EF2

ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTAL 2
(VOLUME 1)
STUDENT’S NOTES
(CODE: AAB10403/AKD10203)
Compiled by: Reference Text Book:

1. Sanderson, J (2004). A&P Technician: General
Textbook. Englewood, CO: Sanderson Training
Mohammad Faizal b. Mohd Sharif System.
Principal Specialist 2. Glencoe Aviation Technology Series – Aircraft
(Avionics) Electricity and Electronics
for UniKL MIAT Sdn Bhd 3. E.H.J Pallet (1987) 3rd Edition. Aircraft Electrical
Electrical Fundamental 2 (Rev 01 dated 17 July 14) Page 1 of 36

System. Pearson Prentice Hall.

TOPIC 1 CIRCUIT PROTECTION AND CONTROL DEVICES
OBJECTIVES AND FUNCTIONS
a) Developed to protect personnel and electrical circuits from currents and voltages
outside their normal operating range.
b) Used to stop current flow by opening the circuit.
c) Must always be connected in series with the circuit.
d) When open, indicate problem exist in the circuit.
e) Should isolate the faulty circuit from the other unaffected circuit.
f) Problems should be corrected before restoring the circuit current.
CIRCUIT CONDITIONS REQUIRING PROTECTION DEVICES.
a) Direct short or Short circuit – a path of current that bypass the load to directly flow
to the return side of the circuit
 Caused excessive current flow and heat.
b) Excessive current – caused by the decrease in resistance or total circuit impedance.
 Examples: Change in Ohmic value; Capacitor’s dielectric leakage; Partial short of
Inductor’s winding.
c) Excessive heat – generated by higher current or temperature.
 Examples: Overheat of the motor or generator due to bearing failure; Rise in
temperature around an electrical or electronic circuit due to failure of a cooling system.
TWO TYPES CIRCUIT PROTECTION DEVICE.
a) Fuse:-
 Made of low melting point alloy.

 Made of lead; lead and tin; tin and bismuth.
 When current flow become excessive, the metal alloy melts and opens the circuit.
 Not resettable and when blown must be replaced with new one.
 Rated according to the maximum continuous amperage they can carry.
i) Fast blow fuse - for general purpose use.

 Has narrow link of metal strip encased in a tubular glass.

ii) Slow blow fuse - used in power surge area.
 Larger fusible link held under tension by a small spring.
 Accept a momentary surge of current.
 A short delay before the metal link melts.
b) Circuit Breaker
 Automatically open the circuit when excessive current flow.

 Work on the principle of heat (bimetallic) or magnetic field.
 Have some mean to show it opened the circuit.
 Can be reset to restore the circuit after the fault corrected.
i) Push to reset
 Pop out when overload occur.

 Cannot manually open the circuit
 Cannot be used as a switch.
ii) Push-pull
 Pop out when overload – normally identified by white band.

 Can be manually pulled out to open the circuit.
 As switches for maintenance purpose.

iii) Toggle
 Use as control switch and circuit breaker.

 Toggle up when the circuit is closed.
 Pop partially down (center position) when overloaded.
 Restore circuit by moving toggle switch all the way down and then toggle up
iv) Automatic Circuit Breaker
 Not permitted for aircraft used.

 Function:-
 In the closed position the conductive snap–acting disc bridges the terminal
contacts.
 At predetermined overloads, the resistance heated up due to current passing
through the disc and snaps the disc into reverse position.
 This opens the contacts and breaks the circuit. After a short cooling time the disc
automatically closes and re–establishes the circuit.
v) Electronic Circuit Breaker
 use on large commercial aircraft to control overloaded power distribution circuits.

 Using inductive pickups called current transformer.
 Control Unit Computer monitor the pickups signals and opens the circuit breaker
if over current condition exist.
c) All aircraft CB is trip-free type
 Breaker contacts remain open as long as fault exists regardless of the actuating control
position.
 Allowed to cool before reset.
 Location - install as close as possible to the source – bus bar.

d) DC Circuit Protector Chart
WIRE AN GAUGE CIRCUIT

FUSE AMP.
COPPER BREAKER AMP.
22 5 5
20 7.5 5
18 10 10
16 15 10
14 20 15
12 30 20
10 40 30
8 50 50
6 80 70
4 100 70
2 125 100
1 150
0 150
ii) Use as a guide for the selection of circuit breaker and fuse rating to protect copper
conductor wire. Basis of Chart
 Wire bundles in 135°F ambient and altitudes up to 30, 000 feet.
 Wire bundles of 15 or more wire, with wires carrying no more than 20% of the
total carrying capacity of the bundle as given in Spec. MIL-W-5088 (ASG)
 Protectors in 75 to 85 °F ambient.
 Copper wire Spec. MIL-W-5088.
 Circuit breakers to Spec. MIL-C-5809 or equivalent.
 Fuses to Spec. MIL-F-15160 or equivalent
FOR CERTIFICATION OF A NORMAL, UTILITY, ACROBATIC OR COMMUTER

CATEGORY AIRCRAFT.
a) CFR 14 Part 23 Requirement -

 1 spare fuse of each rating; or
 50% of each rating whichever is greater.
b) CFR 14 Part 91 Requirement – Aircraft flying at night:
 must carry a spare set which may consists of a complete replacement set of fuses; or
 A quantity of 3 replacement fuse for each kind.
c) All spare fuses must be accessible to the pilot in flight.
Note: CFR = Code of Federal Regulation.
CIRCUIT CONTROL DEVICES
The device that turn a circuit ‘on’ and ‘off’ or ‘open’ and ‘close’.
SWITCHES - can be operated manually with a lever, button or electronically using transistor or
integrated circuit (IC).
Purpose – to interrupt the flow of current to the component
Rated - ampere and voltage, stamped on the switch housing / case.
- if missing, use reference manual for part number.

a) Toggle Switch
 used on older aircraft electrical system.

 operated using a lever.
 replaced due the design that can be inadvertently operated.
b) Rocker Switch – replaced toggle switch for easier operations, more attractive and
safer installation.
 available with a number of different contact arrangements.

 named according to the number of circuits it control and the number of sets of poles it
have.
c) Switch Contact Configuration

 The switches are designed in different contact arrangements.
i) Single pole, single throw (SPST)

 Have 2 contacts and control only one circuit – either ‘on’ or ‘off’.
ii) Single pole, double throw (SPDT)

 Select 2 conditions for a single circuit.
 Example: Flap motor switch which has 2 positions of either to raise or lower flaps.

iii) Double pole, single throw (DPST)
 control two circuits with only an ‘open’ and ‘close’ position.
 Advantage: both circuits are controlled together but are fused separately.
iv) Double pole, double throw (DPDT)

 Control 2 circuits in 2 conditions.
 May have 2 or 3 positions.
 2 positions – “on” and “off” conditions.
 3 positions – 3 conditions with centre “off”.
v) Momentary Switches
 Held in a particular position to actuate a circuit.
vi) Rotary or Wafer Switches

 To select several conditions for a circuit.
 made up of wafers with contacts arrange radially around the central shaft and contact
arm.
 may control as many circuits as are needed.
vii) Precision (Micro) Switches

 Known by its trade name as MicroswitchesTM.
 Operate by actuating the plunger to cause the internal spring to snap the contacts
open or close.
 When used to limit the movement of a mechanism, they are typically called Limit
Switch.
RELAYS AND SOLENOIDS
 Used to remotely control components which are located in places on the aircraft away from
the control device.
 A small switch can be used to control a large amount of current needed to operate high
current device.
 Magnetically activated.
 Sometimes referred as contactors by aircraft manufacturers.
a) Relays
 Categorized by either normally opened or closed.
 Has a fixed soft-iron core around which an electromagnetic coil is wound.
 Depending on the category, the movable contacts are closed or opened by the magnetic
pull exerted by the core when the coil is energized or de-energized.
b) Solenoids
 A movable core that is pulled into the center of an electromagnetic coil when the coil is
energized.
 Respond quicker and stronger than relays.
SWITCH DERATING
 means that a switch must be rated to sustain more voltage and current than what the circuit
normally carries continuously.
 due to the switch’s contacts may be subjected to high voltage spike as switch is turned off or
high current flow through the contacts when the switch is initially closed.
 Circuits that need to have their switch derated are lamp, inductive (relay/solenoid), resistive
(heater) and motor.

a) Switch Derating Factor Chart
 To determine the proper nominal switch ratings so as to obtain reasonable switch

efficiency and service life.
 E.g. lamp operated continuously at 5A in 24V system. The nominal capacity of a switch =
5A X 8 = 40 A ( nominal Rating)
 Aircraft toggle switch rated at 12V for 35 A is to be installed in lamp circuit. The
continuous current flow = 35A ÷ 5 = 7A. Therefore, continuous current should not more
than 7A.
 Switch contact – the material is carefully selected to avoid failure
 DO NOT use AC derated switches in DC circuit, since the amperage capacity is different.
SWITCH INSTALLATION
 Two position switch – should be mounted with the upward or forward movement of the switch
obtains the “on” position.
 Component control switch – installed so that the switch moved in the same direction as the
desired motion of the component.
 Emergency circuit switch – enclosed in a guard cover which can lifted up before the switch can
be actuated.
• If the switch can be operated inadvertently, the guard cover may be wired with a
lightweight safety wire that can be broken to gain access to the switch.

TOPIC 2 THREE PHASE SYSTEM
It is possible for an ac system to consist of one phase, two phases or indeed as many phases as the
designer wishes. However for ac generation on aircraft a three phase system is used (most national
power grid systems are based on 3 phase ac supplies, although there is normally only one phase
supplied to each domestic consumer).
Figure 1 shows the basic principles of a single, two and three phase ac supply.
FIGURE 1 One, Two & Three Phase Supplies
In (a) the single phase generator has one rotating coil (wound many times) with one cable going
to the consumer units (assuming an earth return via the airframe).
In (b) there are two coils on the same armature at 90° to each other and there would be two
cables going to the consumer units.
In (c) there are three coils on the same armature at 120° to each other producing three outputs at
120° phase difference. Three supply cables would be used - one for each phase, each going to its own
bus on the aircraft.
It is usual to connect the phases together into either a STAR () configuration or DELTA ()
configuration. It is standard practice to identify each phase in a three phase system as Red (R), Yellow
(Y) and Blue (B). This-is their phase sequence or phase-rotation.
STAR CONNECTED GENERATOR
In this system, the finish of each winding is connected to a common point called the NEUTRAL or
STAR point. The three LINES are taken from the start of each phase winding, as shown in figure 2.
FIGURE 2 STAR Connected Generator

It can be seen from the diagram that the Line Current and Phase Current are the same:
IL = Iph
It can also be seen that Line Voltage is derived from the two phases that are connected across each
pair of lines. Because the phase voltages are 120° out of phase with each other, the Line voltage is
found by multiplying the Phase Voltage by √3,
V L = √3 x Vph
The following points should be borne in mind:
)a When a NEUTRAL Line is connected, two separate systems and voltages are available. (This
is the main advantage of this system).
i) Three separate single-phase (Line-to Neutral) systems, each operating at Phase Voltage.
The UK domestic phase voltage is 240 volts at 50 Hz, whilst aircraft phase voltage is 115
volts at 400 Hz.
ii) A three-phase (Line-to-Line) system. The UK domestic line voltage is 415 volts at 50 Hz
whilst aircraft line voltage is 200 volts at 400 Hz.
b) Although the Neutral Line-, is connected to 'earth', it must-NOT be confused with the 'earth'
connection in a three-pin domestic socket, for example, which is a separate earth provided for
fault protection.
c) If the individual loading cross each of the three phases identical, the load are said to be
BALANCED. When such a condition exists, no current will flow along the neutral line to or
from the generator. The neutral line only carries out-of-balance currents in the system.
(Because a three-phase line-to-line load (eg a motor) is bound to be balanced, no neutral
connection need be made to it).
d) Phase voltage (Vph) is measured between any line and the neutral line.
e) Line voltage (VL) is measured between any two lines.
f) Frequency is ALWAYS expressed as the frequency of a SINGLE PHASE ---it is not

multiplied by three-phase system.
DELTA CONNECTED GENERATOR
By reference to the drawing it can be seen that

LINE voltage (VL) and PHASE voltage (Vph) is
the same (VL = Vph)
FIGURE 3 DELTA Connected Generator

It can also be seen that the LINE current is derived from the currents that are flowing in the two
windings that are connected to that particular line. As the phases are 120° out-of-phase with
each other the LINE current (I L ) is found by multiplying PHASE current (Iph) by √3.
IL = √3 Iph
The following points should be noted:
a) There will be no circulating current in the closed Delta loop because circulating the
Phasor sum of the three emfs is zero. Instantaneous values of current and voltage in
a three-phase system always total zero.
b) As the Delta system is a three-wire system it is not possible to pro vide an earthed
neutral line. (See star connected systems).
FIGURE 4 Three Phase
The Three Phase Voltages
As the output windings of the generator are identical, their outputs will be winding of equal
amplitude. These outputs are represented both graphically and as phasors in figures 4 and 5.
FIGURE 5 Three Phase Phasor Diagram
If the values above zero (figure 4) are called ‘+’ and those below zero are called ‘-‘, the sum of the
voltages at any instant in time is always zero.
A Symmetrical Three-Phase System
This is one in which the phase voltages are of the same magnitude and of the same phase
displacement. (The phase currents may have differing magnitudes and phase displacements,
depending upon the type and magnitude of the phase loads).

FIGURE 6 Balanced Three Phase System
A Balanced Three-Phase System
This is one in which the phase loads are equal and, therefore, the phase currents are equal in
magnitude and are operating at the same phase angle. The phasor diagram is shown in figure 7.
(The sum of the instantaneous currents in a BALANCED system always equals zero).
FIGURE 7 Phasor Diagram – Balanced Three Phase System
The relationships Between Line and Phase Voltages
If the instantaneous values of two phases (say, A and B) are added together, the result will be a
third waveform (line AB). To do this with phasors, it is necessary to reverse one of the two (say B)
and then add the two phasors as shown in figure 8. If this process is repeated in the same order for
the other two pairs of phases, the result will be as shown in figure 9.
FIGURE 8 ‘Addition’ of Phasor - 1

FIGURE 9 ‘Addition’ of Phasor - 2
The following points should be noted:
a) The three phase voltages are 120° apart from each other.
b) The three line voltages are 120° apart from each other.
c) There is a phase angle of 30° between any phase voltage and it's associated line voltage.
d) There is a phase angle of 90° between any phase voltage and its `opposite' line voltage. This
relationship is often overlooked but is important to understand as it is widely used in control
circuitry.
)i Phase A voltage is at 90° to Line BC voltage.
)ii Phase A voltage is at 90° to Line BC voltage.
)iii Phase A voltage is at 90° to Line BC voltage.
Power in a Balanced Three-Phase System
In the Star and Delta connected loads shown in figure 10, the True Power in each phase is given
by:
P = Vph Iph cos Ø Watts
In a symmetrical and balanced system, the True Power is given by the sum of the phase powers.
P = 3 Vph Iph cos Ø Watts
It is however, usual to express True Power in terms of line values, in which case it is given by
P = √3 VL IL cos Ø Watts
FIGURE 10 Power in a Balanced Three Phase System

TOPIC 3 TRANSFORMER
A transformer consists of two coils adjacent to each other and an AC supply is applied to one coil
known as the PRIMARY. The other coil is known as the SECONDARY. The changing current in
the primary creates a fluctuating magnetic field that induces changing a voltage in the secondary
coil (mutual) inductance as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1 Mutual Inductance
For a transformer to work efficiently, all the lines of flux created by the current in the primary
should link with the secondary. This is not possible but to try and get close to this on low frequency
transformer an iron core is used. It is suitably laminated to reduce eddy current losses. Because of
its high permeability the iron concentrates, and increases the lines of flux, and flux loss is small.
Figure 2 Iron Core Transformer
The principle is shown in figure 2. Each winding in the coil is insulated and the two coils are
insulated from one another and the iron core.
If the secondary is connected to a load, a secondary (AC) current flows and power is developed in
the load. A transformer does not generate power it merely transfers power from the primary to the
secondary.
TURNS RATIO
If the primary and secondary coils are identical, assuming no losses and the secondary coil is open
circuit, the emf induce in the primary coil will be
almost equal to but opposite in phase to the
applied voltage. This secondary coil will
produce a mutually induced voltage which
is exactly the same as the primary back emf.

Figure 3 Primary & Secondary Voltage Waveforms
If the number of turns on the secondary is increased its inductance increases, and hence the
induced emf increases.
If the secondary has twice the number of turns of the primary the secondary voltage will be
twice the applied voltage at the primary.
With three times as many turns on the secondary as the primary, the secondary emf will be
three times that in the primary.
Secondary voltage (Vs) is T times the primary voltage (Vp).
Vs = T x Vp
Where T is the TURNS RATIO

= Number of turns on the secondary (Ns)
Number of turns on the primary (NP)
Vs = Ns x V p
Np
or Vs = Ns
Vp Np
TRANSFORMATION RATIO (T)
The ratio of Vs, to Vp (or Ns to Np) is known as the Transformation Ratio. If Vs is smaller than
Vp then the output will be less than the input and the transformer is called a Step-down
transformer.
A Step-up transformer is one in which Vs is greater than Vp. When using Transformation Ratios,
IT IS CONVENTIONAL TO ALWAYS PUT THE SECONDARY VOLTAGE BEFORE THE
PRIMARY VOLTAGE.
Thus, a transformation ratio of 4:1 means that the output voltage will be four times the input
voltage (step-up) and a transformation ratio of 1:3 means that the output voltage will be
one-third the input voltage (step-down).
Any chance of confusion on this point can, of course, be obviated by the use of the appropriate
term of or 'step-down' after the stated ratio.

Example.
A transformer is wound with 100 turns on the primary and 450 turns on the secondary. The primary
is connected to a 250 volts ac supply. Find the secondary voltage.
Vs = V P x Ns
NP
= 250 x 450
100
= 1125 volts
If there are more turns on the secondary than on the primary i.e. T greater then 1 the secondary
voltage is greater than the primary and we have a STEP-UP transformer (in Figure 4).
Figure 4 Step-up Transformer
If there are fewer turns on the secondary than on the primary i.e. T less: than 1 then the secondary
voltage is less than input voltage and we have a STEP-DOWN transformer.
Figure 5 Step-up Transformer
Assuming no losses then the input power of a transformer equals the output power.
Vp Ip = Vs Is
Therefore in a step-up transformer where the voltage is stepped up the current is stepped down and
in a step-down transformer where the voltage is stepped down the current is stepped up.
As Vp Ip = Vs Is
Then Ip = Vs
Is = Vp
and as Vs = Ns
Vp Np
then Ip = Vs = Ns
Is Vp Np

Figure 6 Voltage & Current in Secondary
TRANSFORMER LOSSES
We have been neglecting losses in the transformer and in most calculations we do indeed neglect
the losses. However there are losses and you should be aware of them. Losses may be due to
IRON LOSSES and COPPER LOSSES.
Figure 7 Transformer Losses
Iron losses are due to two causes, eddy currents and hysteresis. To reduce eddy current losses
we laminate the core and hysteresis losses are reduced by choosing a material such as silicon
steel, stalloy or permalloy which have low hysteresis loss.
The resistive losses in the wires are called copper losses, which are due to 12R losses of passing
current through the resistance of the copper wire through the windings.
If all the primary flux does not link with the secondary then flux leakage occurs, these may be
reduced by the design of the core.
All these losses are taken into consideration in the design of a transformer and in most transformers
the losses are small and high efficiencies result (98% to 99%) (The average motor car efficiency is
30 to 40 %).
TRANSFORMER ON NO-LOAD
The primary in figure 8 has a 100VAC supply and its secondary is open-circuited (no load). The
current that flows in the primary will cause an alternating flux in the core which will induce a
voltage of 200VAC in the secondary winding (check the turns ratio).

Figure 8 Transformer – No Load
The primary alternating flux will also induce a back-emf into the primary winding in opposition to
the applied emf. The effective emf acting on the primary is therefore very small and only a very
small current will flow into the primary winding.
The foregoing is, of course, a description of inductive reactance, X L. The very small current that
flows in the primary is that current which is necessary to overcome losses and to magnetize the
core. The primary and secondary voltages are in anti-phase and it is usual to show them in this
manner on a phasor diagram.
Because the circuit is inductive, the off-load primary current will lag behind the primary voltage.
The in-phase component of this current is overcoming copper losses and the quadrature component
is magnetising the core.
TRANSFORMER ON-LOAD
If the secondary is now carrying current it is important to note that this current provides a flux in
the core which opposes the primary flux and so reduces the total flux in the core. This means that
the primary back-emf is reduced, with a consequent increase in effective emf in the primary and
so an increase in primary current. Therefore increase in loading on the secondary increases
primary current. The phasor diagram below shows the transformer on load.
The phasor diagram shows how the load current (Is) is transformed through 180° to become the
primary load current (Ip) this is combined with the off load current (lo). To give the total primary
current (IPTOTAL) a phasor drawing as shown below is produced.
Figure 9 Phasor Diagram for a Transformer

TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS
A transformer is not confined to having just one output winding and voltage. It can have a
secondary winding with various tappings to give differing output voltages, or it can have a
combination of both. It is therefore a very versatile piece of equipment. It must be realised that
the individual loads on all these secondaries will all combine to be effectively one load as far as the
primary winding is concerned.
Figure 10 Secondary Windings
PHASING DOTS
Figure 11 shows a transformer with three secondary windings. The dots at the ends of the windings
are called phasing dots, they show that the polarity at those points will be the same at the same
moment in time, i.e. points A, D and E will all be positive together and all negative together.
The centre winding is therefore of opposite polarity to the other two secondary windings. That is
winding 1 and 3 will have a 180° phase shift from the input while winding 2 will be in phase with the
input. It will of course be wounding the opposite sense.
Figure 11 Phasing Dot

EFFICIENCY
The efficiency of a transformer is

Output power x 100%
Input power
As the input is equal to the output + losses, so efficiency may be expressed as
Output power x 100%

Output power + copper losses + iron losses
Iron losses are reasonably constant, but copper losses vary as the square of the currents flowing.
Efficiency is greatest when copper losses are equal to iron losses.
REGULATION
As more current is drawn from the secondary of a transformer the terminal voltage falls as copper
losses increase. The difference between the secondary voltage at no load and the secondary voltage
at full load is expressed as a percentage and is known as the REGULATION of the transformer.
REGULATION = NO LOAD VOLTAGE - FULL LOAD VOLTAGE x 100%

FULL LOAD VOLTAGE
Typically this is 1 to 2 %
TRANSFORMER TYPES
Low Frequency Transformers
These are usually used within the af (audio frequency) range.
The core or former of a transformer on which the coils are wound is invariably one of two types,
the CORE type or the SHELL type. The coils forming the Primary winding and the Secondary
winding(s) are wound so as to be in the closest proximity to each other in order to
achieve the maximum flux linkage (low flux leakage).
Winding the primary of a step-up transformer nearest to the core and then winding the secondary on
top of it has the added advantage of keeping the primary insulation between the higher voltage
secondary and the metal core.
Core type.- The laminations are either U- and I-shaped or L-shaped. They are staggered when
assembled to provide a single magnetic circuit. The windings can be on one limb or split
between the two limbs (figure 12).
Shell type. The laminations are usually T- and U-shaped and are staggered when assembled to give
a three-limbed former (figure 12).
This gives two magnetic paths and this type, whilst more expensive to build, is more suitable for
use with large values of current.
When used for single-phase work, each limb is allocated to the primary and secondary windings of
one particular phase.

It should be noted, that of transformers can be used as 'matching' impedances. They may also be
used as isolation transformers when the primary and secondary have the same number of turns so
Vp = Vs. It is a way of isolating electrically one circuit from another without altering the ac
conditions.
Figure 12 Transformer Type
HIGH FREQUENCY TRANSFORMERS
Radio frequency (RF) transformers are used in radio transmitters and receivers and are
designed to work at frequencies from 100 kHz to 100 MHz. RF transformers do not have iron cores
because iron losses would be high at such high frequencies. Some high frequency transformers
consist of the primary and secondary wound on an insulating tube made of paxolin or polystyrene.
All of the primary flux does not link with the secondary.
Figure 13 High Frequency Transformer
They are inefficient for power transfer and secondary voltage is no longer equal to T (turns ratio)
times the primary voltage.
RF transformers often have iron dust (ferrite) cores which are used to adjust the coil inductance or
modify the coupling effect between the two coils. Other RF transformers might have the coils
wound on a ferrite rod to act as an aerial receiving arrangement. In nearly all cases, one or both of
the coils will be-tuned by parallel capacitors to be resonant at one, fixed frequency or us adjustable
over a range of frequencies.

THE AUTO TRANSFORMER
This is a special type of transformer that has only a single winding which serves as both the
primary and the secondary. It follows that a portion of the winding is common to both the input and
the output. It may be used either as a step-up or as a step-down transformer. The single winding is
wound on a laminated iron core forming a closed magnetic circuit.
If an ac supply is applied to the primary terminals, an alternating current will flow through
those coils connected across P1 and P2. This will set up an alternating flux which will link with
all of the turns on the former, inducing a voltage in each.
Figure 14 Auto - Transformer
The output voltage is therefore that which appears in the coils across terminals S1 and S2. Loading
the secondary will have the same effect as described for the Power Transformer.
If the current flow is considered for one particular half-cycle, it will be seen that the primary and
secondary currents are opposing each other in the common portion of the winding.
The actual current flow in the common portion is therefore the difference between the two currents.
This means that cross-section area of the copper can be decreased in the common portion, bringing
about a saving in weight.
This saving is obviously most beneficial on auto-transformers, where the input voltage and the
output voltage are very close together and the vast majority of the winding is common.
One disadvantage of this type of transformer, especially when used as a step-down is that, in the
event of an open-circuit occurring in the common portion of the winding, the input voltage will be
applied to the load.
They are increasingly found in aircraft lighting circuits for example.
THE QUADRATURE TRANSFORMER OR MUTUAL REACTOR
This device was known about for many years but no practical use was made of it until the advent
of constant frequency ac systems in aircraft with their associated control systems.
A device was required that gave a phase angle of 90° between the current in one circuit and a
signal being put into another circuit. The angle between the primary current in a quadrature
transformer and its secondary voltage is (for all practical purposes) 90°.

To explain its operation, consider first of all a normal power transformer and its basic off-load
phasor diagram (figure 15).
Figure 15 Off-Load Phasor Diagram
Figure 16 Quadrature Transformer
If an air gap is cut in the former of the transformer, more current will be required to magnetise the
core to overcome the increased reluctance. As the magnetising element of the primary current is at
90° to the applied voltage, it can be seen that the primary current is increased and at the same time
moved around until it is almost 90° behind the applied voltage (figure 17).
It also follows that the primary current is almost at 90° ahead of the secondary emf.
This is the purpose of the Quadrature Transformer. In understanding the use to which it is put, it is
best to forget the applied voltage and to remember that if a current is forced through the primary,
the secondary emf will occur 90° after it.
The air gap has an optimum size and is usually beneath the windings, so it looks just like any other
small transformer. It is only used to obtain signal voltages and cannot be loaded to any great extent.
Figure 17 Phasor Diagram for Quadrature Transformer

THE CURRENT TRANSFORMER

The Current Transformer is designed to enable circuit currents to be measured without breaking
into the circuit; as is necessary with an ammeter or its shunt. The output of the current transformer
may be applied directly to an instrument or be used-in control circuits.
It works on the principle of mutual inductance but its construction and mode of operation are
different to that of the voltage transformer. It has a step-up turns ratio with the primary being the
load's supply cable as shown in figure 18. The secondary winding (of many turns of fine wire) is
wound on a non-laminated toroidal core of silicon iron.
Figure 18 The Current Transformer

Operation
When the load passes through the supply cable, it creates a magnetic field along its whole length
which is constantly building-up, collapsing, reversing, building-up, etc. It is this flux which
induces emfs into the coils of the secondary winding.
As the ring former and secondary coil take up a very small length of the primary cable, it is
obvious that, whatever happens at the secondary, the effect on the primary will be virtually nil. The
primary, which depends on the load, may therefore be regarded as a constant current / constant flux
supply.
The voltage in the secondary winding causes a current to flow through its load and through the
secondary winding. This produces a secondary flux which opposes the primary flux and so keeps
the core flux to a very low level. This is a most important point to remember because if the primary
is operated with the secondary winding disconnected from its load there will be no secondary emf
to oppose the primary emf.
This will result in a high core flux; increased eddy currents in the core; increased voltages in the
individual secondary coils; and overheating.
The result is that the current transformer will burn out. (Even if the mistake is realised and the
system is switched off before it actually burns out, the core may be pre-magnetised, or biased, and
cannot therefore be relied upon to be accurate).
If it is necessary to operate the primary hen the secondary load is disconnected, short together the
secondary terminals. This will cause a secondary terminals and flux and so keep the core flux to a
minimum.
If the current transformer is supplying a load such as an ammeter, then the actual connections may
not matter and the ammeter will indicate whichever way it is connected up. This is not true,
however, when the current transformer feeding signals into control circuits, where it is essential to
get the phasing right.

If the secondary connections are crossed, the output will be turned through 180° causing untold
havoc in the control circuit. It is absolutely essential to get the secondary connections correct.
In the same way, if a current transformer is being fitted over its primary cable, it is absolutely
essential to physically position it the right way round.
Summary
1. When fitting a current transformer make sure it is fitted the correct way round.
2. When connecting the secondary to its load, make sure it is correctly fitted.
1. Never operate the primary circuit with the secondary open-circuited. Short it out.
4. Never operate a current transformer on anything other than its designed load.
4. In some cases, the current transformer and its load are a matched pair. (They may even
carry the same serial numbers). If one is changed, then the other must also be changed.
5. When they are used in control circuitry, remember that the secondary output is a supply
source proportional to the primary current flow.
THE IMPEDANCE MATCHING TRANSFORMER
Besides using transformers to change ac values of voltage and current, we can also use them
between a source of supply and a load circuit to 'match' the impedance's of the two circuits.
In any circuit: Impedance Z = V/I
Therefore, in a transformer, the impedance Zs of the secondary is the ratio of secondary voltage to
secondary current and the impedance Zp of the primary is the ratio of the primary voltage to the
primary current.
The primary and secondary voltages and currents are related to each other by the Turns Ratio of the
transformer and so it follows that the impedance’s must be related also. This relationship is given
by:
Zp = Zs / T2
This means that a secondary load impedance of Zs appears to the source of supply to be an
impedance (Zp) to the value of Zs/T2.
Example:
If a transformer with a turns ratio (T) of 3 is connected to a load impedance (Zs) of 9000ohms, the
supply source `sees' an impedance of 9000/9 = 1000 ohms.
Figure 19 Impedance Matching - 1

Maximum power is transferred from a source of supply to a load circuit only when the load
impedance is equal to the internal impedance of the source of supply. If we have a case where, they
are not equal and we want maximum power to be transferred, we can use the impedance matching
effect of a transformer to achieve the necessary conditions. It is not very difficult to make a load
impedance appear to the supply source to be equal to the supply source's own impedance.
Example:
The 4 ohms impedance shown in figure 20 must be made to appear to the supply source to be equal
to 10,000 ohms.
From the formula Zp = Zs/T2, we need to find T.

By transposition, T2 = Zs/Zp = 4 / 10,000 = 1/2,500, therefore T = 1/50.
This means that a 50:1 step-down transformer will transform the 4 ohms in the secondary to 10,000
ohms in the primary and maximum power is then transferred to the load.
Figure 20 Impedance Matching - 2
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMERS
A 3 phase transformer is effectively three interconnected single phase transformers with their
windings combined on a single magnetic circuit. The most common method of construction is the
core type shown in figure 21.
Figure 21 Three Phase Transformer
There are four combinations for three phase transformers:

- Star-Star
- Delta-Delta
- Delta-Star
- Star-Delta
Figure 22 Configurations of Three Phase Transformer
Figure 23 Star-Star Three Phase Transformer
Figure 24 Delta-Delta Three Phase Transformer
Calculations for STAR-STAR transformers are as for single phase transformers except for power.

Power = VL IL cos Ø. There is no phase shift between input and output.
Again, for DELTA-DELTA transformers single phase calculations apply except for power.
Power = √3 x VL IL cos Ø. Again there is no phase shift between input and output.
Figure 25 Star-Delta Three Phase Transformer
Figure 26 Delta-Star Three Phase Transformer
The STAR-DELTA transformer has a √3 : 1 step-down ratio in addition to the effect of the turns
ratio. Figure 25 assumes 1:1 turns ratio. With this step-down in line voltage there is a 30° phase
shift.
The DELTA-STAR transformer has a 1 : √3- step-up ratio of line voltage in addition to the effect of
the turns ratio. Figure 26 assumes 1:1 ratio. With this step-up in line voltage there is a 30° phase
shift.

TOPIC 4 FILTERS
Earlier we found that in an RLC series circuit as the frequency was increased up to resonance the
current increased, after resonance a further increase in frequency resulted in a decrease in current.
There was therefore a band of frequencies in which the current was relatively high, and
outside this range the current was relatively low. Such a response is representative of the action of a
FILTER. More definitively a component which is designed to block certain frequencies and
pass others is also called a filter.
We shall consider the simple form of the following filters: low pass, high pass, band pass and band
stop.
LOW PASS FILTER
A filter which passes all frequencies from zero up to some value f c (known as the cut-off
frequency) and blocks all those above this value is known as a LOW PASS FILTER. Figure 1
shows the, characteristics, the ideal is the shaded area, the practical operation is shown by the
curve.
Figure
1
Graph
of Low
Pass
Filter
Characteristics
Figure 2 Low Pass Filter Circuits
The simple form of the filter is made up of inductors and capacitors, two examples are shown in
figure 2. At very low frequencies the impedance of the capacitor is high, acting almost like an open
circuit. At very high frequencies the capacitor acts almost like a short circuit (XC= 1/2πfc).
The impedance of the inductor is low at low frequencies and high at high frequencies (XL = 2πfc).
With a combination of these two different effects the voltage gain tends to zero as shown in the
graph. By using a type π type filter the voltage drops off more steeply.

L
Design impedance Ro = ohms
C
1
and fc = Hz, and the value of L for the filter can be calculated from:
 LC
Ro 1
L = fc and C = Rofc
HIGH PASS FILTER
This is the opposite to the low pass filter and attenuates (blocks) all frequencies up to the cut-off
frequency and passes all frequencies above this value. It is called a HIGH PASS FILTER. Figure
88 shows the characteristic graph and again the shaded area is the ideal-and the curve shows the
practical operation. Simple circuits for this form of filter are shown in figure 4.
Figure 3 Characteristic Curve for a High Pass Filter
This filter requires components that allows current flow at high frequencies but also acts as an open
circuit at low frequencies, this can be achieved by a capacitor in series. The parallel element must
have the property of a short circuit at low frequencies but have large impedance at high frequencies
and this is satisfied by an inductor.
Figure 4 Simple Circuits for High Pass Filters
L
Again in this case the design impedance is Ro =
C
1
And the cut-off frequency fc =
4 LC
Ro 1
L = 4fc and C = 4Rofc
BAND PASS FILTER

A filter that passes all frequency components between some low cut-off frequency fc1, and some
high cut-off frequency fc2 and blocks all frequencies below fc 1, and above fc2 is a BAND PASS
FILTER.
Figure 5 shows the characteristic ideal and practical range. Figure 6 a simple circuit for band pass
filter.
Figure. 5 Characteristic Curve for a Band Pass Filter
Figure. 6 Simple Circuit for a Band Pass Filter
1
With reference to figure 6, the series element is a series resonant circuit where fo = and
2 LC
acts like a capacitance at low frequencies and inductances at high frequencies. The shunt element is
a parallel resonant circuit, which has a large impedance at the resonant frequency which falls to
low values at other frequencies. So this filter allows signals in the region of the resonant frequency
to pass but blocks higher or lower frequencies.
BAND STOP FILTER
A filter that stops the transmission of frequencies between fc1 and fc2. Figure 7 shows the
characteristics.
The series element this time is a parallel resonant circuit and the shunt element is a series resonant
circuit.

Figure. 7 Characteristic of a Band Stop Filter
Figure. 8 Simple Circuit for a Band Stop Filter
At the lower frequencies the series resonant circuit impedances is high and the parallel resonant
circuit impedance around the resonant frequencies the parallel circuit impedance high and the
series is low, therefore-frequencies are blocked in this range. As the frequency increases the
parallel circuit impedance falls and the series circuit increases so frequencies are passed again.
Applications
We have looked at some simple filter arrangements and it should be realized other filters will be
quite sophisticated and will be combined with operational amplifiers. Some applications of filters
in aircraft are:
 Communication transceivers.
Radio, marker beacon and ILS receivers. Engine vibration monitoring systems.
Automatic flight control systems (AFCS).
Flight director systems (FDS).
Voice recorders
DIFFERENTIATORS

Figure 9 shows a simple differentiator circuit consisting of a resistor (R) and a capacitor (C). This
circuit could be used as a high pass filter, however, with a square wave input and a short time
constant compared to the input pulse, it can be used as a differentiating circuit.
Fig. 9 Differentiator
Figure. 10 Input/ Output Graphs – Differentiator’
Figure 10 shows the input pulse (V) and the voltages across C (Vc) and R (VR).
Note that:
(a) The voltage output across C is a very close approximation to the shape of the input pulse, the
shorter the time constant (CR) the better the approximation.
(b) The output across R consists of two very narrow pulses of opposite sign, one coinciding with
the start, the other with the end of the pulse.
(c) VR = VO.
The output is therefore proportional to how fast the input voltage changes, i.e it is sensitive to rate
of change on input voltage.
INTEGRATORS

If the positions of C and R are changed and we make the time constant large compared to the input
pulse we have an integrating circuit (figure 11). (Note this basic circuit could be used as a low pass
filter). Figure 12 shows the input pulse to a RC circuit with a long time constant and the resulting
output across the capacitor.
Figure. 11 Integrator Circuit
Figure. 12 Graph of Integrator Input/Output
The integrator therefore takes an input and produces an output across the capacitor over a period of
time depending on the values of CR, i.e. the output is proportional to the time-integral of the input.

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ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTAL 2

Compiled by: Reference Text Book:

Electrical Fundamental 2 (Rev 01 dated 17 July 14) Page 1 of 36

Electrical Fundamental 2 (Rev 01 dated 17 July 14) Page 2 of 36

OBJECTIVES AND FUNCTIONS

CIRCUIT CONDITIONS REQUIRING PROTECTION DEVICES.

TWO TYPES CIRCUIT PROTECTION DEVICE.

 Made of low melting point alloy.

i) Fast blow fuse - for general purpose use.

Electrical Fundamental 2 (Rev 01 dated 17 July 14) Page 3 of 36

 Automatically open the circuit when excessive current flow.

 Pop out when overload occur.

 Pop out when overload – normally identified by white band.

Electrical Fundamental 2 (Rev 01 dated 17 July 14) Page 4 of 36

 Use as control switch and circuit breaker.

iv) Automatic Circuit Breaker

 Not permitted for aircraft used.

v) Electronic Circuit Breaker

 use on large commercial aircraft to control overloaded power distribution circuits.

c) All aircraft CB is trip-free type

Electrical Fundamental 2 (Rev 01 dated 17 July 14) Page 5 of 36

WIRE AN GAUGE CIRCUIT

FOR CERTIFICATION OF A NORMAL, UTILITY, ACROBATIC OR COMMUTER

a) CFR 14 Part 23 Requirement -

CIRCUIT CONTROL DEVICES

Electrical Fundamental 2 (Rev 01 dated 17 July 14) Page 6 of 36

 used on older aircraft electrical system.

 available with a number of different contact arrangements.

c) Switch Contact Configuration

i) Single pole, single throw (SPST)

ii) Single pole, double throw (SPDT)

Electrical Fundamental 2 (Rev 01 dated 17 July 14) Page 7 of 36

iv) Double pole, double throw (DPDT)

vi) Rotary or Wafer Switches

vii) Precision (Micro) Switches

Electrical Fundamental 2 (Rev 01 dated 17 July 14) Page 8 of 36

RELAYS AND SOLENOIDS

Electrical Fundamental 2 (Rev 01 dated 17 July 14) Page 9 of 36

 To determine the proper nominal switch ratings so as to obtain reasonable switch

Electrical Fundamental 2 (Rev 01 dated 17 July 14) Page 10 of 36

FIGURE 1 One, Two & Three Phase Supplies

STAR CONNECTED GENERATOR

FIGURE 2 STAR Connected Generator

Electrical Fundamental 2 (Rev 01 dated 17 July 14) Page 11 of 36

The following points should be borne in mind:

e) Line voltage (VL) is measured between any two lines.

f) Frequency is ALWAYS expressed as the frequency of a SINGLE PHASE ---it is not

DELTA CONNECTED GENERATOR

By reference to the drawing it can be seen that

FIGURE 3 DELTA Connected Generator

Electrical Fundamental 2 (Rev 01 dated 17 July 14) Page 12 of 36

The following points should be noted:

FIGURE 4 Three Phase

The Three Phase Voltages

FIGURE 5 Three Phase Phasor Diagram

A Symmetrical Three-Phase System

Electrical Fundamental 2 (Rev 01 dated 17 July 14) Page 13 of 36

A Balanced Three-Phase System

FIGURE 7 Phasor Diagram – Balanced Three Phase System

The relationships Between Line and Phase Voltages

FIGURE 8 ‘Addition’ of Phasor - 1

Electrical Fundamental 2 (Rev 01 dated 17 July 14) Page 14 of 36

The following points should be noted:

Power in a Balanced Three-Phase System