TRANSPORTATION

1
ENGINEERING- II
Module 5
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3 TUNNEL
 A tunnel can be defined as an underground passage for the transport of passengers,
goods, water, sewage, oil, gas etc.
 The construction of a tunnel is normally carried out without causing much
disturbance to the ground surface.
 Tunnels are more economical than open cuts beyond certain depths.
 Tunnels avoid disturbing or interfering with surface life traffic during construction.
 Tunnels prove to be cheaper than bridges and open cuts to carry public utility
services like water, sewer and gas.
 Feasibility of tunnel project depends on the geological conditions of the site,
construction time and costs.
4 TUNNEL
5 OPEN CUTS
6 TUNNEL- ADVANTAGES
1. It is more economical than open cuts beyond certain depths.
2. Tunnels avoid disturbing or interfering with surface life and traffic during
construction.
3. In case of aerial warfare and bombing the tunnels would grant better protection as
compared to bridges.
4. Tunnels are cheaper than bridges and open cuts to carry public utility services like
water, sewer, gas, electricity and telephone lines.
5. There is protection from snow and iceberg hazards.
6. Tunnels avoid interference with surface and air rights.
7 TUNNEL- DISADVANTAGES
1. Initial cost of construction is high as compared to an open cut.
2. It is necessary to have skilled labour and technical supervision of high order for the
construction of a tunnel.
3. It takes long time for the successful completion of a tunnel under normal
conditions.
4. The construction of tunnel requires specialized and sophisticated equipments.
8 TUNNEL-CLASSIFICATION
 The tunnels can be classified in various ways as shown below:

1. Classification according to alignment

2. Classification according to purpose

3. Classification according to type of material met with, at the time of construction

4. Classification according to the shape of tunnels

9 Classification according to alignment

1. Offspur tunnel
 Short length tunnels to negotiate
minor local obstacles.

2. Saddle and base tunnel

 These are tunnels constructed in the
valleys along the natural slope.
10 Classification according to alignment

3. Slope tunnel
 These include the tunnels that are
constructed in steep hills.

4. Spiral tunnel
 These include the tunnels that are
provided in narrow valleys in the form
of loops in the interior of the
mountain. This increases the length of
the tunnel to avoid steep slopes.
11 Classification according to purpose

1. Conveyance tunnels
 These types of tunnel includes the sewer
tunnels, water supply tunnels, hydro-
electric power tunnels etc.

2. Traffic tunnels
 They include highway tunnels, railway
tunnels, pedestrian tunnels, navigation
tunnels and subway tunnels.
12 Classification according to type of material met with, at the
time of construction
1. Tunnels in hard rock
13 Classification according to type of material met with, at the
time of construction
2. Tunnels in soft soil
14 Classification according to type of material met with, at the
time of construction
3. Tunnels underneath river bed or in water-bearing soils
15 Classification according to the shape of tunnels

1. D shaped tunnel
 Where the risk of failure or collapse
caused by external pressure from
water or loose unstable soil conditions
on tunnel lining is non-existent
 It is also called segmented roof tunnel
 In this, roof takes up all the load and
distributes it to the straight walls
 Suitable for subways
 Main advantage of this section over
others is additional floor space
16 Classification according to the shape of tunnels
2. Circular shaped tunnel
 This shape of tunnels is strong in offering
resistance to external pressure caused by
water, water-bearing soils or soft grounds
 Best theoretical section to withstand heavy
internal or external radial pressures.
 Most economical section
 This shape is more difficult for placement of
concrete lining
 Not suitable for rails and roadways as more
filling will be required to provide a flat base
 Suitable for sewers and water carrying
purpose
17 Classification according to the shape of tunnels

3. Rectangular shaped tunnel

 Rectangular types of tunnels are
suitable for hard rocks
 Not suitable for soft soils because
load distribution doesn’t take place
due to straight section on the top
 Suitable for pedestrian passage
 Costly
 Tunnel lining is easier compared to
other sections
 Generally adopted for pedestrian
traffic
18 Classification according to the shape of tunnels

4. Egg-shaped tunnel
 Egg-shaped tunnels are best suited
for sewage line as it is having a self-
cleaning velocity in dry weather
 Egg shaped tunnel can resist both
internal and external pressure
 Not suited for traffic purposes
 Best suited for sewage line
19 Classification according to the shape of tunnels

5. Horseshoe-shaped tunnel
 Having a semi-circular roof with arched
sides
 Can withstand both internal and external
pressures
 Combines the advantages of rectangular
shaped and circular shaped tunnels
 Best shape suited for traffic purposes as
the floor is nearly flat
 Also suitable for carrying water and
sewage
 It is suitable for both hard and soft rocks
20
21 SIZE OF TUNNEL
 Size of a railway tunnel depends upon
 the gauge of the railway track and
 the number of lines

 Size of a road tunnel is determined by

 the number of traffic lanes

 Size of a tunnel is also determined by

 the provision for drainage facilities
 clear opening required for traffic
 nature of traffic
22 INVESTIGATIONS FOR TUNNELLING
 Investigations are made to find necessary information for proposed tunnel site.
Informations to be collected are:
i. Origin of soil mass
ii. Hydrology of proposed tunnel site and surroundings
iii. Presence of foul gases
iv. Temperature of soil nearby
v. Physical and mechanical strength of soil mass existing at proposed site
vi. Location of weak geological features like faults, folds etc.
 Investigations to collect information are made in the following stages:
1. Investigations made prior to planning the project
2. Investigations made at the time of planning of project
3. Investigations made at the time of construction
23 Investigations made prior to planning the project

 Geological investigations are made to

determine relation between bed rock
and top soil.
 Geological investigations include
morphology, petrology, stratigraphy.
 Geophysical methods like electrical
resistivity methods are used to locate
positions of weak zones like faults,
folds and shear zones.
24 Investigations made at the time of planning of project
 Investigations at the time of planning are made through drilling holes either by:
i. Percussion
ii. Rotary percussion
iii. Rotary
 Rotary or Rotary Percussion methods is used for loose soils.
 Rotary Drilling is used for rocky soils.
 Spacing of 300-500 m is commonly adopted between adjacent holes to be drilled.
 Lateral Spacing of 10-15 m from centre line of tunnel is adopted.
 Proposed depth of bore hole is 20-50 m deeper than proposed invert level of tunnel.
 Samples obtained from bore holes might be in disturbed state and limited in
quantity and also there is no possibility of human observations.
25 Investigations made at the time of planning of project
 For detailed undisturbed observations, shafts can be excavated.
 Shafts are vertical or inclined tunnel excavated to reach and to get information for
the area surrounding proposed tunnel and tunnel section itself, under expert’s
personal observations.
 Shafts can be:
1. Temporary shafts
2. Permanent shafts
26 Investigations made at the time of planning of project
27 Investigations made at the time of planning of project
1. Temporary shafts
 These shafts will be refilled after use since their only propose is to get information.
 It should have minimum depth of construction. Hence these are ideally located in
valleys.
2. Permanent shafts
 These shafts won’t be refilled after use since these are also used for getting extra faces
to work upon.
 These are also used to transfer men and material for construction of tunnel.
 These can be used for providing permanent ventilation both during and after
construction.
 Location of these shafts should be other than valley area.
 Size of these shafts are larger than temporary shafts.
28 Investigations made at the time of construction
 Information at the time of construction is achieved by the following methods:
1. Heading
 Heading is part of tunnel cross section excavated for small lengths.
 Heading can be top or bottom or side excavation.
 This is part of the tunnel cross section hence, does not require extra cost.
2. Driving drift
 Drift is part of tunnel cross section excavated for the entire length of tunnel.
 This is part of the tunnel cross section hence, does not require extra cost.
 Heading gives information at the time of construction, while drift gives complete
information prior to construction of tunnel.
 Heading and drift gives information regarding stratification, fault, fold, presence of
foul gases, etc.
29 Investigations made at the time of construction
30 Investigations made at the time of construction
31 Investigations made at the time of construction
 Heading or drift provides following informations
i. It shows rock stratification, horizontal or steeply or gently sloping.
ii. Thickness of individual layers.
iii. Composing constituents.
iv. Structure and texture of rock.
v. Bonds between adjacent grains.
vi. Hardness to decide method of excavation.
vii. Temperature.
viii. Underground water levels.
ix. Presence of foul gases.
x. Possibility of land slides and rock falls.
32 SETTING OUT OF TUNNEL
 Setting out in general is defined as marking the centre line or alignment of any
construction work on ground.
 Tunnel is underground construction, hence its centre line or alignment should be
marked or set out underground.
 Straight alignment is economical and suitable.
 Setting out of centre line of tunnel at exact location and elevation is to be done in
indirect way in four different stages or steps as mentioned below:
1. Setting out tunnel on ground surface
2. Transfer of centre line from surface to underground
3. Underground setting out
4. Underground levelling
33 Setting out tunnel on ground surface
 Setting out on ground surface is done
by running an open traverse between
two ends of proposed tunnel by using
theodolites.
 Theodolite is used for angular
measurements.
 Laser pole unit is used to define a
thin visible vertical plane upto large
height.
 This plane is bisected by theodolite
for measurement of traverse lines.
34 Setting out tunnel on ground surface
 Curve line alignment
 For curved alignment, heading contains
short tangent to curve alignment like ab,
bc, cd, etc.
 To locate the alignment offsets are
measured from these tangents.
35 Transfer of centre line from surface to underground
 Underground shafts are to be constructed at
regular interval of about 500 m along the
alignment on ground surface.
 A rectangular horizontal timber frame is set
at the proposed shaft location.
 On two sides of the frame, iron plates are
fixed and screwed & holes are drilled along
line AB at X & Y
 Through X & Y plumb-bobs are suspended
to define vertical lines with respect to which
shaft is excavated.
 When excavation reaches nearly at required
depth, the centre line of traverse line can be
transferred by solving Weisbach triangle.
36 Transfer of centre line from surface to underground
 Suspended plumb-bobs are kept immersed
in heavy oil in buckets on tunnel floor.
 Set up theodolite at P, nearly in plumb line
XY extended.
 Measure PX, PY & XY accurately.
 Mark R at random and measure angles
YPR& XPR.
 Find angle XPY.
 Triangle YXP is Weisbach Triangle
 Sin PYX = (XP/XY ) Sin XPY
37 Transfer of centre line from surface to underground
 Let Q be an imaginary point in XY extended
such that PQ is perpendicular to XY.
 Triangle PQY becomes a right angled
triangle.
 Then, PQ= YP Sin PYX
 Set theodolite at P and take back sight on Y.
Adjust line of collimation along PP’
 Turn telescope by angle PYX so that line of
sight is brought to PP”. Mark PP”.
 Measure distance PQ perpendicular to PP”
to get centre line extended up to Q.
38 Underground setting out
 Set theodolite at Q (in extended XY line).
 Take back sight on X and transit by 180
degree.
 Mark 1” at 10 m from Q.
 Change face and mark 1’.
 If 1” & 1’are same, YXQ1 is extended
C/L of tunnel
 Else midpoint of 1” & 1’ is the extended
C/L of tunnel
 After excavation is done for nearly 10 m,
this procedure is repeated
39 Underground levelling
 Reduced Levels of X & Y are found.
 Plumb bobs are suspended through X and Y to touch marked points X & Y on invert
level (floor level) of tunnel.
 Plumb bob with wire is spread on ground for comparison with steel tape, say 8 m.
 From RL of X, subtract 8 m to get RL of point X on invert level of tunnel.
 Taking this level as BM, leveling is performed underground
40 Underground levelling
 Grades in a tunnel
 Grades in a tunnel should be lesser than surface grade.
 Grades in tunnel is nearly kept level but a gradient of 0.2% is adopted for drainage.
 It is convenient to have a rising gradient from both portal towards centre of tunnel.
 Ventilation is more effective if grade is in one direction.
41 METHODS OF GETTING EXTRA FACES TO WORK UPON

 Usually tunnels are driven from two ends and many other intermediate points to
finish the whole tunnel construction in least permissible time.
 Intermediate points are usually made available by the following methods:

1. By shaft construction

2. By driving pilot tunnel

42 Shaft Construction

 On the tunnel line at suitable points, shafts are sunk. It could be seen that if n is the
number of shafts that are possible, 2n plus 2 faces of attack including the two ends
are available.
43 Shaft Construction

 Advantages of shafts:
i. Each shafts provides 2 extra faces, which makes the work easier and less time
consuming.
ii. They afford outlets for excavated material and means of access into the tunnel for
building materials.
iii. They could be used as pumping shafts in case of large influx of water.
iv. They help to correct alignment and help to transfer the centre line into the tunnel.
v. In long tunnels, they afford ventilation and are useful for exhausting smoke and foul
air out of the tunnel.
44 Driving Pilot Tunnel
 Sometimes lateral or horizontal approach to the tunnel line may be closer and
shorter compared to the deep vertical shafts.
 In such cases, a tunnel of small size called a pilot tunnel is driven parallel and close
to the proposed main tunnel and short cross connecting tunnels are driven from it to
reach the proposed main tunnel to create working faces.
45 Driving Pilot Tunnel
 Advantages of pilot tunnel:
i. The cross headings are convenient places to store tools and materials during
construction work.
ii. It is less costly than shafts.
iii. The chances of any material falling accidentally down the shaft into the tunnel during
the construction work are considerably reduced.
iv. It avoids the dislocation of strata at the sides of the tunnel.
v. After the work is completed, the cross headings may be used as passages for workers
engaged in repairs and maintenance of the tunnel.
vi. It can be used as means of artificial ventilation by the use of fans.
46 Methods of Tunnelling
 There are various methods of tunnelling. The selection of a method depends upon
the size of the bore, the condition of the ground, the equipment available, and the
extent to which timbering is required. Tunnelling may be basically divided into
three main groups.

1. Tunnelling in hard rocks

2. Tunnelling in soft rocks
3. Tunnelling in water bearing soils
47 Tunnelling in Hard Rocks

1. Full face method

 The full face method is normally selected for small tunnels whose dimensions do
not exceed 3 m.
 In this method, the full face or the entire facade of the tunnel is tackled at the same
time.
 Vertical columns are erected at the face of the tunnel and a large number of drills
mounted or fixed on these columns at a suitable height.
 A series of holes measuring 10 mm to 40 mm in diameter with about 1200 mm
centre-to-centre distance are then drilled into the rock, preferably in two rows.
 These holes are charged with explosives and ignited.
 Next the muck is removed before repeating the process of drilling holes.
48 Tunnelling in Hard Rocks

 Advantages
 Since an entire section of the tunnel is tackled at one time, the method is completed
expeditiously.
 Mucking tracks, which are tracks used for collecting muck, can be laid on the tunnel
floor and extended as the work progresses.
 With the development of the 'jumbo' or drill carriage, this method can be used for larger
tunnels too.
 Disadvantages
 The method requires heavy mechanical equipment.
 It is not very suitable for unstable rocks.
 It can normally be adopted for small tunnels only.
49 Tunnelling in Hard Rocks
50 Tunnelling in Hard Rocks

2. Heading and bench method

 In this method, the heading (top or upper half) of the tunnel is bored first.
 Then the bench (bottom or lower half) follows.
 The heading portion lies about 3.70 m to 4.60 m ahead of the bench portion.
 In hard rock, the drill holes for the bench are driven at the same time as the removal
of the muck.
 The hard rock permits the roof to stay in place without supports.
 Advantages
 The work of drilling of holes for the explosives and the removal of muck can progress
simultaneously.
 This method requires the use of lower quantities of gunpowder than the full face method.
51 Tunnelling in Hard Rocks
52 Tunnelling in Hard Rocks
53 Tunnelling in Hard Rocks

3. Drift method
 A drift is a small tunnel measuring 3 m x 3 m, which is driven into the rock and
whose section is widened in subsequent processes till it equates that of the tunnel.
 A number of drill holes are provided all around the drift and these are filled up with
explosives and ignited so that the size of the drift expands to become equal to the
required cross section of the tunnel.
 The position of the drift depends upon local conditions; it may be in the centre, top,
bottom, or side as shown in figure.
 Field experience has shown that the central drift is the best choice, as it offers better
ventilation and requires lower quantities of explosives.
 The side drift, however, has the advantage that it permits the use of timber to
support the roof.
54 Tunnelling in Hard Rocks

 Advantages
 If the quality of the rock is bad or if it contains excessive water, this is detected in
advance and corrective measures can then be taken in time.
 A drift assists in the ventilation of tunnels.
 The quantity of explosives required is less.
 A side drift allows the use of timber to support the roof.
 Disadvantages
 It is a time-consuming process, as the excavation of the main tunnel gets delayed till the
drift is completed.
 The cost of drilling and removing the muck from the drift is high, as the work has to be
done using manually operated power-driven equipment.
55 Tunnelling in Hard Rocks
56 Tunnelling in Soft Rocks

 In the case of soft rock, the selection of the method of tunnelling depends upon the
following important factors.
i. Nature of ground
ii. Size of tunnel
iii. Equipment available
iv. Sequence of operations
57 Tunnelling in Soft Rocks

1. Forepoling method
 Forepoling is an old method of tunnelling through soft ground.
 In this method, a frame is prepared in the shape of the letter A, placed near the face
of the tunnel, and covered with suitable planks.
 Poles are then inserted at the top of the frame up to a viable depth. The excavation is
carried out below these poles, which are supported by vertical posts.
 The excavation is carried out on the sides and the excavated portion is suitably
supported by timber. The entire section of the tunnel is covered thus.
 The process is repeated as the work progresses.
 Forepoling is a slow and tedious process and requires skilled manpower and strict
supervision.
 The method has to be meticulously repeated in sequence and there is no short cut
for the same.
58 Tunnelling in Soft Rocks
59 Tunnelling in Soft Rocks
60 Tunnelling in Soft Rocks

2. Liner plate method

 In the liner plate method, timber is replaced by standard size pressed steel plates.
The use of pressed steel plates is a recent development.
 Advantages
 The liner plates are light and can be handled easily.
 The number of joints is less, as the linear plates are bigger in size, and as such the
maintenance cost is low.
 The steel plates are fireproof and can be safely used while working in compressed air
condition.
 The necessary work can be done by semi-skilled staff.
 There is considerable saving in terms of the excavation and concrete required.
61 Tunnelling in Soft Rocks
62 Tunnelling in Soft Rocks

3. Needle beam method

 The needle beam method is adopted in terrains where the soil permits the roof of the
tunnel section to stand without support for a few minutes.
 In this method, a small drift is prepared for inserting a needle beam consisting of
two rolled steel (RS) joists or I sections and is bolted together with a wooden block
in the centre.
 The roof is supported on laggings carried on the wooden beam.
 The needle beam is placed horizontally with its front end supported on the drift and
the rear end supported on a vertical post resting on the lining of the tunnel.
 Jacks are fixed on the needle beam and the tunnel section is excavated by suitably
incorporating timber.
 This method of tunnelling is more economical compared to other methods.
63 Tunnelling in Soft Rocks
64 Tunnelling in Water Bearing Soils

1. Shield method of tunneling

 Tunnelling through subaqueous or water-bearing strata is quite a different job.
 Shield tunnelling is generally preferred in such cases.
 A shield is a movable frame that is used to support the face of a tunnel.
 The tunnel is excavated and lined under the protection of the shield.
 A shield is a device meant for excavation that is to be carried out beneath water
bearing strata.
 It basically consists of a cutting edge, a skin plate in the form of a shell structure,
and a hood of jacks, ring girders, stiffening steel plates, ports as well as port doors,
and a tail.
65 Tunnelling in Water Bearing Soils

 Tunnels constructed using the shield method usually have a circular section because
of the following considerations
i. The rotation of the shield is easy in a circular section.
ii. It grants protection to the primary lining.
iii. The circular section provides the maximum cross-sectional area with the smallest
perimeter.
iv. The circular section is ideally suited to resist the semi-fluid pressure exerted by the
soft ground.
66 Tunnelling in Water Bearing Soils

2. Compressed air method

 This method is possibly the most modern method of tunnelling.
 The compressed air, which has a pressure of about 1 kg/cm2, is forced into the
enclosed space within the tunnel so that the sides and top of the tunnel do not
collapse and remain in their position.
 The equipment for tunnelling consists of a bulk head, which is an airtight
diaphragm with an airlock.
 The airlock is an airtight cylindrical steel chamber with a door at each end opening
inwards.
67 Tunnelling in Water Bearing Soils

 Tunnelling by means of compressed air is quite a difficult process because of the

following reasons.
i. The pressure inside the earth varies from the bottom to the top of the tunnel.
ii. It is not possible to ascertain the pressure on the floor of the tunnel as it depends
upon the nature of the strata.
iii. The pressure varies from strata to strata depending upon the moisture content,
which is difficult to ascertain.
iv. The compressed air normally escapes through the pores and the air pressure
diminishes continuously.
v. The application of air pressure has to be varied from time to time in order to
achieve a balanced value. The determination of this value depends more on
experience than on technical considerations.
68 Tunnelling in Water Bearing Soils
69 Tunnelling in Water Bearing Soils
70 TUNNEL BORING MACHINE
 TBM is a machine used to excavate tunnels with a circular cross section through a
variety of soil and rock strata. They can bore through anything from hard rock
to sand.
 Tunnel boring machines are used as an alternative to drilling and blasting methods
in rock and conventional "hand mining" in soil.
 TBMs have the advantages of limiting the disturbance to the surrounding ground
and producing a smooth tunnel wall. This significantly reduces the cost of lining the
tunnel, and makes them suitable to use in heavily urbanized areas.
 The major disadvantage is the upfront cost. TBMs are expensive to construct, and
can be difficult to transport.
 The longer the tunnel, the less the relative cost of TBMs versus drill and blast
methods. This is because tunneling with TBMs is much more efficient and results in
shortened completion times, assuming they operate successfully.
71 TUNNEL BORING MACHINE
72 TUNNEL BORING MACHINE
73 TUNNEL BORING MACHINE
 A TBM is a massive set of complex equipment assembled together to excavate
a tunnel, often called as “Mole”. Major components Tunnel Boring Machine
includes:
i. Cutter head, with cutting discs/tools
ii. Muck buckets to carry and dispose excavated muck
iii. Power supply Systems
iv. Cutter head rotation & thrust
v. Bracing system for the TBM during mining
vi. Equipment for ground support installation
vii. Shielding to protect workers
viii. Steeling system
 Back-up equipment systems provide muck transport, personnel and material
conveyance, ventilation, and utilities.
74 TUNNEL BORING MACHINE
 The advantages of using a TBM include the following:
i. Higher advance rates.
ii. Continuous operations.
iii. Less rock damage.
iv. Less support requirements
v. Uniform muck characteristics.
vi. Greater worker safety.
vii. Potential for remote, automated operation.
 Disadvantages of a TBM are:
i. Fixed circular geometry
ii. Limited flexibility in response to extremes of geologic conditions
iii. Longer mobilization time
iv. Higher capital costs
75 Tunnel Lining
 Tunnels in loose rock and soft soils are liable to disintegrate and, therefore, a lining
is provided to strengthen their sides and roofs so as to prevent them from collapsing.
 The objectives of a lining are as follows.
i. Strengthening the sides and roofs to withstand pressure and prevent the tunnel
from collapsing.
ii. Providing the correct shape and cross section to the tunnel.
iii. Checking the leakage of water from the sides and the top.
iv. Binding loose rock and providing stability to the tunnel.
v. Reducing the maintenance cost of the tunnel.
76 Tunnel Lining
 Sequence of Lining
The lining of a tunnel is done in the following steps.
i. In the first stage guniting is done to seal the water in rock tunnels.
ii. Concrete lining is done either in one attempt as in the case of circular tunnels or
by separately tackling the vest, the sidewall, and the arch. For small tunnels that
measure 1.2 to 3.0 m in diameter, the concrete lining can be provided by the hand
placing method. In the case of bigger tunnels, concrete pumps or pneumatic
placers are used for placing the concrete.
iii. The concrete is cured to its maximum strength. If the humidity inside the tunnel is
not sufficient, curing can be done by spraying water through perforated pipes.
iv. The different types of lining practices adopted by Indian Railways depending upon
ground conditions are depicted in the following figure.
77 Tunnel Lining
78 Tunnel Lining
 Types and Thickness of Lining
 Theoretically, the lining provided inside tunnels may be of timber, iron, steel, brick,
or any other construction material but in practical terms the lining provided most
commonly is that of reinforced concrete or concrete surface.
 Concrete lining is provided in tunnels because of (a) its superiority in structural
strength, (b) ease of placement, (c) its durability, and (d) lower maintenance cost.
 The thickness of concrete lining depends upon various factors such as conditions of
the ground, size and shape of the tunnel, soil pressure, and the method of concreting
79 Tunnel Ventilation
 A tunnel should be properly ventilated during as well as after the construction for
the reasons given below.
i. To provide fresh air to the workers during construction.
ii. To remove the dust created by drilling, blasting, and other tunnelling operations.
iii. To remove dynamite fumes and other objectionable gases produced by the use of
dynamites and explosives.
80 Methods of Tunnel Ventilation
 Natural method of ventilation
 This is achieved by drilling a drift through the tunnel from portal to portal.
 In most cases natural ventilation is not sufficient and artificial ventilation is still
required.
 Mechanical ventilation by blow-in method
 In the blow-in method, fresh air is forced through a pipe or fabric duct by the means of a
fan and supplied near the washing face (or the drilling face; the drilling operation
requires the washing of bore holes too).
 This method has the advantage that a fresh air supply is guaranteed where it is required
the most.
 The disadvantage is that the foul air and fumes have to travel a long distance before they
can exit the tunnel and in the process it is possible that the incoming fresh air will absorb
some dust and smoke particles.
81 Methods of Tunnel Ventilation
 Mechanical ventilation by blow-out or exhaust method
 In the exhaust or blow-out method, foul air and fumes are pulled out through a pipe and
is expelled by a fan.
 This sets up an air current that facilitates the entrance of fresh air into the tunnel.
 This method has the advantage that foul air is kept out of the washing face.
 The disadvantage, however, is that fresh air has to travel a long distance before it can
reach the washing face during which period it may absorb some heat and moisture.
 Combination of blow-in and blow-out methods
 By combining the blow-in and blow-out methods using a blower and an exhaust system,
respectively, a tunnel can be provided with the best ventilation.
 After blasting the ground, the exhaust system is used to remove the smoke and dust.
 After some time, fresh air is blown in through the ducts and the rotation of the fans is
reversed to reverse the flow of air.
82 Methods of Tunnel Ventilation
83 Tunnel Lighting
 It is very important to ensure that the tunnels are well lit so that the various
activities and operations involved in tunnelling can be carried out effectively and
safely.
 Places where plenty of light should normally be provided are:
 Obstructions in tunnel
 Drilling and mucking zones
 Bottom of shafts
 Storage points
 Pumping stations
 Underground repair shafts
84 Tunnel Lighting
Spacing of lights
 The spacing of lighting depends upon various factors like tunnel dimensions, size of
light source, nature of rock surface etc.
 It is desirable to have more lights of small wattage than few lights of large wattage.
It will avoid the formation of dangerous dark spot in case of failure of a light bulb.
 The electric circuit of the lighting in tunnel should be divided into a number of
independent circuits with their isolators and fuse boxes separate. Such an
arrangement would facilitate the repair work. It is possible to switch off only the
affected portion and the rest of circuits will not be disturbed.
85 Tunnel Lighting
Types of tunnel lights
1. Lanterns and lamp buring oil
2. Coal gas lighting
3. Acetylene gas lighting
4. Electric lighting
 It has become most popular of tunnel lighting at present as it possesses advantages like:
 Absence of smoke
 Non-consumption of oxygen
 Removal and extension of wires is convenient
 Can have desired brilliant light intensity
86 Tunnel Drainage
 Good drainage of the tunnels is very essential in order for them to operate safely
and smoothly during the construction period as well as afterwards.
 The sources of water for this purpose include ground water and water collected
from the washing of bore holes.
 Water seeping in up through the ground as well as from the washing of bore holes is
collected in sump wells and pumped out. If the tunnel is long, a number of sump
wells are provided for the collection of water.
 After the construction is over, drainage ditches are provided along the length of the
portion of the tunnel that slope from the portal towards the sump well and are used
for pumping the water out.
87 Tunnel Drainage
 The drainage arrangements for keeping off and removing of water may be classified
broadly in the following three systems:
1. Pre- drainage or preventing the entry of excess water from entering the tunnel
before starting the construction work.
2. Dewatering and pumping of the tunnel i.e. removing the water that has entered
the tunnel during the construction of tunnel.
3. Permanent drainage i.e. keeping water off the tunnel after its completion