kaolinite is formed from feldspars and micas by
acid leaching of acidic (SiO2-rich) granitic rocks. Ka-
olinite forms in areas where precipitation is relatively
high, and there is good drainage to ensure leaching of
cations and iron.
Halloysite forms as a result of the leaching of feld-
spar by H2SO4, which is often produced by the oxi-
dation of pyrite, as shown earlier. The combination of
conditions that results in halloysite formation is often
found in high-rain volcanic areas such as Hawaii and
the Cascade Mountains of the Pacific Northwest in the
United States.
Smectite Minerals
Smectites, because of their 2⬊1 silica⬊alumina struc-
ture, form where silica is abundant, as is the case
where both silica and alumina are flocculated. Condi-
tions favoring this are high pH, high electrolyte con-
tent, and the presence of more Mg2⫹ and Ca2⫹ than
Na⫹ and K⫹. Rocks that are high in alkaline earths,
such as the basic and intermediate igneous rocks, vol-
canic ash, and their derivatives containing ferromag-
nesian minerals and calcic plagioclase, are usual parent
materials. Climatic conditions where evaporation ex-
ceeds precipitation and where there is poor leaching
and drainage, such as in arid and semiarid areas, favor
the formation of smectite.
Illite (Hydrous Mica) and Vermiculite
Hydrous mica minerals form under conditions similar
to those leading to the formation of smectites. In ad-
dition, the presence of potassium is essential; so ig-
Retrieved from: www.knovel.com
16 2 SOIL FORMATION
neous or metamorphic rocks and their derivatives are
the usual parent rocks. Weathering of feldspar in cool
climates often leads to the development of illite. Al-
teration of muscovite to illite and biotite to vermiculite
during weathering is also a significant source of these
minerals. Interstratifications of vermiculite with mica
and chlorite are common. The high stability of illite is
responsible for its abundance and persistence in soils
and sediments.
Chlorite Minerals
l
Chlorites can form by alteration of smectite through
ria
introduction of sufficient Mg2⫹ to cause formation of
a brucitelike layer that replaces the interlayer water.
Biotite from igneous and metamorphic rocks may alter
to trioctahedral chlorites and mixed-layer chlorite–
ate
vermiculite. Chlorites also occur in low- to medium-
grade metamorphic rocks and in soils derived from
such rocks.
Discussion
dM
The above considerations are greatly simplified, and
there are numerous ramifications, alterations, and var-
iations in the processes. One clay type may transform
to another by cation exchange and weathering under
new conditions. Entire structures may change, for ex-
ample, from 2⬊1 to 1⬊1, so that montmorillonite forms
when magnesium-rich rocks weather under humid,
hte
moderately drained conditions, but then alters to kao-
linite as leaching continues. Kaolinite does not form in
the presence of significant concentrations of calcium.
The relative proportions of potassium and magne-
sium determine how much montmorillonite and illite
form. Some montmorillonites alter to illite in a marine
rig
environment due to the high K⫹ concentration. Mixed-
layer clays often form by partial leaching of K or
Mg(OH)2 from between illite and chlorite layers and
by incomplete adsorption of K or Mg(OH)2 in mont-
py
morillonite or vermiculite.
Further details of the clay minerals are given in
Chapter 3. More detailed discussions of clay mineral
formation are given by Keller (1957, 1964a & b), Wea-
ver and Pollard (1973), Eberl (1984), and Velde
Co
(1995), among others.
2.7 SOIL PROFILES AND THEIR
DEVELOPMENT
In situ weathering processes lead to a sequence of ho-
rizons within a soil, provided erosion does not rapidly
remove soil from the site. The horizons may grade
abruptly from one to the next or be difficult to distin-
Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons
guish. Their thickness may range from a few milli-
meters to several meters. The horizons may differ in
any or all of the following ways:
1. Degree of breakdown of parent material
2. Content and character of organic material
3. Kind and amount of secondary minerals
4. pH
5. Particle size distribution
All the horizons considered together, including the
underlying parent material, form the soil profile.6 The
part of the profile above the parent material is termed
the solum. Eluviation is the movement of soil material
from one place to another within the soil, either in
solution or in suspension as a result of excess precip-
itation over evaporation. Eluvial horizons have lost ma-
terial; illuvial horizons have gained material.
Master horizons are designated by the capital letters
O, A, B, C, and R (Table 2.4). Subordinate symbols
are used as suffixes after the master horizon designa-
tions to indicate dominant features of different kinds
of horizons, as indicated in the table. The O horizons
are generally present at the soil surface under native
vegetation, but they may also be buried by sedimen-
tation of alluvium, loess, or ash fall. The A horizon is
the zone of eluviation where humified organic matter
accumulates with the mineral fraction. The amount of
organic matters (fibers to humic/fulvic acids) varies
from 0.1 percent in desert soils to 5 percent or more
in organic soils and affects many engineering proper-
ties including compressibility, shrinkage, strength and
chemical sorption. The B horizon is the zone of illu-
viation where clay, iron compounds, some resistant
minerals, cations, and humus accumulate. The R ho-
rizon is the consolidated rock, and the C horizon con-
sists of the altered material from which A and B
horizons are formed.
Soil profiles developed by weathering can be cate-
gorized into three groups on the basis of their miner-
alogy and chemical composition as shown in Fig. 2.8
(Press and Siever, 1994). Pedalfers, which are formed
in moist climate, are soils rich in aluminum and iron
oxides and silicates such as quartz and clay minerals.
All soluble minerals such as calcium carbonate is
leached away. They have a thick A horizon and can be
found in much of the areas of moderate to high rainfall
in the eastern United States, Canada, and Europe. Ped-
ocals, which are formed in dry climate, are soils rich
6
Residual soil profiles should not be confused with soil profiles re-
sulting from successive deposition of strata of different soil types in
alluvial, lake, or marine environments.
Retrieved from: www.knovel.com
 SOIL PROFILES AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT 17
Table 2.4 Designations of Master Horizons and Subordinate Symbols for
Horizons of Soil Profiles

Master Horizons
O1 Organic undecomposed horizon
O2 Organic decomposed horizon
A1 Organic accumulation in mineral soil horizon
A2 Leached bleached horizon (eluviated)
A3 Transition horizon to B
AB Transition horizon between A and B—more like A in upper part
A and B A2 with less than 50% of horizon occupied by spots of B

l
ria
AC Transition horizon, not dominated by either A or C
B and A B with less than 50% of horizon occupied by spots of A2
B Horizon with accumulation of clay, iron, cations, humus; residual
concentration of clay; coatings; or alterations of original
material forming clay and structure

ate
B1 Transition horizon more like B than A
B2 Maximum expression of B horizon
B3 Transitional horizon to C or R
C Altered material from which A and B horizons are presumed to be
formed
R Consolidated bedrock
dM Subordinate Symbols
b Buried horizon
ca Calcium in horizon
cs Gypsum in horizon
cn Concretions in horizon
hte

f Frozen horizon
g Gleyed horizon
h Humus in horizon
ir Iron accumulation in horizon
m Cemented horizon
p Plowed horizon
rig

sa Salt accumulation in horizon

si Silica cemented horizon
t Clay accumulation in horizon
x Fragipan horizon
py

II, III, IV Lithologic discontinuities

A2, B2 Second sequence in bisequal soil
Adapted from Soil Survey Staff (1975).
Co

in calcium from the calcium carbonates and other sol-
uble minerals originated from sedimentary bedrock.
Soil water is drawn up near the surface by evaporation,
leaving calcium carbonate pellets and nodules. They
can be found in the southwest United States. Laterite,
which is formed in a wet, tropical climate, is rich in
aluminum and iron oxides, iron-rich clays, and alu-
minum hydroxides. Silica and calcium carbonates are
leached away from the soil. It has a very thin A ho-
rizon because most of the organic matter is recycled
from the surface to the vegetation.
Lithologic discontinuities may be common in land-
scapes where erosion is severe, and these discontinui-
ties are often marked by stone layers from previous
erosion cycles. In some places, soils have developed
several sequences of A and B horizons, which are su-
perimposed over each other. Superimposed soil se-
quences are likely the result of climate changes acting

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

18 2 SOIL FORMATION

Humus and Thin or absent

Humus and A leached soil humus
leached soil
(quartz and
A Thick masses of
clay minerals

l
present) Calcium insoluble iron and

ria
carbonate aluminum oxides;
Some iron and B pellets and occasional quartz
aluminium oxides nodules
B precipitated; all precipitated Iron-rich clays and
soluble materials,
such as aluminum

ate
carbonates, hydroxides
leached away

Sandstone, Thin leached zone

Granite
C bedrock C shale, and
limestone
bedrock
Mafic igneous
dM bedrock

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2.8 Major soil types: (a) Pedalfer soil profile developed on granite, (b) Pedocal soil
profile developed on sedimentary bedrock, and (c) Laterite soil profile developed on mafic
igneous rock (from Press and Siever, 1994).
hte

on uniform geologic materials, or are the remnants of chanical action. The transporting agents, for example,
former soil profiles (paleosoils) that have been buried water, wind, and ice, are by themselves capable only
under younger soils (Olson, 1981). of limited wearing action on rocks, but the process is
rig

reinforced when these agents contain particles of the

transported material.
2.8 SEDIMENT EROSION, TRANSPORT, AND Transportation of sediment requires first that it be
DEPOSITION picked up by the eroding agent. Greater average flow
velocities in the transporting medium may be required
py

Streams, ocean currents, waves, wind, groundwater,
glaciers, and gravity continually erode and transport
soils and rock debris away from the zone of weather-
ing. Each of these transporting agents may cause
Co
to erode than to transport particles. Particles are eroded
when the drag and lift of the fluid exceed the gravi-
tational, cohesive, and frictional forces acting to hold
them in place. The stream velocity required to erode

marked physical changes in the sediment it carries. Al-
though detailed treatment of erosion, transportation,
and depositional processes is outside the scope of this
book, a brief outline of their principles and their effects
on the transported soil is helpful in understanding the
properties of the transported material.
Erosion
Erosion includes all processes of denudation that in-
volve the wearing away of the land surface by me-
does not decrease indefinitely with decreasing particle
size because small particles remain within the bound-
ary layer adjacent to the stream bed where the actual
stream velocity is much less than the average velocity.
Relationships between particle size and average stream
velocity required to erode and transport particles by
wind and water are shown in Fig. 2.9.
Ice has the greatest competency for sediment move-
ment of all the transportation agents. There is no limit
to the size of particles that may be carried. Ice pushes

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com


l
ria
ate
Figure 2.9 Comparison of erosion and transport curves for
air and running water. The air is a slightly more effective
erosional agent than streams for very small particles but is
dM
ineffective for those larger than sand (from Garrels, 1951).
material along in front and erodes the bottom and sides
of the valleys through which it flows. In an active gla-
cier (Fig. 2.10), there is continuous erosion and trans-
hte
port of material from the region of ice accumulation
to the region of melting. A dead glacier has been cut
off from a feeding ice field.
rig
py
Co
Figure 2.10 Characteristics of glaciers (from Selmer-Olsen,
1964).
Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons
SEDIMENT EROSION, TRANSPORT, AND DEPOSITION 19
Transportation
The different agents of sediment transport are com-
pared in Table 2.5. The relative effect listed in the last
column of this table denotes the importance of the
agent on a geological scale with respect to the overall
amount of sediment moved, with one representing the
greatest amount.
Movement of sediment in suspension by wind and
water depends on the settling velocity of the particles
and the laws of fluid motion. Under laminar flow con-
ditions, the settling velocity of small particles is pro-
portional to the square of the particle diameter. For
larger particles and turbulent fluid flow, the settling ve-
locity is proportional to the square root of the particle
diameter. Particles stay in suspension once they have
been set in motion as long as the turbulence of the
stream is greater than the settling velocity.
The largest particles that can be transported by water
are carried by traction, which consists of rolling and
dragging along the boundary between the transporting
agent and the ground surface. Particles intermediate in
size between the suspended load and the traction load
may be carried by saltation, in which they move by a
series of leaps and bounds. Soluble materials are car-
ried in solution and may precipitate as a result of
changed conditions. The combined effects mean that
the concentration of sediment is not constant through
the depth of the transporting agent but is much greater
near the stream bed than near the top. Fine particles
may be fairly evenly distributed from top to bottom;
however, coarser particles are distributed mainly within
short distances from the bottom, as shown in Fig. 2.11,
which applies to a river following a straight course.
The major effects of transportation processes on the
physical properties of sediments are sorting and ab-
rasion. Sorting may be both longitudinal, which pro-
duces a progressive decrease in particle size with
distance from the source as the slope flattens, and lo-
cal, which produces layers or lenses with different
grain size distributions. Reliable prediction of the sort-
ing at any point along a sediment transport system is
complicated by the fact that flow rates vary from point
to point and usually with the seasons. Consequently,
very complex sequences of materials may be found in
and adjacent to stream beds.
Particle size and shape may be mechanically modi-
fied by abrasive processes such as grinding, impact,
and crushing during transportation. The abrading ef-
fects of wind are typically hundreds of times greater
than those of water (Kuenen, 1959). In general, abra-
sion changes the shape and size of gravel size particles
but only modifies the shapes of sand and smaller size
particles. Water-working of sands causes rounding and
Retrieved from: www.knovel.com
20 2 SOIL FORMATION

Table 2.5 Comparison of Sediment Transport Agents

Maximum
Size
Approximate Eroded by
Type of Average Average Max Load Type of Relative
Agent Flow Velocity Velocity Areas Affected per m3 Transport Effect
Streams Turbulent A few km/h Sand All land A few tens of Bed load, 1
kilograms suspended
load,

l
solution

ria
Waves Turbulent A few km/h Sand Coastlines A few tens of Same as 2
kilograms streams
Wind Turbulent 15 km/h Sand Arid, semiarid, A kilogram Bed load, 3
beaches, suspended
plowed fields load

ate
Glaciers Laminar A few m/yr Large High latitudes Hundreds of Bed load, 2
boulders and altitudes kilograms suspended
load,
surface
load
Groundwater Laminar A few m/yr Colloids Soluble material A kilogram Solution 3
dM and colloids
Gravity cm/yr to a Boulders Steep slopes, 2000 kg Bed load 3
few m/s sensitive
clays,
saturated
cohesionless
hte

soils,
unconsolidated
rock
Adapted from Garrels (1951).
rig

polishing of grains, and wind-driven impact can cause
frosting of grains. The shape and surface character of
particles influences a soil’s stress–deformation and
strength properties owing to their effects on packing,
py
ated with a beach environment, produce a relatively
smooth, pitted surface texture. Aeolian sands exhibit a
rougher surface texture, particularly over small dis-
tances. Some, but not all, river sands may have a very

volume change during shear, and interparticle friction.
Basic minerals, such as the pyroxenes, amphiboles,
and some feldspars, are rapidly broken down chemi-
cally during transport. Quartz, which is quite stable
Co
smooth particle surface that reflects the influence of
chemical action. Sand that has undergone change after
deposition and burial is termed diagenetic sand. Its
surface texture may reflect a long and stable period of

because of its resistant internal structure, may be mod-
ified by mechanical action, but only at a slow rate.
Quartz sand grains may survive a number of successive
sedimentation cycles with no more than a percent or
two of weight loss due to abrasion.
The surface textures of quartz sand particles reflect
their origin, as shown by the examples in Fig. 2.12 for
different sands, each shown to three or four magnifi-
cations. The mechanical and chemical actions, associ-
interaction with the groundwater. In some cases, very
rough surface textures can develop. Ottawa sand, a ma-
terial that has been used for numerous geotechnical
research investigations, is such a material.
Some effects of transportation on sediment proper-
ties are summarized in Table 2.6. The gradational
characteristics of sedimentary materials reflect their
transportation mode as indicated in Fig. 2.13. Sedi-
ments of different origins lie within specific zones of

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com


l
ria
ate
Figure 2.11 Schematic diagram of sediment concentration with depth in a transporting
stream.
dM
the figure, which are defined by the logarithm of the
ratio of 75 percent particle size to 25 percent particle
size and the median (50 percent) grain size.
hte
Deposition
Deposition of sediments from air and water is con-
trolled by the same laws as their transportation. If the
stream velocity and turbulence fall below the values
needed to keep particles in suspension or moving with
rig
the bed load, then the particles will settle. When ice
melts, the sediments may be deposited in place or car-
ried away by meltwater. Materials in solution can
precipitate when exposed to conditions of changed
temperature or chemical composition, or as a result of
py
evaporation of water. Sediments may be divided into
those formed primarily by chemical and biological
means and those composed primarily of mineral and
rock fragments. The latter are sometimes referred to as
Co
detrital or clastic deposits.
The deposition of sediments into most areas is cy-
clical. Some causes of cyclic deposition are:
1. Periodic earth movements
2. Climatic cycles of various lengths, most notably
the annual rhythm
3. Cyclic shifting of tributaries on a delta
4. Periodic volcanism
Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons
SEDIMENT EROSION, TRANSPORT, AND DEPOSITION 21
The thickness of deposits formed during any one
cycle may vary from less than a millimeter to hundreds
of meters. The period may range from months to
thousands of years, and only one or many types of
sediments may be involved.
One of the best known sediments formed by cyclical
deposition is varved clay. Varved clays formed in gla-
cial lakes during the ice retreat stage. Each layer con-
sists of a lighter-colored, summer-deposited clayey silt
grading into a darker winter-deposited silty clay.
Spring and summer thaws contributed clay and silt-
laden meltwater to the lake. The coarsest particles set-
tled first to form the summer layer. Because of the
much slower settling velocity of the clay particles,
most did not settle out until the quiet winter period. A
photograph of a vertical section through a varved clay
is shown in Fig. 2.14. The alternating coarser-grained,
light-colored layers and finer-grained, darker layers are
clearly visible. The shear resistance along horizontal
varves is much less than that across the varves. Also,
the hydraulic conductivity is much greater in the hor-
izontal direction than in the vertical direction. Exten-
sive deposits of varved clays are found in the northeast
and north central United States and eastern Canada.
Detailed description of the geology and engineering
properties of Connecticut Valley varved clay is given
by DeGroot and Lutenegger (2003).
Complex soil deposition processes occur along
coastlines, estuaries, and shallow shelves in relation to
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22 2 SOIL FORMATION
l
ria
ate
dM
hte
Figure 2.12 Surface textures of four sands of differing origins: (a) river sand, (b) beach
sand, (c) aeolian sand and (d) diagenetic sand (courtesy of Norris, 1975).
rig
the location of the shoreline. Soil deposits include fore-
shore sand and gravels, which are sorted by wave ac-
tions, organic deposits, and clays preserved in lagoons,
py
offshore fine sands, and muds. River channels may be
overdeepened, and soft sediments then accumulate to
form buried valleys. Most coastlines and estuaries of
the world were subject to sea level changes in the Qua-
Co
ternary period. In particular, the post glacial rise of sea
level, which ended about 6000 years ago, has had a
worldwide influence on the present-day coastal forms.
Figure 2.15 shows alternating layers of marine (Ma)
and fluvial (Diluvial-D) sediments in the geotechnical
profile down to 400 m depth below sea level at Osaka
Bay, Japan (Tanaka and Locat, 1999). The observed
variation corresponds well to the local relative sea level
during its geological history up to 1 million years ago.
Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons
Chemical and biochemical sediments may consist of
one or two kinds of materials. For example, calcium
carbonate sediments are made of calcite, which origi-
nates from the shells of organisms in the deep sea (Fig.
2.16a). Some clays contain significant amounts of mi-
crofossils due to the depositional environment as
shown in Fig. 2.16b; such clays include Mexico City
clay (Diaz-Rodriguez et al., 1998), Ariake clay (Oht-
subo et al., 1995), and Osaka Bay clay (Tanaka and
Locat, 1999). The microfossils include diatoms (sili-
ceous skeleton of eukarya cells in either freshwater or
marine environments), radiolaria (found in marine en-
vironments and consisting mostly of silica), and for-
manifera (calcium carbonate shell secreted by marine
eukarya). The presence of microfossils can have a pro-
found effect on the behavior of the soil mass, confer-
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l
ria
ate
dM
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Figure 2.12 (Continued )
rig
ring unusual geotechnical properties that deviate from
general property expectations, including high porosity,
high liquid limit, unusual compressibility, and uniquely
high friction angle. For examples, see Tanaka and Lo-
py
cat (1999) and Locat and Tanaka (2001).
While streams and rivers produce deposits according
to grain size, a glacier transports the finest dust and
large boulders side by side at the same rate of move-
Co
ment. If the material remains unsorted after deposition,
it is called till. A mixture of all grain sizes from boul-
ders to clays is known as boulder clay, which is a
difficult material to work with because large boulders
may damage excavation equipment.
Loess, which is a nonstratified aeolian deposit, is
probably the single most abundant Quaternary deposit
on land. It consists of silt with some small fraction of
clay, sand, and carbonate. It originated during the Qua-
Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons
SEDIMENT EROSION, TRANSPORT, AND DEPOSITION 23
ternary period from glacial out wash and deglaciated
till areas. The deposits are spread widely and blanket
preexisting landforms. The deposits are up to 30 m
thick in the Missouri and Rhine River Valleys, more
than 180 m thick in Tajikistan, and up to 330 m thick
in northern China.
Depositional Environment
The environment of deposition determines the complex
of physical, chemical, and biological conditions under
which sediments accumulate and consolidate. The
three general geographical depositional environments
are continental, mixed continental and marine, and ma-
rine. Continental deposits are located above the tidal
reach and include terrestrial, paludal (swamp), and
lacustrine (lake) sediments. Mixed continental and
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24 2 SOIL FORMATION

Table 2.6 Effects of Transportation on Sediments

Water Air Ice Gravity

Size Reduction through solution, little Considerable Considerable Considerable
abrasion in suspended load, some reduction grinding and impact
abrasion and impact in traction impact
load
Shape and Rounding of sand and gravel High degree of Angular, soled Angular, non-
roundness rounding particles spherical
Surface texture Sand: smooth, polished, shiny Impact produces Striated surfaces Striated surfaces

l
Silt: little effect frosted

ria
surfaces
Sorting Considerable sorting Very considerable Very little sorting No sorting
sorting
(progressive)

ate
Adapted from Lambe and Whitman (1969).

dM
hte
rig
py
Co

Figure 2.13 Influence of geologic history on sorting of particle sizes (adapted from Selmer-
Olsen, 1964).

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 POSTDEPOSITIONAL CHANGES IN SEDIMENTS 25

l
ria
ate
Figure 2.14 Vertical section through varved clay from the
New Jersey meadowlands (courtesy of S. Saxena).

dM
hte

Figure 2.16 Biochemical sediments: (a) Dogs Bay calcium

carbonate sand (courtesy of E. T. Bowman) and (b) diatoms
rig

observed in Osaka Bay clay (courtesy of Y. Watabe).

environments (Locat et al., 2003). Characteristic soil

py

types and properties associated with these depositional

environments are described in Chapter 8.
Figure 2.15 Soil profile of Osaka Bay showing alternating
Co

marine (Ma) and fluvial (Diluvial-D) layers (modified from

Tanaka and Locat, 1999).
marine deposits include littoral (between the tides),
deltaic, and estuarine sediments. Marine deposits are
located below the tidal reach and consist of continental
shelf (neritic), continental slope and rise (bathyal), and
deep ocean (abyssal) sediments. Table 2.7 summarizes
main soil deposits that are formed in various types of
2.9 POSTDEPOSITIONAL CHANGES IN
SEDIMENTS
Between the time a sediment is first laid down and the
time it is encountered in connection with some human
activity, it may have been altered as a result of the
action of any one or more of several postdepositional
processes. These processes can be physical, chemical,
and/or biological. They occur because the young sed-
iment is not necessarily stable in its new environment

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26 2 SOIL FORMATION

Table 2.7 Depositional Environment of Various Soil Deposits

Deposits Environment Type Texture

Transported Air Aeolian sand Sand
Water
Shallow river Fluvial (glacio-) Sand and gravel
Alluvial (glacio-) Silt and sand
Shallow lake Littoral Sand and gravel
Muskeg Peat—organic
Deep lake Lacustrine (glacio-) Silt and clay

l
Flow deposits Clay to gravel

ria
Marls Silt (fossils)
Shallow ocean Estuarine Silt and clay
Littoral Silt and sand
Shelf Silt and clay
Deep ocean Pelagic Silt and clay

ate
Oozes—calcareous Silt and clay
Oozes—siliceous Silt and clay
Flow Clay to gravel
Glacier Subglacial till Clay to boulders
Supraglacial till Sand to boulders
Residual Land Tropical soils Clay to sand
dM Saprolite Clay to boulders
Decomposed granite Clay to boulders
Colluvial soils Clay to boulders
Chemical and biochemical Lake Evaporites (sakkas)
Sea Evaporites
Limestone
hte

Gas hydrates
Adapted from Locat et al. (2003).

where the material is exposed to new conditions of solidation pressure greater than present overburden ef-
rig

temperature, pressure, and chemistry. An understand-
ing of postdepositional changes is essential for under-
standing of properties, interpreting soil profile data,
and in reconstructing geologic history. A brief outline
py
fective pressure) at shallow depths. Other important
mechanisms include partial consolidation under in-
creased overburden and the effects of weathering.

of the processes is presented here; their effects on en- Weathering

gineering properties are described in more detail in
Chapter 8. Weathering and soil-forming processes are initiated in
new sedimentary deposits after exposure to the atmo-
sphere, just as they are on freshly exposed rock. In
Co

Desiccation some instances, weathering can result in improvement

The drying of fine-grained sediments is usually accom-
panied by shrinkage and cracking. Precompression of
the upper portions of clay layers by drying is fre-
quently observed. The effects of desiccation on the
strength and water content variations with depth in
London clay from the Thames estuary are shown in
Fig. 2.17. Care must be exercised in interpreting pro-
files of this type because drying is only one of several
possible causes of apparent overconsolidation (precon-
in properties or protection of underlying material. For
example, the weathering of uplifted marine clays can
lead to the replacement of sodium by potassium as the
dominant exchange cation (Moum and Rosenqvist,
1957). This increases both the undisturbed and re-
molded strength. Water content and strength data for a
Norwegian marine clay profile are shown in Fig. 2.18.
It may be seen that the upper 5 m of clay, which have
been weathered, have water content and strength var-

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 l
ria
ate
dM
hte
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py
Co

Figure 2.17 Properties of Thames estuary clay. The overconsolidation in the upper 10 ft
was caused by surface drying (Skempton and Henkel, 1953).
27

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28 2 SOIL FORMATION

l
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dM
hte
rig
py

Figure 2.18 Clay characteristics at Manglerud in Oslo, Norway (Bjerrum, 1954).

Co

iation characteristics similar to those of the Thames Consolidation and Densification

estuary clay (see Fig. 2.17). In the case of the Nor-
wegian clay, however, the plasticity values have also
changed in the upper 5 m, providing evidence of
changed composition. Weathering of the surface of
some loess deposits has resulted in the formation of a
relatively impervious loam that protects the underlying
metastable loess structure from the deleterious effects
of water.
Consolidation (termed compaction in geology) of fine-
grained sediments occurs from increased overburden,
drying, or changes in the groundwater level so that the
effective stress on the material is increased. Deposits
of granular material may be affected to some extent in
the same way. More significant densification of cohe-
sionless soil occurs, however, as a result of dynamic
loading such as induced by earthquakes or the activi-

Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons Retrieved from: www.knovel.com


ties of humans. The usual effects of consolidation are
to increase strength, decrease compressibility, increase
swell potential, and decrease permeability.
Even under constant effective stress conditions,
structural readjustments and small compressions may
continue for long periods owing to the viscous nature
of soil structures. This ‘‘secondary compression’’ pro-
vides an additional source of increased strength with
time.
Unloading
l
Erosion of overlying sediments due to glacial process
ria
leads to mechanical overconsolidation. A typical ex-
ample of this is London clay, a marine clay deposited
during the Eocene period. The erosion took place in
late Tertiary and Pleistocene times and the amount of
ate
erosion is estimated to be about 150 m in Essex
(Skempton, 1961) to 300 m in the Wraybury district
(Bishop et al., 1965). After the unloading, small re-
loading occurred by new deposition of gravels in the
late Quaternary period. Within the London clay, five
major transgressive–regressive cycles are recognized
dM
during its deposition. The postdepositional processes
are site specific; that is, the degree of weathering and
desiccation and the amount of erosion vary depending
on location. This variation in depositional and post-
depositional processes results in complex mechanical
behavior (Hight et al., 2003).
hte
Authigenesis, Diagenesis, Cementation, and
Recrystallization
Authigenesis is the formation of new minerals in place
after deposition. Authigenesis can make grains more
angular, lower the void ratio, and decrease the per-
rig
meability. Small crystals and rock fragments may grow
into aggregates of coarser particles.
Diagenesis refers to such phenomena as changes in
particle surface texture, the conversion of minerals
from one type to another, and the formation of inter-
py
particle bonds as a result of increased temperature,
pressure, and time. Many diagenetic changes are con-
trolled by the pH and redox potential of the deposi-
tional environment. With increasing depth of burial in
Co
a sedimentary basin, clayey sediments may undergo
substantial transformation. Expansive clay minerals
can transform to a nonexpansive form, for example,
montmorillonite to mixed layer to illite, as a result of
the progressive removal of water layers under pressure
(Burst, 1969). Burial depths of 1000 to 5000 m may
be required, and the transformation process appears
thermally activated as a result of the increased tem-
perature at these depths. Chlorite can form in mud and
shale during deep burial (Weaver and Pollard, 1973).
Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons
POSTDEPOSITIONAL CHANGES IN SEDIMENTS 29
The long-term stability of different clay minerals under
conditions of elevated temperature and pressure and in
different chemical environments is important relative
to the use of clays as containment barriers for nuclear
and toxic wastes. Diagenesis studies of locked sands
show crystal overgrowths caused by pressure solution
and compaction (Barton, 1993; Richards and Burton,
1999).
Cementation has important effects on the properties
and stability of many soil materials. Cementation is not
always easily identified, nor are its effects always read-
ily determined quantitatively. It is known to contribute
to clay sensitivity, and it may be responsible for an
apparent preconsolidation pressure. Removal of iron
compounds from a very sensitive clay from Labrador,
Canada, by leaching led to a 30-ton/m2 decrease in
apparent preconsolidation pressure (Kenney et al.,
1967). Coop and Airey (2003) show for carbonate soils
that cementation develops soon after deposition and
enables the soil to maintain a loose structure.
Failure to recognize cementation has resulted in con-
struction disputes. For example, a soil on a major proj-
ect was marked on the contract drawings as glacial
till. It proved to be so hard that it had to be blasted.
The contractor claimed the soil was cemented because
during digging failure took place through pebbles as
well as the clay matrix. The owner concluded that this
happened because the pebbles were weathered. Proper
evaluation of the material before the award of the con-
tract could have avoided the problem.
Clay particles adhere to the surfaces of larger silt
and sand particles, a process called clay bounding.
Eventually the larger grains become embedded into a
clay matrix and their influence on the geotechnical be-
havior becomes limited. The clay bounding provides
arching of interparticle forces, maintaining a large void
ratio even at high effective stresses.
Time Effects
Even freshly deposited or densified sands can develop
significant increases in strength and stiffness over rel-
atively short time periods, that is, by a factor of 2 or
more within a few months (Mitchell and Solymar,
1984). Time effects and the aging of both cohesive
and cohesionless soils are analyzed and reviewed
by Schmertmann (1991). Uncertainty remains as to
whether the mechanisms for the observed increases in
apparent preconsolidation pressure, strength, and stiff-
ness are chemical, physical, or both. Research is con-
tinuing on this important aspect of soil behavior so that
it will be possible to predict both the amount and the
rate of property changes for use in the analysis of geo-
technical problems. The aging process is of particular
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30 2 SOIL FORMATION
interest in connection with hydraulic fills and ground
improvement projects, more details are given in Chap-
ter 12.
Leaching, Ion Exchange, and Differential Solution
Postdepositional changes in pore fluid chemistry can
result from the percolation of different fluids through
a deposit. This may change the forces between col-
loidal particles. For example, the uplift of marine clay
above sea level followed by freshwater leaching can
lead to both ion exchange and the removal of dissolved
l
salts. This process is important in the formation of
ria
highly sensitive, quick clays, as discussed in more de-
tail in Chapter 8.
Materials can be removed from sediments by differ-
ential solution and subsequent leaching. Calcareous
ate
and gypsiferous sediments are particularly susceptible
to solution, resulting in the formation of channels, sink
holes, and cavities.
Jointing and Fissuring of Clay Soils
dM
Some normally consolidated clays, almost all flood-
plain clays, and many preconsolidated clays are weak-
ened by joints and fissures. Joints in floodplain clays
result from deposition followed by cyclic expansion
and contraction from wetting and drying. Joints and
fissures in preconsolidated clays result from unloading
or from shrinkage cracks during drying. Closely
hte
spaced joints in these types of clays may contribute to
slides some years after excavation of cuts. The unload-
ing enables joints to open, water to enter, and the clay
to soften.
Fissures have been found in normally consolidated
clays at high water contents that could not have been
rig
caused by drying or unloading (Skempton and Northey,
1952), and increased brittleness has been observed in
soft clay chunks that have been stored for some time.
These effects may be caused by syneresis, which is the
mutual attraction of clay particles to form closely knit
py
aggregates with fissures between them. Similar behav-
ior is many times observed in gelatin after aging.
Weathering and the release of potassium may also re-
sult in fissuring.
Co
Vegetation, especially large trees, can cause shrink-
age and fissuring of clays (Barber, 1958; Holtz, 1983).
The root systems suck up water, causing large capillary
shrinkage pressures. When rain falls on crusted surface
layers of dried-up saline lakes, it is rapidly absorbed
by capillarity. The air may become so compressed that
it causes tension cracking or blowouts in a form similar
in appearance to root holes. These sediments may also
undergo severe cracking, apparently as a result of
Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons
shock. Cracks up to 2 ft wide, of unknown depth, and
spaced several meters apart have caused damage to
buildings and highways.
Biological Effects
Biological activity affects soil particles by modifying
their arrangement, aggregating them, weathering min-
eral surfaces, mediating oxidation–reduction reactions,
contributing to precipitation and dissolution of miner-
als, and degrading organic particles. The survival and
activity of microorganisms are controlled partly by
pore geometry and local physicochemical conditions.
Therefore, apart from its impact on life itself, biolog-
ical activity has influenced the evolution of the earth
surface, impacted mineral, sediment, and rock forma-
tion, accelerated the rate of rock weathering and al-
tered its products, influenced the composition of
groundwater, and participated in the formation of gas
and petroleum hydrocarbons.
Bioturbance refers to the action of organisms living
on or in sediments. By organic cementation, they mod-
ify grain size, density, or cohesion (Richardson et al.,
1985; Locat et al., 2003). The aggregation activity of
various worms densifies deposits by changing the grain
size of the sediment. Tubes that form can provide local
drainage and decrease the bulk density. The active zone
of bioturbance is usually to depths less than 30 cm.
Sticky organic mucus or polymer bridging binds to-
gether clay–silt particles, producing clusters.
Chemical transformation processes are mediated by
organisms. Some notable processes are summarized as
follows (Mitchell and Santamarina, 2005):
1. Sulfur Cycle Elemental sulfur (S0) and sulfides
(S2⫺) are the stable forms of sulfur under anaer-
obic conditions, whereas sulfates (SO42⫺) are the
stable forms of sulfur under aerobic conditions.
Sulfides form under anaerobic conditions from
sulfates already present in seawater and sedi-
ments or introduced by diffusion and ground-
water flow. The sulfate ion is not reduced to
sulfide at Earth surface temperature and pressure
unless biologically mediated. Sulfate-reducing
bacteria are anaerobic and grow best at neutral
pH but are known to exist over a broad range of
pH and salt content. When exposed to aerobic
conditions, reduced sulfur compounds, hydrogen
sulfides (H2S), and elemental sulfur are used as
an energy source by sulfide-oxidizing bacteria
and converted to sulfates.
2. Iron Cycle Iron in the subsurface exists pre-
dominantly in the reduced or ferrous (Fe2⫹) state
Retrieved from: www.knovel.com

or the oxidized ferric (Fe3⫹) state. Several micro-
organisms such as the genus Thiobacillus medi-
ate the iron oxidation reaction. Chapelle (2001)
notes that bacteria are able to derive only relative
little energy from oxidizing Fe2⫹; therefore, they
must process large amounts of Fe2⫹ and produce
large amounts of Fe3⫹ to obtain sufficient energy
to sustain their growth.
One important consequence of the rapid oxidation
of iron sulfide in the presence of oxygen is the for-
mation of acid rock drainage. Although Fe(OH)3 has
l
ria
low solubility, the formation of H2SO4 provides a
source of important reactions in the solid and pore wa-
ter phases. The total dissolved solids increases owing
to the dissolution of carbonates in the soil. Gypsum
can form, with an associated volume increase, at the
ate
expense of carbonate minerals. The precipitated ferric
hydroxide is thermodynamically unstable and rapidly
transforms to yellow goethite, FeO–OH. Geothite,
while stable under wet conditions, will slowly dehy-
drate to red hematite, Fe2O3, under dry conditions.
Microorganisms have a limited effect on the for-
dM
mation of coarse grains. However, bioactivity can af-
fect diagenetic evolution, promote the precipitation of
cementing agents, cause internal weathering, and alter
fines migration, filter performance, and drainage in
silts and sands.
Severely water-limited environments distress micro-
organisms and hinder biological activity. Nonetheless,
hte
there is great bacterial activity in the unsaturated or-
ganic surface layer of a soil where plant roots are
found. Fierer et al. (2002) observed that bacterial ac-
tivity decreases by 1 or 2 orders of magnitude by 2 m
of depth. Horn and Meike (1995) conclude that micro-
rig
bial activity requires 60 to 80 percent saturation.
Hence, there is less reduction in bacterial count with
depth in saturated sediments. Hindered biological ac-
tivities in unsaturated soils may reflect lack of nutrients
in isolated water at menisci, slow nutrient flow in per-
py
colating water paths, and increased ionic concentration
in the pore fluid as water evaporates and dissolved salts
approach ion saturation conditions.
The physical scales over which the physicochemical,
Co
bioorganic, and burial diagenetic processes act range
from atomic dimensions to kilometers, and the time-
scales range from microseconds to years. Table 2.8
summarizes the processes, fabric characteristics, and
scales associated with different mechanisms.
Human Effects
The global human population has grown from approx-
imately 600 million at the beginning of the eighteenth
Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons
POSTDEPOSITIONAL CHANGES IN SEDIMENTS 31
century to close to 6 billion today. Human activities
are now at such a scale as to rival forces of nature in
their influence on soil changes. The activities include
rapid changes in land use and the associated landforms,
soil erosion related to forest removal, and soil contam-
ination by urbanization, mining, and agricultural activ-
ities. Ten to 15 percent of Earth’s land surface is
occupied by industrial areas and agriculture, and an-
other 6 to 8 percent is pasture land (Vitousek et al.,
1997).
Mine wastes are the largest waste volumes produced
by humankind. On October 21, 1966, 144 people, 116
of them children, were killed when a tip of coal waste
slid onto the village of Aberfan in South Wales, United
Kingdom. The collapse was caused by tipping of coal
waste over a natural underground spring, and the coal
slag slowly turned into a liquid slurry. The tragedy was
caused by two days of continual heavy rain loosening
the coal slag. As a result of the disaster at Aberfan,
the Mines and Quarries Tips Act of 1969 was intro-
duced. This act was passed in order to prevent disused
tips from becoming a danger to members of the public.
Over 8000 million tons of ore have been mined in
the South African deep-level underground gold mining
industry (Blight et al., 2000). Considerations for dis-
posing these wastes into tailings ponds and dams in-
clude the physicochemical nature of the extracted
minerals as well as the topography and climate of the
disposal sites. Tailings dams have failed, resulting in
destructive mudflows (Blight, 1997). One reported case
was the failure of the Merriespruit ring-dyke gold tail-
ings dam in South Africa in 1994, which killed 17
people in a village nearby. Overtopping of the tailings
dyke occurred after a significant rainfall event, and ap-
proximately 500,000 m3 of tailings flowed through this
breach. The liquefied tailings flowed for a distance of
about 2 km. A large volume of tailings was in a me-
tastable state in situ, and overtopping and erosion of
the impoundment wall exposed this material, resulting
in static liquefaction of the tailings and a consequent
flow failure (Fourie et al., 2001).
The urban underground in major cities is congested
by utility lines, tunnels, and building foundations.
Much may be more than 100 years old; for example,
more than 50 percent of the water supply pipes in Lon-
don were built using cast-iron during Victorian time.
Aging infrastructure changes the in situ stress condi-
tion, as well as groundwater chemistry, and this can
lead to changes in the stress–strain–time behavior of
the subsoil. Underground openings are sources or sinks
of different environments; tunnels can act as a ground-
water drain as well as source for air into the ground.
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32 2 SOIL FORMATION

Table 2.8 Summary of Processes and of the Fabric Signature and Temporal Scales Associated with Various
Mechanisms

Fabric
Signaturesa Physical
Processes Mechanisms (predominant) Scales Time Remarks
Physicochemical Electromechanical EF Atomic and s to ms Two particles may rotate
molecular to FF
⬃ 4 m
Thermomechanical FF Molecular to  ms to min Initial contacts EF then

l
(some EF) 0.2 mm rotations to FF:

ria
common in selective
environments
Interface dynamics FF and EF m to ⬃ 0.5 s Some large compound
mm particles may be
possible at high

ate
concentrations
Bioorganic Biomechanical EF ⬃ 0.5 mm to s to min Some FF possible
⬎ 2.0 mm during bioturbation
Biophysical EE and FF m to mm s to min Some very large clay
organic complexes
possible
dM
Biochemical Nonunique m to mm h to yr New chemicals formed,
(unknown) some altered
Burial Mass gravity FF localized cm to km  yr Can operate over large
diagenesis swirl physical scales
Diagenesis- Nonunique Molecular  yr New minerals formed,
cementation (unknown) some altered, changes
hte

in morphology
a
EF, edge-to-face; EE, edge-to-edge; FF, face-to-face.
Adapted from Mitchell and Santamarina (2005) and Bennett et al. (1991).
rig

Detailed studies of the geotechnical impacts of such
problems have, so far, been limited (e.g., Gourvenec
et al., 2005), and further studies of the impacts of aging
on existing infrastructure are needed.
py
to infer clay mineral types, to detect the presence of
organic and high clay content layers, to locate borrow
materials for construction, and to estimate the depth to
unaltered parent material. Pedological data can be used

to surmise compositions and soil physical properties.

Transported soils are sorted, abraded, and have par-
2.10 CONCLUDING COMMENTS ticle surface textures that reflect the transporting me-
dium. Conditions of sedimentation and the depositional
Knowledge of geologic and soil-forming processes environment influence the grain size, size distribution,
Co

aids in anticipating and understanding the probable
composition, structure, properties, and behavior of a
soil. Along with site investigation data, characteri-
zation of the landforms, that is, understanding of the
former and current geomorphological processes asso-
ciated with the past and present climatic conditions,
often helps to define ground conditions for designing
geotechnical structures and anticipating the long-term
performance. For example, the knowledge can be used
and grain arrangement. Thus, knowledge of the trans-
portation and deposition history provides insight into
geotechnical engineering properties.
In short, the soil and its properties with which we
deal today are a direct and predictable consequence of
the parent material of many years ago and of all the
things that have happened to it since. The better our
knowledge of what that parent material was and what
the intervening events have been, the better our ability

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to deal with the soil as an engineering material. Several
examples are given in this chapter and more are given
in Chapter 8.
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS
1. At what depth below the ground surface does quartz
start to crystallize?
2. What are some likely consequences of the different
l
physical and chemical weathering processes on the
ria
mechanical and flow properties of the rocks and
soils on which they act?
3. Describe the chemical reactions of pyrite oxidation
and explain how bacteria can mediate the chemical
ate
processes.
4. Discuss what types of clay minerals are likely to be
produced under each morphoclimatic zone listed in
Table 2.3.
5. Using Stokes’s law, derive the sedimentation speeds
dM
of spherical particles with different sizes in fresh-
water under hydrostatic condition. Would they
change in saltwater? Compare the results to the data
given in Fig. 2.9 and discuss the comparison.
6. List and discuss human activities that may poten-
tially change the properties of soils.
hte
rig
py
Co
Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons
QUESTIONS AND PROBLEMS 33
7. Compare and contrast soil-forming processes on
Earth and on the Moon in terms of the composition
and engineering properties of the soils. Explain
similarities and differences. What is the relative im-
portance of physical, chemical, and biological soil-
forming processes on the Moon and on Earth?
Why?
8. Considering rock and mineral stability, the types
and characteristics of weathering processes, and the
impacts of weathering on properties, what types of
earth materials would you consider most suitable
for use as chemical, radioactive, and mixed (chem-
ical and radioactive) waste containment barriers?
Why?
9. Prepare diagrams showing your estimates as a func-
tion of elevation of the following soil characteristics
that you would expect to encounter between the
bottom and the top of Mount Kilimanjaro in Tan-
zania. Give a brief explanation for each.
a. Soil plasticity
b. Soil gradation and mean particle size
c. Angularity–roundness of sand and gravel parti-
cles
d. Iron content
e. Cementation between particles
f. Organic matter content
g. Water content
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