Principal Stresses and Strains

Principal Stresses for

various load combinations

 In a machine component several types of loads are acting

simultaneously, then it is very important to find the maximum stress
induced plane in a component to avoid failure.

 This max value of normal stress to the plane is known as principal stress
and the plane is known as principal plane. The value of shear stress
induced in that plane is zero.

Bending stresses in
two directions

 Torsional shear stress

due to twisting
 Biaxial and shear
loading

Max principal
normal stresses

Max principal
shear stresses
A hollow shaft of 40 mm outer diameter and 25 mm inner diameter is
subjected to a twisting moment of 120 Nm simultaneously it is
subjected to an axial thrust of 10 kN and a bending moment of
80 Nm. Calculate the maximum compressive and shear stress.

Soln: A  4
(d02  di2 )  766mm2

Direct compressive stress due to axial thrust

 c  P  1010  1305N / mm2
3
A 766
d 4 di4
Z  [ 0 ]  5325mm3
32 do
Bending stress
 b  M  15.02 N / mm2
Z
1   b   c
 28.07 N / mm2

d 4 d 4
T   [
o i ]
16 do
 11.27 N / mm2
c 1 2
1(max)    c  4 2
2 2
σ1= 32.035 N/mm2

 (max) 2
  c  4
1 2
2
τ=18 N/mm2
Failure Theories

Whenever a component is subjected to combined loading (i.e.,

bending and torsion), it is not possible to tell which
combination of normal stress due to bending and shear stress
due to torsion would cause failure of the component.

In order to predict when failure will occur under combined

loading, failure theories are used.

Failure theories relate a complex stress state to a single

strength (eg. Yield point stress in tension) and from this
relation design criteria for safety can be derived.

Consider a 3D state of stress, principal stresses are arranged as

σ1 > σ2 > σ3
Failure Theories Contd...

1. Maximum Principal stress theory(Rankine theory)

It states that failure will occur when the maximum principal

stress in the specimen reaches some limit on normal strength
(such as tensile yield strength or ultimate tensile strength)

For ductile materials failure occurs whenever σ1 = σy

For brittle materials failure occurs whenever σ1 = σu

For safety, σ1 <= σy/n for ductile materials

σ1 <= σu/n for brittle materials

The designer will avoid using the maximum principal stress

theory for ductile materials.
 Failure Theories Contd...

2. Maximum Shear stress theory(Guest’s or Coulomb’s theory)

It states that failure occurs when the maximum shear stress in the
part exceeds the shear stress in a tensile specimen at yield (half of
the tensile yield strength)

Failure occurs when τmax = τy

i.e., (σ1 - σ3)/2 = σy/2
i.e., σ1 - σ3 = σy
For safety, σ1 - σ3 <= σy/n or τmax <= τy/n
Also, τy = 0.5 σy
Failure Theories Contd...

3. Maximum Strain theory(St. Venant’s theory)

It states that failure occurs when the maximum strain in the

part exceeds the strain in a tensile specimen at yield.

σ1 – ν (σ2 + σ3) or
σ2 – ν (σ3 + σ1) or
σ3 – ν (σ1 + σ3) whichever is maximum = σy ,
ν is Poisson’s ratio

For safety, σ1 – ν (σ2 + σ3) <= σy/n

Failure Theories Contd...

4. Maximum Strain energy theory(Haigh’s theory)

It states that failure will occur when the strain energy stored
per unit volume of the stressed part exceeds the strain energy
stored per unit volume of the tensile specimen at yield.

σ12 + σ22 + σ32 - 2ν (σ1σ2 + σ2σ3 + σ3σ1) = σy2

For safety, σ12 + σ22 + σ32 - 2ν (σ1σ2 + σ2σ3 + σ3σ1)<= (σy/n)2
Failure Theories Contd...

5. Distortion energy theory(Von Mises - Hencky theory)

A part of strain energy causes uniform extension or contraction
and the remaining part causes distortion (shearing).

It states that failure will occur when the strain energy of

distortion per unit volume of the specimen part exceeds the
strain energy of distortion per unit volume of the tensile
specimen at yield.

σ12 + σ22 + σ32 - σ1σ2 - σ2σ3 - σ3σ1 = σy2

For safety, σ12 + σ22 + σ32 - σ1σ2 - σ2σ3 - σ3σ1 <= (σy/n)2

For pure shear, τy = 0.577 σy

 Failure Theories Contd...
Note:
Both the distortion energy theory and the maximum Shear stress
theory are acceptable as failure criteria in the case of static loading
of ductile, homogeneous, isotropic materials whose compressive
and tensile strengths of the same magnitude.

Ductile failure theory

Shear stress or tensile stress is responsible for the failure of a
ductile specimen in the tensile test?
Based on experiments and the distortion energy theory, failure in
the case of ductile materials in static tensile loading is considered to
be due to shear stress.

Brittle fracture in tension is considered to be due to the

normal(principal) tensile stress alone and the maximum normal
stress theory is applicable.
 Design of curved
beams

BENDING STRESSES IN CURVED BEAMS

13
 BENDING STRESSES IN CURVED BEAMS Contd….

 In curved beam neutral axis of beam in unloaded condition is curve

instead of straight.

Neutral axis is shifted towards the centre of curvature. Centroidal axis

and neutral axis are not same.

 Bending stress distribution is hyperbolic and not varying in a linear

manner. The beam is initially curved before unloading. Thus the length
of the inner fiber is less than the outer fiber. So the bending stress is high
at the inner portion of a beam.

 In case of symmetrical cross section always stress is

high at the inner fiber. But in case of unsymmetrical
Cross section, both inner and outer bending stresses
have to be calculated.
BENDING STRESSES IN CURVED BEAMS Contd….
Bending stress in a curved beam at any fibre at a distance y
from neutral axis

Bending stress at the inside fibre is tensile

BENDING STRESSES IN CURVED BEAMS Contd….

Bending stress at the outside fibre is compressive

BENDING STRESSES IN CURVED BEAMS Contd….
The crane hook carries a load of 20 kN as shown in Fig. The
section at XX is rectangular whose horizontal side is 100 mm.
Find the stresses in the inner and outer fibre at the given
section.
BENDING STRESSES IN CURVED BEAMS Contd….
The crane hook carries a load of 20 kN as shown in Fig. The section at
XX is rectangular whose horizontal side is 100 mm. Find the stresses in
the inner and outer fibre at the given section.
BENDING STRESSES IN CURVED BEAMS Contd….
 Stress Concentration

Reasons for stress

concentration

 Abrupt changes in cross

section

 Discontinuities in the
Stress concentration: Localization of
component
high stresses due to the abrupt
changes of the cross section and
 Machining scratches
irregularities present in the
component
 Variation in properties of
materials
Occurs in the presence of fillet,
notches, holes, keyways, splines,
 Load application
surface roughness or scratches
 Theoretical or Form Stress concentration factor

It is the ratio of maximum stress in a member (due to a fillet

or notch) to the nominal stress at the same section

Stress concentration in brittle materials(Static load)

 Brittle materials do not yield locally and there is no readjustment of
stresses at the discontinuities. (due to inability of plastic deformation)

 When the magnitude of stress reaches the ultimate strength of the

material, a crack will nucleate and increases the stress concentration at
the crack.
 Care should be taken to avoid failure due to stress concentration, fillet
at the changes of section must be provided.

 Therefore, stress concentration factors have to be used in the design of

brittle materials.
Stress concentration in ductile materials (static load)
 When the stress reaches the yield point, then there will be a local plastic
deformation near the discontinuity which will lead to redistribution of
stresses near the stress concentration zone.

 There is no remarkable damage to the machine component. This

redistribution of stresses will be restricted to very small area.

Stress concentration in ductile materials (fluctuating

load)
In cyclic loading, stress concentration is always serious, because the ductility
of the material is not effective in relieving the concentration of stresses due
to cracks, flaws, surface roughness or any sharp discontinuity in the form.
 Due to fluctuating load the component may fail due to fatigue.
 If the stress at any point is above the endurance limit, a crack may
develop under repeated loads and leads to failure of the member.
 Therefore stress concentration factors have to be used in the design of
machine components made of ductile materials.
Stress concentration due to holes
Stress concentration due to notches
Methods of Reducing Stress concentration

Mitigation of stress concentration means that stress flow lines

shall maintain their spacing as far as posssible
Methods of Reducing Stress concentration Contd…
Methods of Reducing Stress concentration Contd…
 Fluctuating stresses

σmax = max stress ; σmin = min stress ; σa = stress amplitude

σmean = mean stress
The stresses induced in a machine component due to dynamic load
(change in magnitude with respect to time) is known as fluctuating
stresses.
 Variable loading
• Change in magnitude of the applied load Example: Punching machine
• Change in direction of the load Example: Connecting rod
• Change in point of application Example: Rotating shaft

Types of loading
• Fully Reversed loading Repeated loading

• Ex. Shaft carrying pulleys Ex: Gears, Chains

 Variable loading

Types of loading
• Alternate loading

• Ex. Vehicle springs

 Design of machine components for fluctuating load

Number of Stress
cycles amplitude

Stress
Mean stress Fatigue concentration

Residual Corrosion
stresses & creep
Endurance limit or fatigue limit of a material is defined as the maximum amplitude of
completely reversed stress that the standard specimen can sustain for an unlimited number
of cycles without fatigue failure.

106 cycles are considered as a sufficient number of cycles to define the endurance limit.

Fatigue life: the total number of stress cycles that the standard specimen can complete
during the test before appearance of the first fatigue crack.
Fatigue failure ( time delayed fracture under cyclic loading)
Fatigue failure begins with a crack at some point in the material .

Regions of discontinuities (oil holes, keyways and screw threads)

Regions of irregularities in machining operations (scratches on
the surface, stamp mark, inspection marks)
Internal cracks due to defects in materials like blow holes
 These regions are subjected to stress concentration due to
crack, then due to fluctuating load the crack spreads.

Fatigue Stress concentration factor (due to fatigue or cyclic

loading)
 Notch sensitivity factor (q)

In case of dynamic loading, if stress concentration present in the material, then it will
reduce the endurance limit.

The actual reduction in the endurance limit of a material due to stress concentration
under dynamic loading is varied by the theoretical values predicted using theoretical stress
concentration factor.

Therefore two separate stress concentration factors are used . i.e. Kt and Kf.

 kf is the fatigue stress concentration factor

 kf = Endurance limit of the notch free specimen / Endurance limit of the notched
specimen

Notch sensitivity [q] : the degree to which the theoretical effects of stress concentration is
actually reached .
 the stress gradient depends upon the radius of the notch/hole/fillet, hardness or grain
size of the material.

q = Increase of actual stress over nominal stress / Increase of theoretical stress over
nominal stress
σo = nominal stress obtained by the elementary equations

Actual stress due to fatigue loading = Kf σ0

Theoretical stress = Kt σ0

Increase of actual stress over nominal stress = (Kf σ0 - σ0)

Increase of theoretical stress over nominal stress = (Kt σ0 - σ0)

q=

Kf = 1 + q (Kt – 1)

When the material has no sensitivity to notches,

q = 0 and Kf = 1

When the material is fully sensitive to notches,

q = 1 and Kf = Kt
Endurance limit 

Dr. T. Raja, Professor/ Mechanical

Design for Variable loading
 Eccentric Loading
If the line of action of a load is not passing through the Centroid of
the machine component, then that is knows as eccentric load.

There are different kinds of stresses will be induced during

eccentric loading

For eccentric axial load,

 Direct stress and bending stress

 To find out the magnitude of resultant stress, these combination of

stresses have to be super imposed.
Eccentric Loading – Examples
Dr. T. Raja, Professor/ Mechanical
A rectangular strut 150 mm wide and 120 mm thick carries a load of
180 kN at an eccentricity of 10 mm in a plane intersecting the
thickness as shown in figure. Find the maximum and minimum
intensities of stress in the section.
Cross sectional area of the part = b.d
= 150 X 120 = 18 X 103 mm2.
Direct compressive stress
c  P
A
= 10 N/mm2.
Section modulus Z = I/y = db2/6
= 450 X 103 mm3

Bending moment M = P. e = 180 X 103 X 10

= 1.8 X 106 N-mm

 M
Bending stress  
b z
= 4 N/ mm2.
As the compressive stress is more than bending stress the strut will be subjected to
more compressive stress

Maximum intensity of compressive stress = 10+4 = 14 N/mm2

Minimum intensity of compressive stress = 10-4 = 6 N/mm2.

A mild steel as shown is subjected to a

pull of 6000 N acting at 45° to its
horizontal axis. The bracket has a
rectangular cross section whose depth is
twice the thickness. Find the c/s
dimensions of the bracket if the
permissible stress in the material is
limited to 60 MPa.
Cross sectional area A = b X t = 2t X t = 2t2 mm2

Z  tb2
Section modulus 6

t (2t )2
Z 
6
3
 4t mm 3
6

Horizontal component of the load = PH= 6000 Cos 45°

= 4242 N

Bending moment due to horizontal component of the load

MH = PH X 75 = 4242 X 75 = 318150 N-mm.
Bending stress due to the horizontal component of the load which causes tensile
stress on the topmost fiber and compressive stress on the bottom fiber.
M
 bH  ZH  318150 X 6  477225
4t3 t3
Vertical component of the load PV = 6000 sin 45° =4242 N

Bending moment due to vertical component of the load

MV = PV X 130 = 551460 N-mm.

Bending stress due to vertical component of the load

M
 BV  V  5514606  827190 N/mm2
Z 4t3 t3
Direct stress due to vertical load
P
  V  4242  2121 N/mm2
V A 2t 2 t2
Total tensile stress at the upper surface
  477225  2121  827190
t3 t2 t3
60  1304415  2121
t3 t2
t  28.4 mm
b= 2t= 56.8 mm