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Earth is made up of all these things and are grouped into four main areas
called spheres. These spheres are not static, that means they are constantly changing.
For example, the atmosphere does not produce the same weather everyday. We
experience the wind, rain or sunshine differently every day. Living things such as
animals are also born, whiles older ones die. Deep down the earth, there is molten
magma (melted rock) that can be spewed put in the form of lava during volcanic
eruptions. Sometimes, there are seismic movements in the earth's crust which causes
changes on the surface of the earth. So, you can see that there is always something
going on in all the parts of the earth. It is a dynamic earth.
What is a system?
A system is a term used for any complex whole, with smaller connected parts working
together. Usually, a change or malfunction of one part can affect other parts of the
system, and also affect the system itself.
The Earth is a system too. It has four major parts all
connected and working in harmony to make the
planet function properly. These four parts are called
Spheres. They are the Atmosphere, Geosphere,
Biosphere, and Hydrosphere. Some studies also
have the cryosphere (ice and snow) and
anthroposphere (man-made objects and processes),
but for this lesson, we shall focus on the four parts.
Each sphere has its own function and it is constantly
changing in a process called Cycles.
What is a Cycle?
A cycle is something that never stops. It has no
beginning and has no end. An example is the water cycle, where the water goes
through a basic journey: rains fall and end up in rivers, rivers end in the sea, sea
water evaporates and forms rain clouds, and the rains fall again. Other important
cycles include the carbon cycle, rock cycle, and nitrogen cycle.
Earth system thinking is the science that utilizes habits, tools, and concepts to
understand how complex things work. It breaks apart all the components of a larger
whole and carefully studies how each bit works and how it interacts with other bits of the
whole.
Systems thinking makes it possible for us to make sense out of complex things and
helps us to interact with that system in a healthier way.
The historic behavior of the earth is therefore of immense value to earth systems
thinking. Change in the planet occurs at different rates and in different places over time.
The energy from the sun and energy from within the earth itself drives this change.
Human understanding of the earth is not complete. We are constantly finding new
evidence and formulating new theories about our planet. Your role is to read and study
information from sources that your countries Earth Science Departments, and have a
better undertaking of it so that you can make your own research and discover
something to add to the knowledge bank.
The Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere includes all the water parts on the planet. It includes water on the
surface, sub-surface and water vapour in the atmosphere. The hydrosphere and the
atmosphere are known as the fluid spheres. These spheres are the liquid and gas
components of the earth.
Think of all the water in the oceans and seas, including all the frozen water and ice
(cryosphere). Also think of all the lakes, lagoons, rivers and ponds, as well as water in
the water table beneath the surface of the earth. They are all part of the hydrosphere
and together they cover more than 70% of the surface of the earth.
The hydrosphere is also in infinite processes every day. The water cycle is one way to
understand how the hydrosphere functions and supports other spheres.
The oceans and water bodies absorb the sun's energy and warm up. Transpiration by
trees and Evaporation of surface water occurs. The water vapor in the atmosphere
condenses (condensation) to form rain clouds and comes down as rain (precipitation).
The rains fall back on land and into water bodies (run-off) again and they all run back
into the ocean for the cycle to continue.
A complete water cycle takes time. Other spheres are impacted in many ways during
the water cycle.
The Geosphere
This sphere includes all the stuff that make up the crust and the core of the earth. It
includes everything natural and lifeless that make up the surface of the earth.
Examples are all the rocks and sand particles from dry land to those found at the bottom
of the oceans. They also include the mountains, minerals, lava and molten magma from
beneath the earth’s crust.
The geosphere undergoes infinite processes constantly and that, in turn, modifies other
spheres. One example of the continuous process is the rock cycle
In the rock cycle, melted rock from below the earth’s crust is spewed out through vents
on the surface onto the surface of the earth. This is also called lava. Solidified lava,
together with other rock material from earth movements are weathered and eroded. The
eroded particles end up somewhere and build up. After many years of buildup, pressure
from the overlying weight causes the particles to modify itself again. They are further
buried deeper in the crust and then melted again by intense heat until they are spewed
out to the surface again.
In this cycle, you will notice that it can take thousands of years for the cycle to complete,
but every single day has a role to play. You will also notice that the cycle does not
complete on its own. It is influenced by other factors such as water, temperature, and
wind, which also belong to other spheres.
The Biosphere
The biosphere is all living component of the earth (humans, plants, animals, bacteria,
fungi, protists and all microscopic organisms on land, in the air and in the oceans). It
also includes all organic matter that has not yet decomposed. This living part is hugely
dependent on the other three spheres.
The hydrosphere provides moisture or water to plants and animals, the geosphere
provides the solid surface on which animals and plants grow and also provides heat
from beneath the earth.
The atmosphere provides the gasses (nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide) needed by
living things. The atmosphere also provides the screen from the sun’s UV radiation and
helps us receive just enough of the sun's heat.
It is believed that the biosphere is exclusive to earth alone. Scientists believe there are
traces of water, rock, and gases on other planets, but no life has been found yet.
Humans are exploring other planets to see if this idea is correct.
The interaction of the biosphere with other spheres can be explained better by a theory
known as Ecosystems
The Atmosphere
The atmosphere is the gaseous component above the surface of the earth. This sphere
is also a fluid sphere (the other fluid sphere is hydrosphere). The atmosphere is made
up of gases and tiny water particles. The gases surrounding the earth are kept in place
by the force of gravity.
The atmosphere is a mixture of gases: Nitrogen (78%) and Oxygen (21%), make up the
most. There is also Argon, Carbon Dioxide and Aerosols (particles such as dust, pollen,
ash, smoke). These gases are super important to life on earth because plants and
animals depend on them to live.
The atmosphere is sustained by energy from the sun. When the sun shines, heat is
radiated to the earth’s surface and reflected back into the atmosphere. The heat also
warms the surface of the earth and causes evaporation, thereby sending moisture into
the atmosphere. Thunderstorms, hurricanes, lightning and tornadoes are all processes
of the atmosphere
The atmosphere comes in layers. The troposphere is the layer closest to the surface. It
extends about 10km above sea level. Humans and plants live in this layer. Airplanes
and birds also fly in this layer. As the layers go higher, the air becomes thinner. The
other layers include the stratosphere (50km above sea level), mesosphere (85km above
sea level), thermosphere (above 500km above sea level) and exosphere.
Beyond the exosphere is space.
How do the Earth's spheres interact?
All the spheres in the system interconnect and overlap. No sphere works on its own.
Think of the many ways that the hydrosphere and the atmosphere connect.
Evaporation from the hydrosphere provides the medium for cloud and rain formation in
the atmosphere. The atmosphere brings back rainwater to the hydrosphere.
In what way do the geosphere and hydrosphere connect? Water provides the
moisture and medium for weathering and erosion of rocks on in the geosphere. The
geosphere, in turn, provides the platform for ice melts and water bodies to flow back into
the oceans.
The atmosphere provides the geosphere with heat and energy needed for rock
breakdown and erosion. The geosphere, in turn, reflects the sun's energy back into the
atmosphere.
The biosphere receives gases, heat, and sunlight (energy) from the atmosphere. It
receives water from the hydrosphere and a living medium from the geosphere.
Think of the many ways in which each sphere interacts with the other and discuss it with
your class.
LAND
Land, sometimes referred to as dry land, is the solid surface of Earth that is not
permanently covered by water.[1] The vast majority of human activity throughout history
has occurred in land areas that support agriculture, habitat, and various natural
resources. Some life forms (including terrestrial plants and terrestrial animals) have
developed from predecessor species that lived in bodies of water.
Areas where land meets large bodies of water are called coastal zones. The
division between land and water is a fundamental concept to humans. The demarcation
between land and water can vary by local jurisdiction and other factors. A maritime
boundary is one example of a political demarcation. A variety of natural boundaries exist
to help clearly define where water meets land. Solid rock landforms are easier to
demarcate than marshy or swampy boundaries, where there is no clear point at which
the land ends and a body of water has begun. Demarcation can further vary due to tides
and weather.
Looking at Landforms Earth has many landforms, such as mountains, forests,
and deserts. Erosion helps change the shape of landforms. Landforms are one part of
geography. Landforms affect where people build communities. Most mountains have
steep slopes and rough and uneven land. It is hard to grow food on mountains. Not
many people live on mountains. Farmers usually live on flat land. Some people live in
forests. They cut the trees down and use the land for farming. They also use the wood
for building things. A few people live in deserts. Deserts are dry and have few trees and
little water.
OCEANS
Earth's ocean covers more than 70% of our planet's surface. There are five major
ocean basins. The Pacific Ocean is the largest. It’s so large that it covers a third of the
Earth's surface. The Atlantic Ocean is east of the Americas and west of Europe and
Africa. The Indian Ocean is south of Asia and the Middle East and east of Africa.
The Arctic Ocean is in the north polar region. The Southern
Ocean surrounds Antarctica in the south polar region.
Seawater is salty. Anyone who has taken a gulp of water while swimming in the
ocean knows that. The saltiness of the water is called salinity. The chemistry of the
seawater includes more than salt. It depends on what become dissolved in it over time.
Ocean water is always moving. It moves around surface ocean currents in the
upper 400 meters of the ocean. Water moves around the ocean by upwelling, a process
that brings water from the deep ocean to shallow areas, as well as downwelling, a
process that sends water from the surface to the deep ocean. Currents along
coastlines move water as well as sand. Moving water transports heat from the Sun
around the planet, which has an effect on climate. Complex climate
models called coupled ocean-atmosphere models take into account both the
atmosphere and the ocean to describe the Earth.
Each day ocean water moves with the tides, shifting where the water meets the
shore in an endless cycle. Tidal cycles are perhaps most easy to see at estuaries. The
ocean's tides are one type of tide created by gravitational force. Over a long time water
circulates from the deep ocean to shallow ocean and back again to the deep. This
circulation of seawater is called the global ocean conveyor or thermohaline circulation.
As Earth’s climate warms the global ocean conveyor might change its pattern. The
height of the ocean surface is called sea level. Over a long time, sea level can change
for a number of reasons. Today sea level is rising rapidly as Earth’s climate warms.
Coral reefs are affected as the ocean changes because of global warming and other
changes such as pollution. As the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide becomes dissolved in
seawater the ocean becomes more acidic, which is harmful to corals and other marine
life.
Salt Water, Fresh Water People build communities near water. Earth has two
kinds of water: fresh and salt. People drink the fresh water from rivers and lakes. People
use the salt water in oceans for travel and fishing. Water erosion and deposition from
oceans and rivers can change the land. Water deposition can also change the location
of a body of water. Islands and peninsulas are some of Earth’s landforms that are in or
near water
II. Earth Layers and Composition
Core, mantle, and crust are divisions based on composition. The crust makes up
less than 1 percent of Earth by mass, consisting of oceanic crust and continental crust
is often more felsic rock. The mantle is hot and represents about 68 percent of Earth’s
mass. Finally, the core is mostly iron metal. The core makes up about 31% of the Earth.
Lithosphere and asthenosphere are divisions based on mechanical properties.
The lithosphere is composed of both the crust and the portion of the upper mantle that
behaves as a brittle, rigid solid. The asthenosphere is partially molten upper mantle
material that behaves plastically and can flow.
Earth’s outer surface is its crust; a cold, thin, brittle outer shell made of rock. The
crust is very thin, relative to the radius of the planet. There are two very different types
of crust, each with its own distinctive physical and chemical properties. Oceanic
crust is composed of magma that erupts on the seafloor to create basalt lava flows or
cools deeper down to create the intrusive igneous rock gabbro. Sediments, primarily
muds and the shells of tiny sea creatures, coat the seafloor. Sediment is thickest near
the shore where it comes off the continents in rivers and on wind currents. Continental
crust is made up of many different types of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary
rocks. The average composition is granite, which is much less dense than the mafic
igneous rocks of the oceanic crust. Because it is thick and has relatively low density,
continental crust rises higher on the mantle than oceanic crust, which sinks into the
mantle to form basins. When filled with water, these basins form the planet’s
oceans.The lithosphere is the outermost mechanical layer, which behaves as a brittle,
rigid so lid. The lithosphere is about 100 kilometers thick. The definition of the
lithosphere is based on how earth materials behave, so it includes the crust and the
uppermost mantle, which are both brittle. Since it is rigid and brittle, when stresses act
on the lithosphere, it breaks. This is what we experience as an earthquake.
Mantle
The two most important things about the mantle are: (1) it is made of solid rock,
and (2) it is hot. Scientists know that the mantle is made of rock based on evidence from
seismic waves, heat flow, and meteorites. The properties fit the ultramafic rock
peridotite, which is made of the iron- and magnesium-rich silicate minerals. Peridotite is
rarely found at Earth’s surface. Scientists know that the mantle is extremely hot
because of the heat flowing outward from it and because of its physical properties. Heat
flows in two different ways within the Earth: conduction and convection. Conduction is
defined as the heat transfer that occurs through rapid collisions of atoms, which can
only happen if the material is solid. Heat flows from warmer to cooler places until all are
the same temperature. The mantle is hot mostly because of heat conducted from the
core. Convection is the process of a material that can move and flow may develop
convection currents. Convection in the mantle is the same as convection in a pot of
water on a stove. Convection currents within Earth’s mantle form as material near the
core heats up. As the core heats the bottom layer of mantle material, particles move
more rapidly, decreasing its density and causing it to rise. The rising material begins the
convection current. When the warm material reaches the surface, it spreads
horizontally. The material cools because it is no longer near the core. It eventually
becomes cool and dense enough to sink back down into the mantle. At the bottom of
the mantle, the material travels horizontally and is heated by the core. It reaches the
location where warm mantle material rises, and the mantle convection cell is complete.
Core
At the planet’s center lies a dense metallic core. Scientists know that the core is
metal for a few reasons. The density of Earth’s surface layers is much less than the
overall density of the planet, as calculated from the planet’s rotation. If the surface
layers are less dense than average, then the interior must be denser than average.
Calculations indicate that the core is about 85 percent iron metal with nickel metal
making up much of the remaining 15 percent. Also, metallic meteorites are thought to
be representative of the core.If Earth’s core were not metal, the planet would not have a
magnetic field. Metals such as iron are magnetic, but rock, which makes up the mantle
and crust, is not. Scientists know that the outer core is liquid and the inner core is solid
because S-waves stop at the inner core. The strong magnetic field is caused by
convection in the liquid outer core. Convection currents in the outer core are due to heat
from the even hotter inner core. The heat that keeps the outer core from solidifying is
produced by the breakdown of radioactive elements in the inner core.
III. Wegener’s Evidences for Continental Drift
The continental drift hypothesis was developed in the early part of the 20th
century, mostly by Alfred Wegener. Wegener said that continents move around on
Earth’s surface and that they were once joined together as a single supercontinent.
While Wegener was alive, scientists did not believe that the continents could move. Find
a map of the continents and cut each one out. Better yet, use a map where the edges of
the continents show the continental shelf. That’s the true size and shape of a continent
and many can be pieced together like a puzzle. The easiest link is between the eastern
Americas and western Africa and Europe, but the rest can fit together too.
Alfred Wegener proposed that the continents were once united into a single
supercontinent named Pangaea, meaning all earth in ancient Greek. He suggested that
Pangaea broke up long ago and that the continents then moved to their current
positions. He called his hypothesis continental drift.
Besides the way the continents fit together, Wegener and his supporters
collected a great deal of evidence for the continental drift hypothesis. For one, identical
rocks of the same type and age are found on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean. Wegener
said the rocks had formed side-by-side and that the land had since moved apart.
Mountain ranges with the same rock types, structures, and ages are now on opposite
sides of the Atlantic Ocean. The Appalachians of the eastern United States and
Canada, for example, are just like mountain ranges in eastern Greenland, Ireland, Great
Britain, and Norway. Wegener concluded that they formed as a single mountain range
that was separated as the continents drifted. Ancient fossils of the same species of
extinct plants and animals are found in rocks of the same age but are on continents that
are now widely separated. Wegener proposed that the organisms had lived side by
side, but that the lands had moved apart after they were dead and fossilized. He
suggested that the organisms would not have been able to travel across the oceans.
For example, the fossils of the seed fern Glossopteris were too heavy to be carried so
far by wind. The reptile Mesosaurus could only swim in fresh water. was a swimming
reptile but could only swim in fresh water. Cynognathus and Lystrosaurus were land
reptiles and were unable to swim.Grooves and rock deposits left by ancient glaciers are
found today on different continents very close to the equator. This would indicate that
the glaciers either formed in the middle of the ocean and/or covered most of the Earth.
Today glaciers only form on land and nearer the poles. Wegener thought that the
glaciers were centered over the southern land mass close to the South Pole and the
continents moved to their present positions later on.Coral reefs and coal-forming
swamps are found in tropical and subtropical environments, but ancient coal seams and
coral reefs are found in locations where it is much too cold today. Wegener suggested
that these creatures were alive in warm climate zones and that the fossils and coal later
had drifted to new locations on the continents. Although Wegener’s evidence was
sound, most geologists at the time rejected his hypothesis of continental drift. Scientists
argued that there was no way to explain how solid continents could plow through solid
oceanic crust. Wegener’s idea was nearly forgotten until technological advances
presented even more evidence that the continents moved and gave scientists the tools
to develop a mechanism for Wegener’s drifting continents.
Puzzling new evidence came in the 1950s from studies on the Earth’s magnetic
history. Scientists used magnetometers, devices capable of measuring the magnetic
field intensity, to look at the magnetic properties of rocks in many locations. Geologists
noted important things about the magnetic polarity of different aged rocks on the same
continent. Magnetite crystals in fresh volcanic rocks point to the current magnetic north
pole no matter what continent or where on the continent the rocks are located. Older
rocks that are the same age and are located on the same continent point to the same
location, but that location is not the current north magnetic pole. Older rock that are of
different ages do not point to the same locations or to the current magnetic north pole.In
other words, although the magnetite crystals were pointing to the magnetic north pole,
the location of the pole seemed to wander. Scientists were amazed to find that the north
magnetic pole changed location through time. There are three possible explanations for
this: 1) The continents remained fixed and the north magnetic pole moved. 2) The north
magnetic pole stood still and the continents moved, or 3) both the continents and the
north pole moved.
Geologists noted that for rocks of the same age but on different continents, the
little magnets pointed to different magnetic north poles. For example, 400-million-year-
old magnetite in Europe pointed to a different north magnetic pole than the same-aged
magnetite in North America. Around 250 million years ago, the north poles were also
different for the two continents. The scientists looked again at the three possible
explanations. Only one can be correct. If the continents had remained fixed while the
north magnetic pole moved, there must have been two separate north poles. Since
there is only one north pole today, the only reasonable explanation is that the north
magnetic pole has remained fixed but that the continents have moved. To test this,
geologists fitted the continents together as Wegener had done and behold, it worked.
There has only been one magnetic north pole and the continents have drifted. They
named the phenomenon of the magnetic pole that seemed to move but actually did not
apparent polar wander. This evidence for continental drift gave geologists renewed
interest in understanding how continents could move about on the planet’s surface.
IV. SEA-FLOOR SPREADING AND ITS EVIDENCES
Seafloor Spreading
1. Molten material
Hess’s discovery on the warmer temperature near the mid-Atlantic ridge when he began
the ocean mapping, led to his evidence about the molten material underneath the
ocean. The condition on the mid-oceanic ridge was substantially different from other
surfaces away from the region because of the warmer temperature. He described that
the molten magma from the mantle arose due to the convection currents in the interior
of the earth.
The convection current was due to the radioactive energy from the earth’s core that
makes the materials in the lower mantle to become warm, less dense and rise. The flow
of the materials goes through the upper mantle and leaks through the plates of the
crust. This makes the temperature near the mid-oceanic ridge becomes warm and the
other surface to become cold because as the molten magma continues to push upward,
it moves the rocks away from the ridge.
2. Seafloor drill
The seafloor drilling system led to the evidence that supports the seafloor-spreading
hypothesis. The samples obtained from the seafloor drill reveals that the rocks away
from the mid-oceanic ridge were relatively older than the rocks near to it. The old rocks
were also denser and thicker compared to the thinner and less dense rocks in the mid-
oceanic ridge.
This means that the magma that leaks from the ridge pushes the old rocks away and as
they increasingly become distant, they more likely become older, denser, and
thicker. On the other hand, the newest, thinnest crust is located near the center of the
mid-ocean ridge, the actual site of seafloor spreading.
By the use of radiometric age dating and studying fossil ages, it was also found out the
rocks of the sea floor age is younger than the continental rocks. It is believed that
continental rocks formed 3 billion years ago, however the sediments samples from the
ocean floor are found to be not exceeding 200 million years old. It is a clear evidence
that the formation of rocks in the sea floor is due to reabsorption of materials.
4. Magnetic stripes
In the 20th century, the magnetic survey was conducted in the Mid-ocean ridge in order
to investigate evidence of sea-floor spreading. By using the magnetometer, the
magnetic polarity will be shown through a timescale that contains the normal and a
reverse polarity. The minerals contained in the rocks are oriented opposite to the
magnetic field. The patterns of the magnetic field will then be compared to the rocks to
determine its approximate ages.
The investigation of the mid-ocean-ridge, using the magnetic stripes resulted in the
three discoveries. First, stripes of normal and reversed polarity were alternate across
the bottom of the ocean. Second, the alternate stripes of normal and reversed polarity
formed a mirror image to the other side of the ridge. The third is the abrupt ending of
stripes when it reached the edge of the continent or an ocean trench. It was concluded
that the sea floor is composed of different rocks according to ages and that they are
positioned equally in opposite directions. This records that there is a constant
movement and spreading of rocks on the ocean floor.
V. DIVERGENT, CONVERGENT AND TRANSFORM
PLATE BOUNDARIES
Scientists now have a fairly good understanding of how the plates move and how
such movements relate to earthquake activity. Most movement occurs along narrow
zones between plates where the results of plate-tectonic forces are most evident.
There are three types of plate boundaries:
Divergent boundaries -- where new crust is generated as the plates pull away
from each other.
Convergent boundaries -- where crust is destroyed as one plate dives under
another.
Transform boundaries -- where crust is neither produced nor destroyed as the
plates slide horizontally past each other.
Divergent boundaries
Divergent boundaries occur along spreading centers where plates are moving apart and
new crust is created by magma pushing up from the mantle. Picture two giant conveyor
belts, facing each other but slowly moving in opposite directions as they transport newly
formed oceanic crust away from the ridge crest.
Convergent boundaries
The size of the Earth has not changed significantly during the past 600 million years,
and very likely not since shortly after its formation 4.6 billion years ago. The Earth's
unchanging size implies that the crust must be destroyed at about the same rate as it is
being created, as Harry Hess surmised. Such destruction (recycling) of crust takes
place along convergent boundaries where plates are moving toward each other, and
sometimes one plate sinks (is subducted) under another. The location where sinking of
a plate occurs is called a subduction zone.
The type of convergence -- called by some a very slow "collision" -- that takes place
between plates depends on the kind of lithosphere involved. Convergence can occur
between an oceanic and a largely continental plate, or between two largely oceanic
plates, or between two largely continental plates.
Transform boundaries
The zone between two plates sliding horizontally past one another is called
a transform-fault boundary, or simply a transform boundary. The concept of transform
faults originated with Canadian geophysicist J. Tuzo Wilson, who proposed that these
large faults or fracture zones connect two spreading centers (divergent plate
boundaries) or, less commonly, trenches (convergent plate boundaries). Most transform
faults are found on the ocean floor. They commonly offset the active spreading ridges,
producing zig-zag plate margins, and are generally defined by shallow earthquakes
VI. Properties, Structures and Classification of
Minerals
.
Minerals are solid substances that are present in nature and can be made of one
element or more elements combined together (chemical compounds). Gold, Silver and
carbon are elements that form minerals on their own. They are called native elements
Minerals tend to break along lines or smooth surfaces when hit sharply. Different
minerals break in different ways showing different types of cleavage.
Cleavage is defined using two sets of criteria. The first set of criteria describes how
easily the cleavage is obtained. Cleavage is considered perfect if it is easily obtained
and the cleavage planes are easily distinguished. It is considered good if the cleavage
is produced with some difficulty but has obvious cleavage planes. Finally it is
considered imperfect if cleavage is obtained with difficulty and some of the planes are
difficult to distinguish.
The second set of criteria is the direction of the cleavage surfaces. The names
correspond to the shape formed by the cleavage surfaces: Cubic, rhombohedral,
octahedral, dodecahedral, basal or prismatic. These criteria are defined specifically by
the angles of the cleavage lines as indicated in the chart below:
Cleavage Type Angles
Fracture describes the quality of the cleavage surface. Most minerals display either
uneven or grainy fracture, conchoidal (curved, shell-like lines) fracture, or hackly (rough,
jagged) fracture.
Crystalline Structure
Transparency or Diaphaneity
Tenacity
Tenacity is the characteristic that describes how the particles of a mineral hold together
or resist separation. The chart below gives the list of terms used to describe tenacity
and a description of each term.
Magnetism
Magnetism is the characteristic that allows a mineral to attract or repel other magnetic
materials. It can be difficult to determine the differences between the various types of
magnetism, but it is worth knowing that there are distinctions made.
Luster
Metallic
The mineral is opaque and reflects light as a metal would.Submettalic The mineral is
opaque and dull. The mineral is dark colored.Nonmettalic The mineral does not reflect
light like a metal.
Nonmetallic minerals are described using modifiers that refer to commonly known
qualities.
Wax. The mineral looks like paraffin or wax. Vitreous The mineral looks like broken
glass. Pearly The mineral appears iridescent, like a pearl Silky The mineral looks
fibrous, like silk. Greasy. The mineral looks like oil on water. Resinous The mineral
looks like hardened tree sap (resin).Adamantine The mineral looks brilliant, like a
diamond.
Odor
Most minerals have no odor unless they are acted upon in one of the following ways:
moistened, heated, breathed upon, or rubbed.
Taste
Only soluble minerals have a taste, but it is very important that minerals not be placed in
the mouth or on the tongue. You should not test for this property in the classroom.
Specific Gravity
Specific Gravity of a mineral is a comparison or ratio of the weight of the mineral to the
weight of an equal amount of water. The weight of the equal amount of water is found
by finding the difference between the weight of the mineral in air and the weight of the
mineral in water.
Mineral Classification
Native Elements
This is the category of the pure. Most minerals are made up
of combinations of chemical elements. In this group a single
element like the copper shown here are found in a naturally
pure form.
Silicates
This is the largest group of minerals. Silicates are made
from metals combined with silicon and oxygen. There are
more silicates than all other minerals put together. The
mica on the left is a member of this group
Oxides
Oxides form from the combination of a metal with oxygen.
This group ranges from dull ores like bauxite to gems like
rubies and sapphires. The magnetite pictured to the left is a
member of this group
Sulfides
Sulfides are made of compounds of sulfur usually with a
metal. They tend to be heavy and brittle. Several important
metal ores come from this group like the pyrite pictured here
that is an iron ore.
Sulfates
Sulfates are made of compounds of sulfur combined with
metals and oxygen. It is a large group of minerals that tend to
be soft, and translucent like this barite
Halides
Halides form from halogen elements like chlorine, bromine,
fluorine, and iodine combined with metallic elements. They
are very soft and easily dissolved in water. Halite is a well
known example of this group. Its chemical formula is NaCl or
sodium chloride commonly known as table salt.
Carbonates
Carbonates are a group of minerals made of carbon, oxygen,
and a metallic element. This calcite known as calcium
carbonate is the most common of the carbonate group.
Phosphates
Phosphates are not as common in occurrence as the other
families of minerals. They are often formed when other
minerals are broken down by weathering. They are often
brightly colored
Mineraloid
Mineraloid is the term used for those substances that do not
fit neatly into one of these eight classes. Opal, jet, amber,
and mother of pearl all belong to the mineraloid.
VII. Magma And Igneous Rocks
What Is Magma?
Magma is high-temperature fluid composed of molten and semi-molten rocks that exists
below the surface of the earth.
The planet is divided into three layers: the core, the mantle, and the crust. Magma is
formed in the lower part of the crust but above the mantle. The difference in structural
formation, pressure, and temperature in the crust and the mantle allows magma to form
in several ways.
Decompression Melting
The formation of magma through decompression melting involves the movement of the
earth's mantle. The movement of the mantle creates lower pressure points that
experience low melting point. The rocks in this section melt to form magma. This
process of magma formation is common in divergent boundaries where the separation
of tectonic plates occurs.
Heat Transfer
Magma is also created when hot liquid rock is forced from the highly pressurized core to
the crust. The liquid rocks lose heat to the surrounding rocks which also melt in the
process. The formation of magma by heat transfer also occurs at convergent
boundaries when tectonic plates crash into each other. When the denser plate subducts
below the less dense plate, hot rocks from below rises into the cooler areas above the
subducting plate resulting in the formation of magma.
Flux Melting
The formation of magma by flux melting occurs when carbon dioxide and water are
added to rocks.These two compounds significantly reduce the melting point of rocks
resulting in the formation of magma in places that it would have otherwise existed as
igneous rocks.
Types of Magma
Magma contains a mixture of gases and simple elements. Silicon and oxygen are the
most abundant; geologist, therefore, define magma in terms of the silica and gas
content, viscosity, and temperature.
Mafic Magma
This type of magma has low silica content but higher contents of magnesium and iron. It
also has a low content of gas and viscosity. Its temperature is relatively high at between
1,832° and 3,632° Fahrenheit. Mafic magma does not erupt explosively but it instead
flows out of volcanoes and moves quickly on the surface. It turns into basalt when it
cools.
Intermediate Magma
This type of magma has a high gas and silica content. Its temperature is between 1472°
to 1832° Fahrenheit resulting in a higher viscosity than mafic magma. Because of the
high viscosity, intermediate magma builds up in magma chambers below the surface
before exploding violently as lava.
Felsic Magma
This type of magma has the highest silica and gas content. It also has the highest
viscosity because of the low temperatures of between 1,202° and 1,472° Fahrenheit.
Chambers of felsic magma trap gas bubbles that result in massive explosions that blow
peaks off mountains.
VIII. Igneous Rocks
What are Igneous Rocks?
Igneous rocks are formed from the solidification of molten rock material. There
are two basic types.
Intrusive igneous rocks crystallize below Earth's surface, and the slow cooling that
occurs there allows large crystals to form. Examples of intrusive igneous rocks
are diorite, gabbro, granite, pegmatite, and peridotite.
Extrusive igneous rocks erupt onto the surface, where they cool quickly to form small
crystals. Some cool so quickly that they form an amorphous glass. These rocks
include andesite, basalt, dacite, obsidian, pumice, rhyolite, scoria, and tuff.
Erosion, transport and deposition are accomplished by agents such as wind, ice and
water. We will examine these in detail in future chapters.
Frost wedging – in the daily freeze-thaw cycle at high altitudes, water seeps into
cracks, freezes and expands extending the crack, then melts and seeps deep
into the newly lengthened crack as the cycle repeats.
Unloading – many rocks, for example plutonic igneous rocks, form deep in the
crust. When they are exposed as the surface by the removal of overlying rocks
by erosion, the pressure on the rock is reduced causing it to expand and crack.
Rocks like granite often crack in concentric layers (like an onion) resulting in a
process known as exfoliation. This causes granite domes such as Half Dome in
Yosemite, Enchanted Rock in Texas, and Stone Mountain in Georgia.
Abrasion – corners are fragile things on rocks like on furniture. As rocks are
transported, they abrade against one another, removing corners first, then edges.
Thus, as transport time and distance increases, rock fragments become rounded
(not necessarily spherical) as corners and edges are removed.
Byproducts of Weathering
Soils
Soil is a complex mixture of detritus, loose rock fragments called regolith, water, air and
organic material.
Soil Horizons
Clays and positive ions are usually leached from the A horizon (called the zone of
leaching) into the B horizon (called the zone of accumulation).
Soil-Forming Factors
Slope angle and aspect - steeper slopes generally mean thinner soils, aspect
controls plant growth and soil moisture levels.
Time- if an area is stipped by periodic windstorms or flooding, thick soil will not
endure
1. Pedalfers
Pedalfers are soils which form in regions of moderately high rainfall and cool to
moderate temperatures. These soils are rich in Al and Fe, hence the name PedAlFer.
These soils are generally rich brown soils and underlie much of the eastern and
midwestern US. The main process in forming this soil is moderate leaching. Most
soluble ions (Ca, Na) are removed. Aluminum is present in clays that predominate in the
B layer (subsoil) along with iron oxides.
2. Pedocals
Pedocals form in hot dry climate. Here, little leaching takes place. Soluble ions
are moved from the A layer but accumulate in the B layer rather than being removed
from the soil. The B layer is often rich in swelling clays (smectite clays) which can be
problematic for roadways and home foundations (like here in SA!). Calcite accumulates
in the B layer. If enough calcite accumulates in the B layer, hard cement like layers or
clumps called caliche develop. Pedocals are usually thin soils (due to low rainfall) and
are not ideal for cultivation.
3. Laterites
Laterites are thick red soils that develop in areas of high rainfall and temperature.
Extensive leaching has removed all of the soluble ions as well as some of the clays,
leaving mostly aluminum oxides and iron oxides. Laterites are nutrient poor soils. The
fact that they underly many tropical rainforests attests to the fact that the nutrient cycles
in tropical rainforests largely bypass the soil. Nutrients are recycled rapidly from
decaying organic material back into living plants.
Symbiotic plants often grow directly on other plants rather than on the soil. Cutting, or
worse burning, rainforests not only removes an important source of oxygen, and sink for
carbon dioxide, but leaves behind land that is unsuitable for most forms of agriculture.
Laterites dry to brick hard consistency and are used as building material. Aluminum rich
laterites are known as bauxite, and are the primary ore for aluminum. Since extracting
aluminum from bauxite is relatively expensive, recycling of aluminum has proven cost
effective and is therefore one of the most successful examples of recycling
X. CLASSIFICATION, STRUCTURE AND
FORMATION SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
Sedimentary rocks are produced by the weathering of preexisting rocks and the
subsequent transportation and deposition of the weathering products. Weathering refers
to the various processes of physical disintegration and chemical decomposition that
occur when rocks at the Earth’s surface are exposed to the atmosphere (mainly in the
form of rainfall) and the hydrosphere. These processes produce soil, unconsolidated
rock detritus, and components dissolved in groundwater and runoff. Erosion is the
process by which weathering products are transported away from the weathering site,
either as solid material or as dissolved components, eventually to be deposited
as sediment. Any unconsolidated deposit of solid weathered
material constitutes sediment. It can form as the result of deposition of grains from
moving bodies of water or wind, from the melting of glacial ice, and from the downslope
slumping (sliding) of rock and soil masses in response to gravity, as well as by
precipitation of the dissolved products of weathering under the conditions of low
temperature and pressure that prevail at or near the surface of the Earth.
Three major categories of sedimentary rocks are recognized: (1) terrigenous clastic
sedimentary rocks, (2) carbonates (limestone and dolomite), and (3) noncarbonate
chemical sedimentary rocks.
The simplest way of classifying coarse clastic sedimentary rocks is to name the
rock and include a brief description of its particular
characteristics. Conglomerates and breccias differ from one another only in clast
angularity. The former consist of abraded, somewhat rounded, coarse clasts, whereas
the latter contain angular, coarse clasts. Thus, a pebble conglomerate is a coarse
clastic sedimentary rock whose discrete particles are rounded and range from 4 to 64
millimetres (0.2 to 2.5 inches) in diameter. A more precise description reveals the rock
types of the mineral fragments that compose the conglomerate—for example, a granite-
gneiss pebble conglomerate.
Sandstones have long intrigued geologists because they are well exposed, are
abundant in the geologic record, and provide an enormous amount of information about
depositional setting and origin. Many classification schemes have been developed for
sandstones, only the most popular of which are reviewed below. Most schemes
emphasize the relative abundance of sand-size quartz, feldspar, and rock fragment
components, as well as the nature of the material housed between this sand-size
“framework” fraction
Sedimentary Structures
The Rock Cycle Rocks are the most common material on Earth. They are
naturally occurring aggregates of one or more minerals. Rock divisions occur in three
major families based on how they formed: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
Each group contains a collection of rock types that differ from each other on the basis of
the size, shape, and arrangement of mineral grains.
The rock cycle is an illustration that is used to explain how the three rock types
are related to each other and how Earth processes change a rock from one type to
another through geologic time. Plate tectonic movement is responsible for the recycling
of rock materials and is the driving force of the rock cycle.
XII. TYPES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS AND GRADES
OF METAMORPHISM
The various types of foliated metamorphic rocks, listed in order of the grade or
intensity of metamorphism and the type of foliation are slate, phyllite, schist, and gneiss.
As already noted, slate is formed from the low-grade metamorphism of shale, and has
microscopic clay and mica crystals that have grown perpendicular to the stress. Slate
tends to break into flat sheets. Phyllite is similar to slate, but has typically been heated
to a higher temperature; the micas have grown larger and are visible as a sheen on the
surface. Where slate is typically planar, phyllite can form in wavy layers. In the formation
of schist, the temperature has been hot enough so that individual mica crystals are
visible, and other mineral crystals, such as quartz, feldspar, or garnet may also be
visible. In gneiss, the minerals may have separated into bands of different colours. In
the example shown in Figure 7.8d, the dark bands are largely amphibole while the light-
coloured bands are feldspar and quartz. Most gneiss has little or no mica because it
forms at temperatures higher than those under which micas are stable. Unlike slate and
phyllite, which typically only form from mudrock, schist, and especially gneiss, can form
from a variety of parent rocks, including mudrock, sandstone, conglomerate, and a
range of both volcanic and intrusive igneous rocks.
Schist and gneiss can be named on the basis of important minerals that are
present. For example a schist derived from basalt is typically rich in the mineral chlorite,
so we call it chlorite schist. One derived from shale may be a muscovite-biotite schist, or
just a mica schist, or if there are garnets present it might be mica-garnet schist.
Similarly, a gneiss that originated as basalt and is dominated by amphibole, is an
amphibole gneiss or, more accurately, an amphibolite.
XIII. VOLCANIC ERUPTION
Volcanic eruptions happen when lava and gas are discharged from a volcanic
vent. The most common consequences of this are population movements as large
numbers of people are often forced to flee the moving lava flow. Volcanic eruptions
often cause temporary food shortages and volcanic ash landslides called Lahar. The
most dangerous type of volcanic eruption is referred to as a 'glowing avalanche'. This is
when freshly erupted magma forms hot pyroclastic flow which have temperatures of up
to 1,200 degrees. The pyroclastic flow is formed from rock fragments following a
volcanic explosion , the flow surges down the flanks of the volcano at speeds of up to
several hundred kilometres per hour, to distances often up to 10km and occasionally as
far as 40 km from the original disaster site.
The International Federation response adjusts to meet the needs of each specific
circumstance. As population movement is often a consequence, the provision of safe
areas, shelter, water, food and health supplies are primordial. In general response
prioritizes temporary shelter materials; safe water and basic sanitation; food supplies;
and the short term provision of basic health services and supplies.
XIV. FAULTS AND GENERATION OF EARTHQUAKES
Faults are planar breaks in the crust. Most faults are sloping (vertical faults are rare).
The type of fault depends on the relative motion of blocks.
Faults form when tectonic forces add stress (push, pull, or shear) to rock.
Stress builds up between faulting events. Stress relieved by forming new faults or
movement along old faults. Stress drops and elastic strain decreases - the rock
rebounds so that the rock near the fault are no longer bent. Elastic Rebound Theory (or
Stick-Slip behavior) Whole fault does not move at once - the slip area starts at a certain
point and migrates. Foreshocks: development of smaller cracks that eventually link up.
Aftershocks: occur for days to weeks because movement that caused the - main event-
set up secondary stresses that may be large enough to reactivate the main fault. Both
are generally of lower energy
XV. MEASURING AND LOCATING EARTHQUAKES
Once we know the distance to an earthquake from three seismic stations, we can
determine the location of the earthquake. Draw a circle around each station with a
radius equal to its distance from the earthquake. The earthquake occurred at the point
where all three circles intersect.
By looking at the seismograms from different recording stations we can find out
the epicenter of an earthquake. The signals arrive first at the closest station and last at
the one furthest away. The time difference between the P- and S-waves tells us the
distance the earthquake is from the seismograph. By measuring the time difference at
three stations we can work out where the epicenter is. We need measurements from at
least three stations to find the epicenter. The intersection of the circles, whose radius is
equivalent to the distance from the earthquake, gives the epicentre.
Knowing how fast seismic waves travel through the earth, seismologists can
calculate the time when the earthquake occurred and its location by comparing the
times when shaking was recorded at several stations. This process used to take almost
an hour when done manually. Now computers determine this information automatically
within minutes. Within a few more hours the shape and location of the entire portion of
the fault that moved can be calculated.
XVI. THE ECOSYSTEM
Ecosystem, the complex of living organisms, their physical environment, and all their
interrelationships in a particular unit of space.
A food chain is a linear network of links in a food web starting from producer
organisms (such as grass or trees which use radiation from the Sun to make their food)
and ending at apex predator species (like grizzly bears or killer whales), detritivores (like
earthworms or woodlice), or decomposer species (such as fungi or bacteria). A food
chain also shows how the organisms are related with each other by the food they eat.
Each level of a food chain represents a different trophic level. A food chain differs from
a food web, because the complex network of different animals' feeding relations are
aggregated and the chain only follows a direct, linear pathway of one animal at a time.
Natural interconnections between food chains make it a food web. A common metric
used to the quantify food web trophic structure is food chain length. In its simplest form,
the length of a chain is the number of links between a trophic consumer and the base of
the web and the mean chain length of an entire web is the arithmetic average of the
lengths of all chains in a food web.[1][2] Many food webs have a keystone species
(Such as Sharks) . A keystone species is a species that has a large impact on the
surrounding environment and can directly affect the food chain. If this keystone species
dies off it can set the entire food chain off balance. Keystone species keep herbivores
from depleting all of the foliage in their environment and preventing a mass extinction
A food web (or food cycle) is the natural interconnection of food chains and a
graphical representation (usually an image) of what-eats-what in an ecological
community. Another name for food web is consumer-resource system. Ecologists can
broadly lump all life forms into one of two categories called trophic levels: 1) the
autotrophs, and 2) the heterotrophs. To maintain their bodies, grow, develop, and to
reproduce, autotrophs produce organic matter from inorganic substances, including
both minerals and gases such as carbon dioxide. These chemical reactions require
energy, which mainly comes from the Sun and largely by photosynthesis, although a
very small amount comes from bioelectrogenesis in wetlands, and mineral electron
donors in hydrothermal vents and hot springs. A gradient exists between trophic levels
running from complete autotrophs that obtain their sole source of carbon from the
atmosphere, to mixotrophs (such as carnivorous plants) that are autotrophic organisms
that partially obtain organic matter from sources other than the atmosphere, and
complete heterotrophs that must feed to obtain organic matter. The linkages in a food
web illustrate the feeding pathways, such as where heterotrophs obtain organic matter
by feeding on autotrophs and other heterotrophs. The food web is a simplified
illustration of the various methods of feeding that links an ecosystem into a unified
system of exchange. There are different kinds of feeding relations that can be roughly
divided into herbivory, carnivory, scavenging and parasitism. Some of the organic
matter eaten by heterotrophs, such as sugars, provides energy. Autotrophs and
heterotrophs come in all sizes, from microscopic to many tonnes - from cyanobacteria to
giant redwoods, and from viruses and bdellovibrio to blue whales.
Food webs are limited representations of real ecosystems as they necessarily
aggregate many species into trophic species, which are functional groups of species
that have the same predators and prey in a food web.
XVIII. ENERGY PYRAMID