A Survey on various Routing protocols in Cognitive Radio

Networks
Dileep Reddy Bolla Dr. Thippeswamy MN Dr. Fambirai Takawira
Research Scholar, Dept. of E&CE Professor & HoD, Dept. of CS&E Professor and HOD
Sri Venkateshwara College of Nitte Meenakshi Institute of School of Electrical and Information
Engineering Technology Engineering
Vidyanagar, Bangalore 562157 Yelahanka, Bangalore - 560 064 University of the Witwatersrand (Wits),
+91-9980417673 +91-9686329815 Johannesburg, South Africa
dileep.bolla@gmail.com mntswamy@gmail.com +27 11-717-7244
fambirai.takawira@wits.ac.za

ABSTRACT:In the modern eras there is a swift 1. INTRODUCTION

progress in the evolution of various wireless devices and
The advancement of mobile and Personal Communication
the applications in it .so, there is a need for better
Services have led to the rapid use of wireless networking
utilization of the available resources and Spectrum. In order
communication in today’s life. A wireless network could
to overcome this condition where one need to use the
either be an infrastructure based network or an ad – hoc
spectrum unused called as spectrum holes. The Cognitive
network [1]. The infrastructure based network makes use of
radio networks have evolved and have enabled the effective
a wired network which forms a backbone network and
usage of wireless spectrum .if the spectrum approach and
these are connected to switching devices otherwise called
selection is opportunistic in the selection of the band in
as the base stations. The base stations are in turn
spectrum it become useful in case of unlicensed or primary
responsible for accessing the transmission channels through
users . The best available spectrum hole is to be detected
the mechanism of Frequency Division Multiple Access or
and is to be utilized by the secondary user. It can be done
Time Division Multiple Access or Code Division Multiple
without interference to the primary users and also taking
Access within an infrastructure based network. The ad –
into consideration about already occupied spectrum holes.
hoc network on the other hand is free from wired
Many routing algorithms have been developed in this
connections and is mainly known for its dynamic and
regard which mainly aims at providing end-to-end
random functionality characteristics. The nodes in this type
communication between the secondary users and also
of network are made to periodically exchange the
avoiding interference with the primary users. The main
information of the network there by aiding in route
challenges that are faced by a routing protocol is that, the
updating. The wireless devices aim at providing effective
module used for routing must be responsive of the physical
functionality but with the finite power supply constraint,
environment. so that precise decision is made in path
which has made power management a main challenge in
selection and stability of the selected path is to be
wireless network communication. The users of the wireless
maintained. In case of sudden presence of the primary user,
networks can be broadly categorized into primary users
it may lead to link failure and in turn requires re-routing.
(PU) and secondary users (SU). Primary users are the
To overcome these challenges an effective routing
licensed users of the spectrum band that is allocated by the
algorithm for a multi-hop cognitive radio network is
Federal Communications Commission (FCC) which also
proposed, where spectrum awareness and route
monitors the usage of the spectrum band. This has often
maintenance is taken care. The obtained results are
lead to the underutilization of the allocated spectrum band
presented in an analytical framework and a quantifiable
among the primary users, and spectrum shortage among the
approach is followed in representing the throughput and
secondary users who are unlicensed [2].
delay.
1.1 Cognitive radio networks (CRN)
Keywords:
Cognitive radio networks (CRNs) were introduced
CRs, Primary users, Secondary users, Spectrum as an answer for the conflict of sharing the spectrum among
Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for the primary and secondary users and to bring about an
personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are effective utilization of the resources in a more dynamic
not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that manner based on the operating environmental condition of
copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. Copyrights
for components of this work owned by others than ACM must be
the node. A cognitive radio (CR) is a software defined
honored. Abstracting with credit is permitted. To copy otherwise, or radio which is proficient of reacting to new situations and
republish, to post on servers or to redistribute to lists, requires prior learning from its actions [3]. For the complete utilization of
specific permission and/or a fee. Request permissions from the resources in the network, a cognitive radio is supported
Permissions@acm.org. ICC '17, March 22 2017, Cambridge, United
Kingdom © 2017 ACM. ISBN 978-1-4503-4774-7/17/03…$15.00
with the dynamic spectrum allocation and various spectrum
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1145/3018896.3025139
sharing techniques. Each of the cognitive radio has to
perform the functionalities of determining the available
portions of the spectrum, choose a suitable channel, provide
access to the channel for the users and finally free the
spectrum in case of a request from a licensed user. These
functionalities can be categorized as sensing the spectrum
sharing the spectrum, spectrum decision and spectrum
mobility [4]. Within a cognitive network we can see the
presence of both the licensed and unlicensed users, there by
resulting in varied access types which may occur between
the CR base station and primary or secondary user, or
between two CR users or between the CR user and the
primary base station. The major functionalities can be
defined as given below:
1.1.1 Spectrum sensing: A CR user must co – ordinate
the spectrum accessibility, maintain the information about
the free spectrum band (spectrum holes) [27].
1.1.2 Spectrum decision: This stage deals with channel
allocation based on its availability, it mainly helps in the
decision of the proper channel selection among the
secondary users.
1.1.3 Spectrum sharing: This functionality helps in
collision avoidance between the secondary users in.
1.2 Applications of cognitive radio networks
 CRNs can be used in case of destruction of the
existing communication infrastructure by natural
calamities and thereby include the public safety
 Military applications
 Broadband wireless networking services and
multimedia wireless networking services which
require high data rates.
1.3 Challenges of CRN
The Quality of Service (QoS) requirements vary
from one application to the other, so predicting the
spectrum capacity from the signal – to – noise ratio metric
is incorrect. With the change in the operating frequency,
the neighbor nodes also may change there by making
spectrum sharing more difficult [4]. Another major
challenge faced by CRNs is route interference caused due
to spectrum sensing [28].
1.4 Objectives of the proposed work
 To understand the existing protocols for cognitive
radio networks.
 To design energy efficient multi-hop routing
protocol for the secondary users in Cognitive
Radio Networks.
 To develop a simulation model to simulate the
proposed protocol for throughput, energy and
delay.
The overall paper overview provides a survey of various
protocols for routing used in cognitive radio networks.
Section 2 below gives an overview of the existing (routing)
protocols with their advantages & disadvantages.
2. LITERATURE SURVEY
2.1 Introduction to Cognitive Cycle
A cognitive radio works on the fundamental concept of
capability to observe the wireless environment, adjust to
the observed environment, and take a decision on the action
to be performed and applying the required action. The
nodes in a cognitive radio network are configured such that
they have the ability of changing their transmission and
reception parameters based on the by sensing the changes
in the environment around them. Main features of
importance in CRNs are cognitive ability and re-
configurability [5]. Cognitive capability provides the
secondary users with spectrum related information
including the transmission
Frequency, Bandwidth, power and modulation. The feature
of re-configurability enables the SU to adapt rapidly to the
varying network parameters in order to provide an
optimized result. The working of the nodes in cognitive
radio networks can be diagrammatically represented as
shown in the below Figure 1
Figure 1: Representation of Cognitive cycle [2].
Initially sensing of the spectrum band takes place in order
to detect the free space, also called as white space is that
slice of the spectrum which is freely left unused by the
primary users though it is dedicated for the PUs. The
analysis phase checks the characteristics of the changing
environment around the nodes in the network. Analysis is
followed by the selection of the favorable frequency band
according to the QoS requirement of the application and
adaptation in case of co – existence between the PUs and
SUs by the usage of limited interference thresholds.
2.2Need for routing in CRN
With the increase in the number of technologies
using the unlicensed band, and the statistics provided by
FCC on the underutilization of the licensed bands [7]
mainly led to the use of dynamic spectrum access to
resourcefully use the authorized spectrum band. The
mobility of the secondary users has resulted in the need for
close co – operation between the routing node and
spectrum manager to make the routing node aware of the
 surrounding environment to take up a proper routing
decision [6]. The unexpected presence of a PU at a location
may lead to path failures between the secondary users,
thereby increasing the need for re – routing of the path.
Samar Abdelaziz et al [8] also provided an insight into the
challenges faced by routing in cognitive radio networks
compared to the multi-hop Ad-hoc networks where the
cognitive networks are more prone to the effects of
mobility of the nodes and their varying communication
frequencies, and that the channel availability is based on
the activity of the PU.
2.3 Classification of routing in CRN
The broad categorization of the routing protocols can be
done based on the amount of spectrum knowledge
maintained at each of the primary and secondary user i.e.
full spectrum information based and resident network
information based routing protocols [6, 8]. In case of full
spectrum knowledge a central entity maintains the map of
occupied spectrum in the network, and uses this detail to
have knowledge about the efficient routes either by using -
theoretical tools or a mathematical tool. Some of the
routing schemes which come under full spectrum
knowledge are routing through layered graphs [10], routing
through colored graphs [11] and routing and spectrum
selection through conflict graphs [12]. In case of local
spectrum knowledge, all the secondary users have the
information of the available spectrum, along with the
additional details about the frequency availability for
communication. The classification chart is represented in
the Fig 2, which further classifies the broad categories into
several other routing protocols. The four main categories
which are of due importance is:
1) Delay based approaches,
2) Link Stability based approaches,
3) Throughput based approaches and
4) Location based approaches.
Cognitive
Routing Scheme
Full Spectrum Local Spectrum
knowledge knowledge
Graph MILP
based optimization
Interference Delay Throughput
and Power based
based
Probabilistic
approach
Figure 2: Cognitive Routing scheme classification [6].
2.3.1 Delay based approach
This is the approach where delay is considered for taking
the routing decisions which may be in the form of
switching-delay, back-off delay and queuing delay. A
switching delay is caused when a node changes or switches
from one of the frequency band to another in a given path.
The back-off delay or the medium access delay is caused in
identical frequency bands thereby solving hidden terminal
and exposed terminal problems. Queuing delay is caused
based on the capacity of transmission of a node in a
particular frequency band. Several routing protocols based
on the delay based metric have been proposed in work The
On – Demand Routing protocols for Cognitive Radio ad –
hoc networks by Shelly Salim et.al [13] which consists of
protocols dealing with the management of the spectrum
bandwidth in case of scarcity among the secondary users to
avoid the probable interruption they may cause to the
primary users. A dynamic approach has been followed here
for the usage of the spectrum bands with a main motive of
reducing the power consumption of a node and for this we
consider the AODV and DSR on – demand routing
protocols. The Ad – hoc On – Demand Distance Vector
algorithm (AODV) [14] works with a main motive of
broadcasting the route discovery packets when necessary,
detection of the neighbor nodes and route maintenance. It
performs routing by following the steps of path discovery
when initiated by the source node to communicate with the
destination, route table management and path maintenance.
The entries of the routing table contained the destination
address, next hop, number of hops to be covered to reach
the destination, sequence number for the destination, active
neighbors and expiration of the route table entry.
2.3.1.1 Spectrum aware on – demand routing protocol
(SORP)
An alteration has been done to AODV protocol by addition
of spectrum related metric into the routing table called as
Spectrum Opportunity (SOP) there by resulting in
Spectrum aware On-demand Routing Protocol (SORP) [15]
took into mainly consideration the switching delay and
delay caused due to multiple flow interference with in a
frequency band. Though SORP is made appropriate for the
applications which are delay sensitive and the PU
avoidance Support is not include. A diagrammatic
representation of the adaption of AODV is shown in the
Figure 3
based
Link quality
based
Figure 3: RREP and RREQ packets [13]
In the Figure 3, we can see that the SOP is included along
with the route request (RREQ) and route reply(RREP)
control packets, for enabling the dynamic access readily
based on the available spectrum which is defined in an
orderly manner of SOP.
2.3.1.2 Cognitive ad – hoc on – demand distance
vector protocol (CAODV)
This protocol proposed by Angela Sara Cacciapuoti et al
[16] considers several guidelines like route formation and
packet discovery without the need for a common control
channel (CCC) in the absence of primary user activity, and
make use of the multiple channels which improves the
performance. The initial route discovery process occurs by
avoiding the primary user activity; an intermediate
cognitive user is responsible for the reception of the RREQ,
formation of a reverse path back to the sender and RREP
from the destination. In this protocol each node can contain
details of several routes reaching to the destination, with
varying intermediate nodes, resulting in inter – route and
intra – route spectrum diversity. The main advantage of this
protocol lies in the avoidance of the PU activity supported
by spectrum diversity but the usage of multiple channels
often lead to increased power and resource consumption.
2.3.1.3 Local Co – ordination based routing and
spectrum assignment
This protocol proposed by Z Yang et al [6, 8, 17] takes care
of load balancing among the intersecting nodes in case of
multiple frequency traffic. It is a variation of SORP
providing the possibility of changing the route decision on
the construction of a reverse path on receiving a RREP
packet. This results in generation of more alternative paths
thereby increasing the performance, and correspondingly
all the neighbor nodes are notified about the change. This
result in providing a better delay, cost evaluation metric is
used here but involves additional control packet exchange
which is the main drawback.
The Dynamic Source routing protocol (DSR) [18] carries
the whole route information of the nodes that are to be
covered to reach the destination in the header of the node
and dynamically searches for an optimized path in the
network, following two main steps of route discovery and
route maintenance. The Cognitive Routing Metric with
improving capacity (CRM –IC) proposed by Z Zhong [19]
takes into account the PU’s usage pattern and interference
caused by the secondary users mainly improving the end –
to – end throughput but with the use of a single routing
metric. Mainly, the On – demand routing protocols focus
on the performance of the nodes in cognitive radio
networks along the carrying the route directing information
between the source and destination
2..3.2 Link stability based approach
The next category is the link stability based
approaches which focuses on obtaining more stability in the
selection of the path where parameters like distance,
transmission power along with spectrum opportunities
affect the routing mechanism. Since the nodes have
overlapping and non – overlapping channels at a given
instance of time the need for checking the availability of a
stable route is very much necessary for the SU especially in
the presence ofactive PUs. Several existing link stability
routing protocols have been discussed below:
2.3.2.2 Gymkhana
A Connectivity-Based Routing Scheme for
Cognitive Radio Ad Hoc Networks proposed by Anna
Abbagnale et al [20] is a Protocol for routing which aims
at avoiding network paths which do not have stability and
which do not guarantee connectivity. The connectivity
between the nodes is based on the Laplacian matrix which
is a symmetric matrix. The use of a formulated utility
function helps in path connectivity which can be used for
effective selection of the path. But the main drawback of
the use of mathematical model makes this algorithm more
complex.
2.3.2.3 Spectrum-Tree base On-Demand routing
protocol (STOD - RP)
Another work on link based approach is
Spectrum-Tree base On-Demand routing protocol (STOD -
RP) [21] proposed by Guo-Mei Zhu to overcome the
association i.e. caused between route selection and
spectrum decision, and the infeasibility problem caused by
fixed common control channel. A Tree based centralized
network with nodes is used and all the nodes are controlled
by a base station [22]. The proposed STOD routing
protocol made use of both tree – based proactive routing
and on – demand route discovery in the form of Spectrum
Route Request (SRREQ) containing a collective routing
cost along with the source and destination address, and the
information about the presence of the destination node in
the same spectrum as of the source or not (intra/inter).
Though STOP – RD aims in reducing the end – to – end
delay, it results in high energy consumption as it is ignorant
of the gateway activity [13].
2.3.2.4 Spectrum Aware Highly Reliable Routing in
CRN
This algorithm proposed by H. Song et al [23]
aims at providing reliability by making use of multi path
routing. Here initially a stable path is selected and is
considered as the primary path and correspondingly finds
an alternative path i.e. either node – disjoint or link –
disjoint, which can be used in case of failure of the primary
path. We can see the use of the time for channel stability ,
link stability and also switching delay as the route metric.
These metrics provide the details of the duration in which a
link is active and usable. An extensive path maintenance
mechanism is used where in case of link disconnection or a
node failure, a Route Suspend packet is used as a
notification for the nodes present along the path. A Route
Error message is also used in case of failure of node
recovery within a specified time.
2.3.3 Throughput based approach
The third category of routing protocols which use
the local spectrum knowledge is based on the throughput
where the average rate of the successful packet delivery per
every second is taken into consideration mainly to
minimize the end – to – end delay and maximize the
throughput
2.3.3.1 Spectrum Aware Mesh Routing in Cognitive
radio networks (SAMER)
This protocol proposed by Ioannis Pefkianakis et
al [24] This routing protocol is a throughput based in
which is made suitable for mesh networks, and mainly
designed to utilize the spectrum blocks with high spectrum
availability. The protocol first generates a dynamic
candidate mesh which contains the details of cost taken by
each node to reach the destination, from which the
availability of the spectrum path can be easily estimated.
SAMER makes use of the Path Spectrum Availability
(PSA) metric for selecting the long – term shortest path and
shrinks to short – term path based on the spectrum
availability or on the blocks quality of the spectrum [22].
2.3.3.2 High throughput SPEctrum Aware routing
protocol (SPEAR)
The high throughput SPEctrum Aware routing
protocol (SPEAR) projected by A Sampath et al [25] is a
combination of throughput based and link based approach
working on the principle of integration of spectrum and
route discovery and a co – ordinate channel assignment
strategy to minimize the inter and intra flow interference,
following the steps of spectrum aware route discovery,
route selection and scheduling and finally reservation based
route management by maintaining an explicit time out
period for each reservation providing toughness towards
node failures and node mobility.
2.3.4 Location based approach
The routing protocols based on the location make use
of the location information of the node for the route
construction.
2.3.4.1 Spectrum – Aware Routing Protocol
(SEARCH)
The algorithm proposed by K R Chowdhury et al [26]
performs both channel selection and the path is mainly to
avoid the interference from the primary users, working
effectively in a distributed environment. The main
highlighting features of SEARCH are employing a greedy
forwarding technique to find the shortest path and the PU
avoidance technique. Furthermore the PU awareness used
in SEARCH enables the need for searching an alternate
path in case of collision with the range of the primary user,
also providing CR user mobility in case of route
disconnections caused due to node mobility.
2.3.4.2 Location – Aided routing protocol for
Cognitive Radio Networks (LAUNCH)
Karim Habak et al [17] has proposed a Location – Aided
routing protocol for Cognitive Radio Networks (LAUNCH)
designed for the efficient use of the channel, by taking into
consideration the active PUs and long – lived stable routes
for routing. The proposed system makes use of a birth –
death process model, delay based metric, greedy
forwarding criterion and selects the next hop such that it is
nearer to the destination and has minimum expected delay
Finally the literature survey can be summarized by
considering the features like End –to end Delay ,Route
Discovery, Packet size, Routing Decisions, routing nature,
Selection of paths and handling the links in Table 1.
3. PROPOSED SYSTEM
The work done in the literature survey gives a
detailed analysis of the current usage of many number of
message transmissions involved in routing, resulting in the
reduction of the performance of the network. With this
regard, a new routing protocol is proposed in order to
obtain a stabilized link which is more reliable, energy
efficient and covering minimum number of hops based on
the channel quality indicator metric. The proposed protocol
is a link quality based routing protocol with the following
steps
3.1 Route negotiation
Involves the sensing of the spectrum channels
between the source and destination for a suitable path. The
spectrum opportunities (SOP) are maintained by the nodes
along the sensed path. This can be represented as shown in
the Figure 4 below:
Figure 4 : Route negotiation for the proposed system.
3.2 Route establishment:
On receiving the SOPs, a route reply packet is sent
back which contains the choice of the node and the channel
quality indicator (CQI) which is calculated based on the
signal – to – noise (SNR) ratio obtained from the physical
layer. Using this information, an analysis is done on the
choices replied along with the route reply packets, giving
an overview of the primary along with alternate paths.
3.3 Route maintenance:
Takes care of link or node failure, or any
interruption from the primary user, along with the
maintenance of the existing paths.
Data transfer/ Acknowledgement: Once an optimized link
is setup reliable data transfer has to take place along with
the transfer of acknowledgement messages in case of
successful data transfer.

Table 1 :Summary of the Routing protocols in Cognitive Radio Networks (CRNs)

FEATURES SORP [15] LCB [17] STOD-RP [21] SAMER [24] SPEAR [25] SEARCH [26]
Throughput It is multi Adaptive Delay It’s better than hop It gives high Combination Avoids the PU’s
(end to end) frequency and and is count scheme throughput by of flow based Activity Region
multi-flow cooperative with Opportunistically and link base ,maintains end-
scheduling the routing utilizing high techniques to- end Latency
protocol trough put links
Route RREQ messages Broadcasts Broadcasts route Broadcast through Broadcasting Broadcasts
Discovery will be RREQ messages announcement link state packets RREQ RREQ messages
broadcasted message(RANN) message
using control
channel
Packet size of SOP list will be SOP list will be Each and every Depends on Hop- With the help Based on
route discovery appended by appended by node updates a field to-Hop calculation of time out geographic
each node each intermediate called “cumulative field routing
node metric”
Routing With the Decisions based Does not depend With the With the Based on
decisions cooperation of jointly on MAC upon the cross layer collaboration of collaboration geographic
network and and network physical and MAC of physical forwarding
MAC layers layers layers and MAC principle
layers
Route nature On demand On demand Periodical Periodical On demand On demand
Selection of Node delay and Decided mainly Based on basics of Based on spectrum Maximum Yes,
best path path delay (back based on the local and global availability and throughput Joint channel
off and switching Cumulative delay decision schemes minimum hop count ,link quality path optimization
delays ) of the path and minimum is used
hop count
Handling
4. link
CONCLUSION No Yes -- No Yes --
failures by redirecting Time out
The Routing in wireless networks have been facing many
the flow to field
another node

4. CONCLUSION
Many challenges were been faced in routing of the
wireless networks, In which the Cognitive Radio N/Ws
have also its own novel challenges in the upcoming future
.Thus, the routing in Cognitive Radio N/Ws is a difficult
task. As per the Survey undertaken, recently substantial
development in the routing protocols has been carried out
for Cognitive Radio N/Ws. Still, the new challenges can be
a raised and need to be addressed in the coming future by
the aid of research contributions in the approaches based on
some parameters like Delay, Link stability, Throughput
and Location based approaches.so, we come to a
conclusion that to overcome the problems on Route
Negotiation Establishment, Maintenance, QoS and mobility
of Primary and Secondary users were addressed .
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