1.

Introduction and Method of Research

In our recent time, it seems that everything that men can do, women can already do it as

well. A job for a man can also be a job for a woman. In the old times, it is only man who works

for the family but now, it also seems that both husband and wife are to provide for the family and

work for any legal profession even without the consent of the other. Actually, it is much better if

both spouses are working for their family. We can also realize that before, only men can enter

politics, but now, there are women who occupied not only on the lower position in the

government, but also on the highest position such as Former President Corazon Aquino and

Pampanga representative Former President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo. Currently, there are news

that again, a female candidate will run for presidency on the upcoming election in 2016. Even in

the judiciary, it also has its very first female Chief Justice CJ Maria Lourdes Sereno. These mere

examples go to show that our world is often changing its rules particularly its customs. The

females or women who used to be slaves or who used to be just, simple and ordinary plain

housewife is already out to conquer the world. But though this is the case, there are still a lot of

issues for us to improve particularly on how we see and treat women. There are still a lot of

discrimination and inequality these women are experiencing in many aspects including their

families and career.’

Both men and women are experiencing gender biases; however, most of it are being

experienced by the women. Man is perceived to be inherently aggressive and violent, they do not

feel pain or incapable of experiencing deep human emotions. They are also inherently

compulsive in their sexuality and do not need closeness, reassurance, and attention. Men are

expected to be tough and not to show any signs of weaknesses. While the women are exposed to

economic marginalization, gender stereotyping, multiple burden, subordination and violence.

 Gender bias is an unequal treatment in employment opportunity (such as promotion, pay,

benefits and privileges), and expectations due to attitudes based on the sex of an employee or

group of employees. Gender bias can be a legitimate basis for a lawsuit under anti-discrimination

statutes.1 It hampers development because it prevents people from attaining their full potentials.

It aggravates social inequity and inequality. These gender issues are deterrents to development.

Thus, it is important to address them in development planning.

2. The Problem and its Background introduction

The United Nations Charter of 1945 and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in

1948 was the first one to establish the first official worldwide recognition of women's equality

and non-discrimination on the basis of sex. The focus on women's reproductive roles, as women

were seen as wives and mothers and their main issues were supposed to be obtaining access to

food, contraceptives, nutrition and health care.

In 1970's to mid-1980's, marked a new phase in which the debate moved beyond

women's equality and the domestic sphere of women's role as wives and mothers onto the global

stage where the role of women was promoted as an aid for economic development. There are

also important events that signifies the beginning of the gradually increase of recognition of

women through other parts of the world.

In 1974, the first World Conference for Women was held in Mexico. UN also declared a

“decade of women” in 1976-1985. They have also came up with Promotion of the Women In

Development (WID) approach which emphasized on women's right to development, recognition

of women's economic role in national economies and, most significantly, gave a voice to women

in developing countries. Though the WID approach has its shortcoming, it fell short in improving
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unequal relationships and there are also significant number of projects that were unsustainable as

development projects failed to consider the multiple roles carried out by women, leading to a

development model that in the end disadvantaged women.

In the late ’80, the Gender and Development (GAD) approach was developed with the

idea of improving the development model by “removing disparities in social, economic, and

political balances between women and men as a pre-condition for achieving people-centered

development”.2 The Gender and Development or GAD was a development perspective and

process that upholds the concept of participatory decision-making, empowerment and equity in

the distribution of resources and opportunities, freedom from violence, respect for human rights

and support for self-determination and actualization of human potential; Thus, promoting gender

equality.

Gender equality is also backed up by provisions of law which is found in the fundamental

law of the land, the Constitution. The 1987 Constitution provides:

"The State recognizes the role of women in nation-building and shall ensure the

fundamental equality before the law of women and men.” (Article II Section 14)

"The state shall protect working women by providing safe and healthful working

conditions taking into account their maternal functions, and such facilities and opportunities that

will enhance their welfare and enable them to realize their full potential in the service of the

nation." (Article XIII-Labor: Section 14)

Following the constitutional provisions, Executive Order 273 was enacted in September

8, 1995; EO 273 approved and adopted the Philippine Plan for Gender-Responsive Development

(PPGD) which is a 30-year plan that aims to mainstream gender concerns into the government’s

mechanisms, systems, procedures and programs. Likewise, Republic Act 7192 “An Act
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Promoting The Integration Of Women As Full And Equal Partners Of Men In Development And

Nation Building And For Other Purposes” was also passed directing all government department

and agencies to review and revise all regulations, circulars and procedures to ensure removal of

gender biases.

Furthermore, Republic act 9710 or the Magna Carta of Women was also enacted to a law.

The Magna Carta of Women is a comprehensive women’s human rights law that seeks to

eliminate discrimination against women by recognizing, protecting, fulfilling and promoting the

rights of Filipino women, especially those in the marginalized sectors. It aims to fully comply

with international commitments under the Beijing Platform for Action on Women and the UN

Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). This

also served as an effective tool to fully implement and mainstream gender concerns in the

government, thereby achieving a gender-responsive government

In addition to our local legislation, there are International mandates created for the

promotion of gender equality. UN Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination

against Women (CEDAW) mandated state signatories to the convention to come-up with national

actions in eliminating all forms of discrimination against women. CEDAW adopted in 1979 by

the UN General Assembly, is often described as an international bill of rights for women.

Consisting of a preamble and 30 articles, it defines what constitutes discrimination against

women and sets up an agenda for national action to end such discrimination.

The Convention defines discrimination against women as "...any distinction, exclusion or

restriction made on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the

recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women, irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of

equality of men and women, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political,
economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field."

By accepting the Convention, States commit themselves to undertake a series of

measures to end discrimination against women in all forms, including:

 To incorporate the principle of equality of men and women in their legal system, abolish

all discriminatory laws and adopt appropriate ones prohibiting discrimination against women;

 To establish tribunals and other public institutions to ensure the effective protection of

women against discrimination; and

 To ensure elimination of all acts of discrimination against women by persons,

organizations or enterprises.

The Convention provides the basis for realizing equality between women and men

through ensuring women's equal access to, and equal opportunities in, political and public life --

including the right to vote and to stand for election -- as well as education, health and

employment. States parties agree to take all appropriate measures, including legislation and

temporary special measures, so that women can enjoy all their human rights and fundamental

freedoms.

The Convention is the only human rights treaty which affirms the reproductive rights of

women and targets culture and tradition as influential forces shaping gender roles and family

relations. It affirms women's rights to acquire, change or retain their nationality and the

nationality of their children. States parties also agree to take appropriate measures against all

forms of traffic in women and exploitation of women.

 Countries that have ratified or acceded to the Convention are legally bound to put its

provisions into practice. They are also committed to submit national reports, at least every four

years, on measures they have taken to comply with their treaty obligations.

On the other hand, Beijing Platform for Action (PFA) of the 4th World Conference on

Women also mandated government actors to promote an active and visible policy in

mainstreaming gender perspective in all policies and programs. Some of its goals of development

are to promote the human rights of women and girls, eradicate poverty among women, remove

obstacles to women’s participation in public life and decision-making, eliminate all forms of

discrimination against women and ensure equal access for girl children and women to education

and health. We are also working towards the attainment of Millennium Development Goals

which mandates state signatories to Promote Gender Equality and Empower women by 2015.

The Beijing Platform for Action is an agenda for women's empowerment. It aims at

accelerating the implementation of the Nairobi Forward-looking Strategies for the Advancement

of Women and at removing all the obstacles to women's active participation in all spheres of

public and private life through a full and equal share in economic, social, cultural and political

decision-making. This means that the principle of shared power and responsibility should be

established between women and men at home, in the workplace and in the wider national and

international communities. Equality between women and men is a matter of human rights and a

condition for social justice and is also a necessary and fundamental prerequisite for equality,

development and peace. A transformed partnership based on equality between women and men is

a condition for people-centred sustainable development. A sustained and long-term commitment

is essential, so that women and men can work together for themselves, for their children and for

society to meet the challenges of the twenty-first century.

 It reaffirms the fundamental principle set forth in the Vienna Declaration and Programme

of Action, adopted by the World Conference on Human Rights that the human rights of women

and of the girl child are an inalienable, integral and indivisible part of universal human rights. As

an agenda for action, the Platform seeks to promote and protect the full enjoyment of all human

rights and the fundamental freedoms of all women throughout their life cycle.

The Platform for Action also emphasizes that women share common concerns that can be

addressed only by working together and in partnership with men towards the common goal of

gender* equality around the world. It respects and values the full diversity of women's situations

and conditions and recognizes that some women face particular barriers to their empowerment.

Furthermore, The Platform for Action requires immediate and concerted action by all to

create a peaceful, just and humane world based on human rights and fundamental freedoms,

including the principle of equality for all people of all ages and from all walks of life, and to this

end, recognizes that broad- based and sustained economic growth in the context of sustainable

development is necessary to sustain social development and social justice.

The success of the Platform for Action will require a strong commitment on the part of

Governments, international organizations and institutions at all levels. It requires adequate

mobilization of resources at the national and international levels as well as new and additional

resources to the developing countries from all available funding mechanisms, including

multilateral, bilateral and private sources for the advancement of women; financial resources to

strengthen the capacity of national, sub regional, regional and international institutions; a

commitment to equal rights, equal responsibilities and equal opportunities and to the equal

participation of women and men in all national, regional and international bodies and policy-
making processes; and the establishment or strengthening of mechanisms at all levels for

accountability to the world's women.

3. Significance of the Study

There are a lot of gender problems, concerns, and issues that arise from the inequality

status of a man and a woman including the difference in roles, characteristics and expectations

attributed by society to the both. These societal expectations and perceptions, which are reflected

in and perpetuated by laws, policies, procedures, systems, programs, projects and activities of

government, could hamper women's full development and their participation in and equal

enjoyment of the fruits of development. This also creates gender gaps between men and women

in terms of how they benefit from education, employment, services, and so on.

It is important for this study to know the policies and laws that pave way in the gender

gaps. Also, for the people especially the women, to be enlighten about the laws and policies that

establishes their rights to gain greater control over the circumstances of their lives.

4. Statement of the Problem

• Are the present laws and principles enacted and campaigns launched pertaining to the

gender equality enough to remove the disparity between the treatment of society to men and

women?

5. Scope and Limitation of the Study

The scope of this study will emphasize on citing the laws and principles enacted

regarding the gender equality and its effects to the society particularly between the man and the

woman. This will also discuss about the roles of men and women in the society and their

differences. This includes the gender discrimination or the gender biases.

6. Definition of Terms

a. “Bias” – refers to prejudice of or against one thing, person or group compared with another,

usually in a way considered to be unfair or cause to feel or show inclination or prejudice for or

against someone or something;

b. “Gender” – refers to the range of characteristics pertaining to, and differentiating between,

masculinity and feminity;

c. “Gender Equality” – refers to the view men and women should receive equal treatment, and

should not be discriminated against based on gender. Also known as sex equality, gender

egalitarianism, sexual equality or equality of the genders.

d. “Gender Inequality” – refers to unequal treatment or perceptions of individuals based on their

gender. It arises from differences in socially constructed gender roles as well as biologically

through chromosomes, brain structure, and hormonal differences;

e. “Inequity” – refers to lack of fairness or justice;

f. “Sexism or Gender Discrimination” – refers to prejudice or discrimination based on a person’s

sex or gender. Sexism can affect any gender, but it is particularly documented as affecting

women and girls.

7. Conceptual Framework

 Equality between women and men (gender equality):

 The equal rights, responsibilities and opportunities of women and men and girls

and boys.

 Equality does not mean that women and men will become the same but that

women’s and men’s rights, responsibilities and opportunities will not depend on

whether they are born male or female.

 Gender equality implies that the interests, needs and priorities of both women and

men are taken into consideration, recognizing the diversity of different groups of

women and men.

 Gender equality is not a women’s issue, but should concern and fully engage men

as well as women.

Equality between women and men is seen both as a human rights issue and as a precondition for,

and indicator of, sustainable people-centered development.

8. Contemporary Studies and Literature Related to the Present Study

This chapter includes the other works of other researchers and what are the ideas they

have come up with their works. An overview to the research paper of Anne Mikkola and Carrie

A. Miles (April 2007), they cited, “Our definition for gender inequality arises from reading of

various social sciences literature, including economics: it manifests as hierarchical genders

relations, with men above women, and women being regarded as inferior and less valuable solely

by virtue of their sex. Although the literature predominantly focuses on women we recognize that

men in less developed countries also suffer from behaviors and policies that foster hierarchical
gender relations. Gender hierarchy is manifested in family relationships, inheritance laws and

customs; valuations of women’s work and its general invisibility; and the power to make

decisions in society, the family, work place, religious and other cultural institutions. It is apparent

in the relative opportunities available to women and girls for development, education, health and

nutrition and in the pattern of violence between the sexes. Such hierarchy is generally accepted

by both genders, and it is not normally questioned within its cultural context.

Gender equality, in contrast, is expressed in attitudes, beliefs, behaviors and policies that

reflect an equal valuing and provision of opportunities for both genders. Further definitions of

gender inequality can be found in United Nations declarations of human rights beginning in

1948. In 1979, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against

Women (CEDAW) was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly. As of June 2003 174

countries – 90% of the UN members – are party to the convention. The convention defines

discrimination as "any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex....in the

political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field.” Lack of discrimination in this sense

could be seen as equal status between genders.

As opposed to inter-gender power hierarchy or a separatism where everyone is self-interested

and autonomous, in gender equality all individuals hold a similar level of power and treat other

people with respect and consideration, regardless of their sex (Nelson and England, 2002). Our

framework for understanding gender relationships therefore sees them as falling along a

spectrum, with gender power hierarchy and restrictions at one end and equal opportunities and

equal value for both sexes at the other.”3

Although men and women are dissimilar physically, but it is the economic, political,

social and legal interpretation of such differences that ultimately lead to create inequality among
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them. In social inequality, men and women typically have different responsibilities and roles in

their daily lives as well as work. It is anticipated that men seem to do much riskier and heavier

work that is generally located away from their home. Work done by men seems to have much

higher status as compared with women who have the major responsibility for child-care, elderly-

care, preparing and managing food for their families.

Gender equality signifies a society in which men and women enjoy the similar

opportunities, outcomes, obligations and rights in every sphere of life. Equality between women

and men exist only when both sexes are capable of sharing mutually in the distribution of

influence and power; have equal opportunities for monetary freedom through formation of

businesses or work; enjoy equal and easy access to education and the prospects to develop own

personal goals.
Discussion

Gender Equality is a principle asserting the equality of men and women and their right to

enjoy equal conditions realizing their full human potentials to contribute to and benefit from the

results of development, and with the State recognizing that all human beings are free and equal

in dignity and rights. This means that women should have the same rights and opportunities in

life as men, including the ability to participate in the public sphere. Women are entitled to live in

dignity and in freedom from want and from fear. There should be a levelling of the playing field

for women by ensuring that they have equal opportunity to develop their talents.

If we will assess why these gender equality campaigns always focus more on women than

men it is because they are in the invisible and marginalized sector such as bearing and raising

children, domestic and unpaid economic labor and subsistence agriculture. More often than not

they experience a lot of hardships including multiple roles, violence and sexual harassment, lack

of protection, exploitation, poor skills and discrimination. Furthermore, resources and

opportunities for attaining a full and satisfying life are not always the same for women and men.

These gender biases are brought about by our culture and society that we grew up with.

This is determined by our cultural beliefs, perceptions, practices, values, roles, attitudes and

structural arrangements. Our culture influences us what are the roles man and woman should

play in our society.

The work given to a man differs to work load given to a woman in consideration of their

physical capabilities. Most often, our gender roles is dictated by our sex. Sex is determined by

biological characteristics of men and women which is a natural trait and cannot be changed.

While gender, is a social characteristics imparted to us by social institutions. Gender is dictated

to us culturally and socially that determines our roles and behaviour in the society. The
assignment of roles created a divide between men and women which limits certain roles, traits

and characteristics given to women or to men.

Let’s take for example the roles and responsibilities given to men and women inside the

house. The men are perceived as strong, firm and more capable of doing work outside the house

thus they are observed to be the provider and the decision-maker. While the women, are

conceived as soft and submissive they are believed to be the caregiver or the one in charge of the

household chores and one who should look after their children. These perceptions should be

changed since the role of the husband and wife in the management of the household should be

fair and equal. This is even reflected in the Family code of the Philippines:

“The spouses are jointly responsible for the support of the family.” (Title III, Art. 70.)

“The management of the household shall be the right and the duty of both spouses.” (Title

III, Art. 71.)

These discriminations or biases are also prevailing in the work place. Many people would

consider that occupations such as engineers, miners and architects are only appropriate for men.

Even though there are engineers, miners and architects who are women while men can also be a

full-time caregivers for infants or kindergarten teachers, although these are generally considered

more appropriate for women.

The gender roles considered appropriate for women and men differ among societies. For

example, in some societies, all trading is considered to be a man’s role, but in Cambodia and in

many North African countries trading, especially small scale, is considered to be a woman’s role.

Gender roles can also change over time in response to economic and social change.

In almost all societies, women’s primary gender roles are those of mother and wife/housewife.

These are the roles by which womanhood is defined and individual women are typically judged
(and often evaluate themselves) by how successfully they perform these roles. Thus, they incur a

double burden of domestic and market work. Men’s primary gender role: is that of the main

economic provider or breadwinner in the household. Men are usually judged (and judge

themselves) by their success in this role, which is why in the current Asian crisis unemployment

is such a devastating experience for many men.

Gender equality is essential for the achievement of human rights for all. Yet

discriminatory laws against women persist in every corner of the globe and new discriminatory

laws are enacted. In all legal traditions many laws continue to institutionalize second class status

for women and girls with regard to nationality and citizenship, health, education, marital rights,

employment rights, parental rights, inheritance and property rights. These forms of

discrimination against women are incompatible with women’s empowerment.

Women form the majority of the world’s poorest people and the number of women living

in rural poverty has increased by 50% since 1975. Women work two-thirds of the world’s

working hours and produce half of the world’s food, yet they earn only 10% of the world’s

income and own less than 1% of the world’s property1. Violence against women throughout the

world and in all cultures prevails on an unimaginable scale, and women’s access to justice is

often paired with discriminatory obstacles – in law as well as in practice. Multiple forms of

discrimination based on gender and other factors such as race, ethnicity, caste, disability, persons

affected by HIV/AIDS, sexual orientation or gender identity further compounds the risk of

economic hardship, exclusion and violence against women.

In some countries women, unlike men, cannot dress as they like, drive, work at night,

inherit property or give evidence in Court. The vast majority of expressly discriminatory laws in

force relate to family life, including limiting a woman’s right to marry (or the right not to marry
in cases of early forced marriages), divorce and remarry, thus allowing for sex discriminatory

marital practices such as wife obedience and polygamy. Laws explicitly mandating “wife

obedience” still govern marital relations in many States.

International human rights law prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex and includes

guarantees for men and women to enjoy their civil, cultural, economic, political and social rights

equally. While the human rights machinery reaffirm the principles of non-discrimination and

equality, Article 15 (1) of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination

against Women explicitly provides that States who have ratified the Convention shall accord to

women equality with men and article 2 commits States who have ratified the Convention “to take

all appropriate measures, including legislation, to modify or abolish existing laws, regulations,

customs and practices which constitute discrimination against women.”

Thirty years since the Convention’s entry into force, the recognition and enjoyment of

equal rights with men still remains elusive for large sections of women around the world.

CEDAW has been ratified by 186 States yet has the record number of reservations to core articles

such as articles 2 and 6 which impact upon young girls and women’s personal and family life.

Despite CEDAW requiring State who have ratified the Convention to eliminate

discrimination against women “by all appropriate means and without delay”, too many States

still pervasively retain their discriminatory laws which indicates that the pace of reform is too

slow for women. Consequently, at the 12th session of the Human Rights Council, a resolution

titled “Elimination of discrimination against women” was adopted requesting the Office of the

High Commissioner for Human Rights to prepare a thematic study on discrimination against

women in law and practice on how the issue is addressed through the UN, in consultation with

all relevant stakeholders, in particular, the Commission on the Status of Women. The thematic
study will be addressed at the 15th session and a half day discussion will be held to consider

taking further action at that session.

Gender Discrimination can be seen at all ages and stages of development for women not

just in the Philippines but in different parts of the world

Fetus & Infancy

UNICEF notes that “Where there is a clear economic or cultural preference for sons, the

misuse of [pregnancy diagnostic tools] can facilitate female feticide.” This means that in parts of

the world, like China, parents will abort their child or put the child up for adoption on the basis

that it’s a girl.

Childhood

A principal focus of the middle years of childhood and adolescence is ensuring access to,

and completion of, quality primary and secondary education. With a few exceptions, it is mostly

girls who suffer from educational disadvantage.

Adolescence

Among the greatest threats to adolescent development are abuse, exploitation and

violence, and the lack of vital knowledge about sexual and reproductive health, including

HIV/AIDS. Specific areas that UNICEF highlighted were female genital mutilation/cutting; child

marriage and premature parenthood; sexual abuse, exploitation and trafficking; sexual and

reproductive health; and HIV/AIDS.

Adult

A recent report from the Department of U.S. Labor showed that women today are paid only 72
cents for every dollar a man earns. “Even more troubling -- the study found that at least one-third
-- or about 11 cents -- of the pay gap is caused by pay discrimination against women -- and this is
38 years after the Equal Pay Act became law." said Senator Tom Harkin. Globalization and its
impact on gender equality

The significant gender differences and disparities with respect to decision-making powers,
participation, and returns for effort that prevail in different societies need to be taken into
account when responding to the forces of globalization. Because of gender inequalities and
discrimination in all parts of the world, women can be affected negatively by globalization
processes to a greater extent than men. On the other hand, there can be significant gains for
women with globalization. It is necessary to systematically monitor the gender impact of change
so that the goals of gender equality and the expansion of human capabilities are not sacrificed.

The relationship between globalization and gender equality, and the relevance of globalization
for transforming gender relations has been increasingly well documented. The Survey is a major
contribution towards applying a gender perspective to the analysis of the globalization. While the
survey focuses on the labour market participation within the changing world of work, further
research is needed to assess the impact of globalization on other aspects of life.

At the policy level, the impact of globalization on women and gender relations continues to be
neglected nationally and internationally. Entities of the United Nations system are taking steps to
integrate the goals of macro-economics with those of social development. Yet more remains to
be done to integrate gender equality dimensions in their normative, policy and operational work
so as to ensure the continuing leadership of the system in promoting gender equality,
development and peace within the context of globalization. The Beijing + 5 process provides an
opportunity to reflect on the impact of globalization in determining further actions and initiatives
for the full implementation of the Beijing commitments.
Towards this end, the remainder of the paper attempts to raise awareness with regard to gender
impact of globalization in select areas.

Gender equality is important both for individual people and economic development (Klasen and
Lamanna, 2009). Looking at data on gender equality in welfare and work life it is visible that
there still are gaps between women and men. At the same time the world we live in is becoming
more globalized. Moreover, globalization is often viewed as having both positive and negative
impacts, making some people winners while others become losers (Bussmann, 2009).

In this thesis I have looked at the relationship between globalization and gender equality in

welfare and work life. Studies examining the effect of globalization typically take an economic

perspective, using measures like trade openness. However, increased globalization, meaning that

civilizations become more integrated, might also affect the way people live and behave in a

society. Globalization is complex, affecting information flow, spread of technology, social and

political norms as well as economic interactions.

Globalization makes it possible for countries to specialize their production (Feenstra, 2003) and

it allows ideas and norms to spread. (Arribas, Perez, Tortosa-Ausina, 2008). Considering the

different aspects of globalization it is reasonable that it might affect the way we look at gender

equality. This thesis has therefore analyzed the effect of globalization trying to answer whether

globalization increases or decreases gender equality.

::Inequality:

Talking about inequality it is important to remember that comparing women to men is not just

about justice and equality, it is also a question regarding development. Gender inequality in
health, education and employment has been shown to affect the daily life of women and men as

well as productivity and economic growth of a country negatively

Globalization is more then just the creation of a world market, it is also the enculturation of the

world, which essentially means you can transfer culture more openly....morals and values are

open for critique and change. If anything I would say globalization has had a positive effect on

gender inequality because in western society women have a very important role in our economy

and our households. we are not exactly matriarchial but we certainly value our women and those

values and beliefs are being transfered to the globe. Women who have suffered in third world

countries are being empowered by what they see and here about our women and they say the

effect has become a 'westernization' of the world of assimilating the values of other countries to

be more like ours. Not only has westernization widely increased consumerism but it has also

broadened global views on women and girls all over the world are starting to fight for their own

causes.

Motherhood and old age

These are two key periods in many women’s lives when the detrimental effects of both

poverty and inequality can combine – during childbirth and in old age. Shockingly, it is

estimated that each year more than half a million women—roughly one woman every minute—

die as a result of pregnancy complications and childbirth, 99% of which occur in developing

countries. Yet many of these women’s lives could be saved if they had access to basic health care

services. In addition, elderly women may face double discrimination on the basis of both gender

and age. Many older women are plunged into poverty at a time of life when they are very

vulnerable.
Wage Discrimination

According to Inter Press Service, "On a global scale, women cultivate more than half of

all the food that is grown. In sub-Saharan Africa and the Caribbean, they produce up to 80

percent of basic foodstuffs. In Asia, they account for around 50 percent of food production. In

Latin America, they are mainly engaged in subsistence farming, horticulture, poultry and raising

small livestock." Yet women often get little recognition for that. In fact, many go unpaid. It is

very difficult for these women to get the financial resources required to buy equipment etc, as

many societies still do not accept, or realize, that there is a change in the "traditional" roles.

Reasons for such disparity include the fact that women are generally underpaid and

because they often perform low-status jobs, compared to men. UNICEF notes that the data isn’t

always perfect, and that generalizations can hide wider fluctuations. In Brazil, for example,

women under the age of 25 earn a higher average hourly wage than their male counterparts.

However, in developing nations and in most industrialized nations, men are usually paid more

than their female counterparts in the same field. Millions of women throughout the world live in

conditions in which they are deprived of their basic human rights for no other reason than their

gender.

Abuses against women are relentless, systematic, and widely tolerated, if not explicitly

condoned. Violence and discrimination against women are global social epidemics. We live in a

world in which women do not have basic control over what happens to their bodies. Millions of

women and girls are forced to marry and have sex with men they do not desire. Husbands and

other male family members obstruct or dictate women's access to reproductive health care.

Doctors and government officials disproportionately target women from disadvantaged or

marginalized communities for coercive family planning policies.

 The realization of women's rights is a global struggle based on universal human rights

and the rule of law. It requires all of us to unite in solidarity to end traditions, practices, and laws

that harm women. It is a fight for freedom to be fully and completely human and equal without

apology or permission. Ultimately, the struggle for women's human rights must be about making

women's lives matter everywhere all the time. In practice, this means taking action to stop

discrimination and violence against women.4

Would you believe that a part of all the discrimination and gender biases mentioned

above there is still one more case that we, Filipinos, are trying to ignore but is already

proliferating in different parts of the country as well as abroad? It is the “Mail-order-bride”

industry. The tag “mail-order bride” has often been associated with derision, stigma and illegality

such that the bride herself would not dare claim such status, if only to avoid the unwarranted

connotations and stereotypes that come with the label, regardless of the reasons why she entered

into such a context.

In a country where it is a reality that mail-order brides continue to proliferate, the

question arises as to how the Philippines have protected the women who become part of the

“mail order bride industry”. Where the mail order bride industry is illegal in the Philippines and

legal in receiving countries like the United States of America, Japan and South Korea, to name a

few, the appropriateness of the response of the Philippines to the issue of Filipino mail-order

brides comes into picture.

The whole concept of mail order brides has its risks undoubtedly given the unique

circumstances surrounding it, compared with any other kind of man-woman relationship. Here

the woman is not in need of love but in need of money, large amount of money that they are

ready to risk their selves into this kind of situation.

4
http://bringtoanend.blogspot.com/2011/01/background-on-discrimination-against.html
 A story often told of Filipino mail order brides concerns their exploitation at the hands of

criminal syndicates and often relates to acts of trafficking. Analyn, 20 years old at the time she

was recruited to work in South Korea, was one of those mail-order brides. Just like in the United

States of America and Japan, the mail order bride industry in South Korea is legal. She was

recruited to work in South Korea, and to be able to enter the country, she was forced to marry a

Korean twice her age. She was only able to report her case with the Commission of Filipinos

Overseas (CFO) when she tried to secure from the latter a clearance certificate, a legal

requirement for all those seeking work abroad. The CFO is now helping Analyn in her case

against the traffickers. However, in view of the difficulty of proving the exploitation element

regarding her trafficking, the judge wanted to try the case under RA 6955 or the 1990 Anti-Mail

Order Bride Law, rather than under the RA 9208, otherwise known as the 2003 Anti-Trafficking

in Persons Act.

Analyn’s case can be clearly seen as one of trafficking and the mode of facilitating the

crime is through a marriage ceremony. The difficulty however of prosecuting such a crime

constrains the courts to rely on the tamer prohibitive law against mail order marriages. A clear

understanding of the pertinent laws affecting Analyn’s case is in order to appreciate the

implications of said laws on the lives of diasporic Filipina women who enters into transnational

or interracial marriages.

The former prevailing law in the Philippines affecting the mail order bride industry

frames the protective mechanisms for Filipino women on the principle of protecting women’s

dignity while pursuing economic upliftment towards achieving decent standard of living. Such

law perceived that the marriage of a Filipino woman with a foreigner husband is a means by

which the woman can secure for herself and her family material improvement given the rampant
poverty in the Philippines. Such means however is also presumed to be disastrous to the well-

being of the woman. Towards protecting the woman, Republic Act 6955 makes the following

practices unlawful:

For a person, natural or juridical, association, club or any other entity to commit, directly

or indirectly, any of the following acts:

To establish or carry on a business which has for its purpose the matching of Filipino

women for marriage to foreign nationals either on a mail order basis or personal introduction;

To advertise, publish, print or distribute or cause the advertisement, publication, printing

or distribution of any brochure, flier or any propaganda material calculated to promote the

prohibited acts in the preceding sub-paragraph;

To solicit, enlist or in any manner attract or introduce any Filipino woman to become a

member in any club or association whose objective is to match women for marriage to foreign

nationals either on a mail order basis or through personal introduction for a fee;

To use the postal service to promote the prohibited acts in sub paragraph 1 hereof.

For the manager or officer in charge or advertising manager of any newspaper, magazine,

television or radio station, or other media, or of an advertising agency, printing company or other

similar entities to knowingly allow, or consent to the acts prohibited in the preceding paragraph

The law was enacted as a reaction to the growing number of Filipino women leaving the

country as mail order brides. As then Representative Lorna Verano Yap, main sponsor of the bill

at the Lower House, argued that “Operated by unscrupulous and heartless individuals, the

practice has not only cast shame on our women in the international community, but have also

exposed thousands of impoverished Filipinas into further misery in the hands of their foreign

spouses…They are treated like cattle. When you really come down to it, it’s like prostitution.”
 The Senate counterpart, on the other hand, supported the bill, and elaborated that: “By

making Filipina brides a marketable commodity and flaunting them as such like cattle in tawdry

and revolting advertisements this business has gravely insulted all that we, as a nation, hold

sacred.”

Republic Act 6995 does not prohibit the inter-marriage between foreign nationals and

Filipino women. The ban does not criminalize the act of a woman who enters into such an

arrangement through the mail order bride business, but targets those who profit out of the act of

match-making recognizing such actions as facilitators of the trafficking of Filipino women.

In 2003, the industry of mail order brides has been understood as an act of trafficking in

persons under RA 9208 or the Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act, when exploitation is

proven. Section 4 of said law makes unlawful for any person, natural or juridical, committing

the following acts:

To introduce or match for money, profit, or material, economic or other consideration,

any person or, as provided for under Republic Act No. 6955, any Filipino woman to a foreign

national, for marriage for the purpose of acquiring, buying, offering, selling or trading him/her to

engage in prostitution, pornography, sexual exploitation, forced labour, slavery, involuntary

servitude or debt bondage;

To offer or contract marriage, real or simulated, for the purpose of acquiring, buying,

offering, selling, or trading them to engage in prostitution, pornography, sexual exploitation,

forced labour or slavery, involuntary servitude or debt bondage;

To undertake or organize tours and travel plans consisting of tourism packages or

activities for the purpose of utilizing and offering persons for prostitution, pornography or sexual

exploitation;
 RA 9208 defines trafficking in persons as referring “to the recruitment, transportation,

transfer or harbouring, or receipt of persons with or without the victim’s consent or knowledge,

within or across national borders by means of threat or use of force, or other forms of coercion,

abduction, fraud, deception, abuse of power or of position, taking advantage of the vulnerability

of the person, or, the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a

person having control over another person for the purpose of exploitation which includes at a

minimum, the exploitation or the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation,

forced labour or services, slavery, servitude or the removal or sale of organs”

With all the data and experiences of those who have contacts with migrant partners, it

would not be difficult to identify a Filipino mail-order bride. So the question arises as to why

there is not a single case brought against the perpetrators? The case of Analyn would be a good

test case both under RA 6955 and 9208, if the same will be sustained. However, Analyn is

confronted with a lot of challenges that the Philippine state would not be in a position to

supplement or support. Institutionally, the Philippine set-up is not wanting in terms of

appropriate mechanisms to run after the perpetrators.5

Furthermore, here are some of the laws and policies that pave way in gender gaps:

The Family Code of the Philippines:

Section 4. Ownership, Administration, Enjoyment and Disposition of Community Property

Art. 96. The Administration and enjoyment of the community property shall belong to

both spouses jointly. In case of disagreement, the husband’s decision shall prevail, subject to

recourse to the court by the wife for a proper remedy…

Title IX – Parental Authority

5
http://plj.upd.edu.ph/anti-mail-order-bride-legislation-and-feminist-legal-theory-an-inquiry-towards-a-rescript-of-the-diasporic-filipino-bride-phenomenon-
in-the-philippines/
 Art. 211. The father and the mother shall jointly exercise parental authority over the

persons of their common children. In case of disagreement, the father’s decision shall prevail,

unless there is a judicial order to the contrary.

Chapter 4. Effect of Parental Authority Upon the Property of the Children

Art. 225. The father and the mother shall jointly exercise legal guardianship over the

property of their unemancipated common child without the necessity of a court appointment. In

case of disagreement, the father’s decision shall prevail, unless there is a judicial order to the

contrary.

The Revised Penal Code:

Adultery (Art. 333) vs. Concubinage (Art. 334)

Art. 333. Who are guilty of adultery. — Adultery is committed by any married woman

who shall have sexual intercourse with a man not her husband and by the man who has carnal

knowledge of her knowing her to be married, even if the marriage be subsequently declared void.

Adultery shall be punished by prision correccional in its medium and maximum periods.

Art. 334. Concubinage. — Any husband who shall keep a mistress in the conjugal

dwelling, or shall have sexual intercourse, under scandalous circumstances, with a woman who is

not his wife, or shall cohabit with her in any other place, shall be punished by prision

correccional in its minimum and medium periods. The concubine shall suffer the penalty of

destierro.

Art. 202. Vagrants & Prostitutes

For purposes of this article, women, who for money or profit, habitually indulge in sexual

intercourse or lascivious conduct, are deemed to be prostitutes. (Amended by RA 101518

Vagrancy is no longer a crime BUT Definition of prostitutes remain the same…)

Total Extinction of Criminal Liability

Art. 89. How criminal liability is totally extinguished. – Criminal liability is totally

extinguished:

Par. 7. By the marriage of the offended woman, as provided in Article 334 of this Code.

(Art. 334, last par.: In cases of Seduction, Abduction, Rape and Acts of Lasciviousness (SARA),

the marriage of the offender with the offended party shall extinguish the criminal action or remit

the penalty already imposed.)

The provisions in the family code sets the standards that the husband are still in the higher

position in the decision-making at home when in fact that should be a joint administration hence

the opinions and the decision of the spouses should be equal. This is also not beneficial for the

wife because in order for them to assail the decision of their partner they have to undergo a

tedious process in acquiring judicial recourse. In effect of this provision, the wife tends to be

quiet and no longer push through with her interest just so they don’t have to go through all these

things.

On the other hand, Revised Penal Code undermines the welfare of the women because the

penalty imposes in other provisions are unequal and impractical. In adultery, a single sexual

intercourse may already constitute the crime while concubinage has to be proven under a

scandalous circumstance or keeping the mistress in their conjugal dwelling place or cohabiting

with her in any other place before it will be constituted as a crime. The penalties imposed for

adultery and concubinage is also different. For adultery the penalty imposed is prision

correccional in its medium to maximum period while in concubinage it is also prision

correccional but in its minimum to medium period only. The implications of adultery and

concubinage are just the same. That is both infidelity to their partners and both would also be
detrimental to the relationship of the family and welfare of the children.

Under Art. 202, women who for money or profit, habitually indulge in sexual intercourse

or lascivious conduct were also deemed as prostitute and may be penalized while there is no

same provision for men whom will also know commits the same acts. Therefore, If both men and

women have committed the same acts then both should be penalized and not only women to be

singled out.

In Art. 89, as long as the criminal marries the rape victim then he is already vindicated for

the crime he has committed. This shouldn’t be the case because rapist could see this as a

scapegoat for them not to face their sentence. Even they will marry the victim and try to rectify

the crime they have done they should still be held liable because that is still an offense against

the honour and dignity of women.

Aside from these laws which are biased and prejudicial to the welfare and rights of

women, they are also experiencing violence against women. They are prone to sexual harassment

and different forms of abuses. These sexual harassments are prevalent not only at home but also

to their respective workplace. Women are being taken for granted because they are perceived to

be physically weak than men.

According to RA 7877 Sexual Harassment Law, Sexual Harassment constitutes

demanding, requesting or otherwise requiring any sexual favor from the other regardless of

whether the demand, request or requirement for submission is accepted. The person who DRR

the sexual favor has authority, influence or moral ascendancy over the offended party. Persons to

be convicted with Sexual Harassment will be imposed with a penalty of Imprisonment of not less

than 1 month or more than 6 months, or a fine of not less than 10,000.00 nor more than

20,000.00, or both at the discretion of the court. Actions arising from the violations of the
provision shall prescribe in 3 years.

Most often than not, women who experience sexual harassment don’t have the courage to

voice out their experiences because they are afraid of what people say and the shame that it will

bring to their family and to her. This usually happens in the workplace where the one making the

abuse is the superior and the one who was being abuse is his subordinate. Because she is afraid

to get fired and lost her job some women just keep it to their selves and this impacts their

emotional, mental and social behaviour.

In this regard, we have to be more vigilant with these abuses and empower women so

that they will not hesitate to speak up whenever they feel that they are being harassed. They

should feel that there are people that they can trust and depend onto in this kind of situation.

They should be assured that whatever happens there are laws to protect them and defend them

for their rights. Unfortunately, not only working women are prone to abuse there are also

housewives and children who are being exposed to these dangers.

Republic Act 9262 Anti-Violence Against Women and Their Children Act was enacted to

protect every women and children from any violence and abuses. This penalizes as a crime

commission of acts of violence against women and their children perpetrated against them by

their partners, whether married or not. These abuses are categorized in four (4) forms. They are

Physical, Sexual, Psychological, and Economic.

The specific acts which constitute violence against women are:

a) Causing physical harm to the woman or her child;

b) Threatening to cause the woman or her child physical harm;

c) Attempting to cause the woman or her child physical harm;

d) Placing the woman or her child in fear of imminent physical harm;

e) Attempting to compel or compelling the woman or her child to engage in conduct which the

woman or her child has the right to desist from or desist from conduct which the woman or her

child has the right to engage in, or attempting to restrict or restricting the woman's or her child's

freedom of movement or conduct by force or threat of force, physical or other harm or threat of

physical or other harm, or intimidation directed against the woman or child.

Threatening to deprive or actually depriving the woman or her child of custody to her/his

family;

Depriving or threatening to deprive the woman or her children of financial support legally

due her or her family, or deliberately providing the woman's children insufficient financial

support;

Depriving or threatening to deprive the woman or her child of a legal right;

Preventing the woman in engaging in any legitimate profession, occupation, business or

activity or controlling the victim's own money or properties, or solely controlling the conjugal or

common money, or properties;

Inflicting or threatening to inflict physical harm on oneself for the purpose of controlling

her actions or decisions;

Causing or attempting to cause the woman or her child to engage in any sexual activity

which does not constitute rape, by force or threat of force, physical harm, or through intimidation

directed against the woman or her child or her/his immediate family;

Engaging in purposeful, knowing, or reckless conduct, personally or through another that

alarms or causes substantial emotional or psychological distress to the woman or her child. This

shall include, but not be limited to, the following acts:

Stalking or following the woman or her child in public or private places;

 Peering in the window or lingering outside the residence of the woman or her child;

Entering or remaining in the dwelling or on the property of the woman or her child

against her/his will;

Destroying the property and personal belongings or inflicting harm to animals or pets of

the woman or her child; and

Engaging in any form of harassment or violence;

i) Causing mental or emotional anguish, public ridicule or humiliation to the woman or

her child, including, but not limited to, repeated verbal and emotional abuse, and

denial of financial support or custody of minor children of access to the woman's

child/children.
General Conclusion

Despite the laws enacted and campaigns launched pertaining to the gender equality and

women empowerment, still there is a huge disparity between the treatment of society to men and

women. Women are still perceived to be inferior to men that they are being taken for granted and

their rights and welfare not being given much attention.

For the past two years, the World Economic Forum has named the Philippines the most

gender equal nation in Asia as well as one of only two developing economies to make its top ten

equality list. Its findings are in part based on statistics that show Filipino women hold the

majority of jobs in the legislative, top official and managerial occupational category. Though

there are many activist and experts that says that statistics don’t tell the full story.

The Philippines government's recent statistics paint a bleaker picture. They say one in ten

Filipino women have had a forced sexual encounter and 37 percent of women who were once

married have experienced domestic violence. Furthermore, a 2013 US State Department report

criticized the Philippines for not doing enough to stop the human trafficking of women. And

some local NGOs say that poor women in rural parts of the country have no choice but to take

informal jobs without any legal protection.

These women especially in the rural areas don’t have maternity leave and doesn’t have

the ability to do collective bargaining. And it’s not because we already had 2 female presidents

and a couple of female politicians it already equates to gender equality because if you will look

at the bigger picture you will see that these women came from the privilege class. Hence, they

cannot relate to the needs of poor women from countryside communities known as barangays.

We have the sharpest contradictions in gender equality today. Despite the fact we are
gaining significant number of women in the political arena, academe and business, there are still

a lot of women are undermined. In general, the society still places many gender problems as

trivial and marginal. The legal framework for women seems impressive but the challenges of

implementation and cultural shift remains. The interplay of culture and institutions like the

government bureaucracy, political offices, and the church makes the discourse on gender issues

very animated and usually polarized.

In the last population count by the National Statistical Coordination Board (NSCB), the

population of men to women is 46.5 million to 45.6 million. It doesn’t differ much but if we will

look at other statistics conducted by NSCB it shows that in the Labour force Participation rate it

is 78.3% for men while it is only 49.7% in women. This means that half of the women

populations are not given opportunity to work and participate in the labor force.

The proportion of unpaid worker is 43.1% for men and 56.9% in women. This reflects

that women are discriminated because more than half of working women are not getting the

proper salary or worst they are not being paid at all. Though there are also a large percentage of

men who are unpaid still women top the list.

When it comes to nation-building and public affairs there is still a big difference between

man and woman occupying the elective positions. 81.3% of public officials are men while only

18.4% are women. This great disparity is the result of gender stereo typing that men are leaders

and women are only their subordinates.

These gender issues (marginalization, subordination, gender stereotyping, multiple

burden & VAW if left unattended will keep most women out of the development process; and

will result in a development that does not respond to the needs and concerns of half of a nation’s

population. Hence, we should all work together to deter these gender discriminations.
 The process of correcting gender disparity in a society leads us to improving the

condition and status of women in all spheres (household as well as community level) which is

also termed as women’s empowerment. Recently, variables such as education and employment

were commonly used to capture empowerment and other related concepts such as women’s

autonomy and status. Their use is justified by the fact that they have strong positive correlation

with the direct empowerment indicators. A woman’s level of education, her employment status,

particularly employment for cash, and media exposure are expected to be positively related to

empowerment. Women who are educated, employed, and exposed to the media are likely to be

better equipped with the information and the means needed to function effectively in the modern

world. Together these factors are expected to influence women’s inherent abilities as well as their

attitudes on gender roles.

The search for more direct measures has focused on capturing ‘evidence’ of

empowerment. One widely accepted measure of ‘evidence’ (or lack thereof) is women’s

participation in household decision-making. This variable is increasingly used as an objective

indicator of women’s household level empowerment, particularly in demographic and health

studies.
Recommendation

In order for us to address the gender roles issues and biases there are steps that we have to

follow: Gender Analysis, Gender Mainstreaming and Women Empowerment.

Gender analysis refers to a variety of methods and techniques used to understand the

differences between men and women in terms of roles, behaviors, activities, needs, opportunities,

access to and control over resources, and constraints in relation to one another. Gender analysis

also refers to the gender-based disaggregation and appraisal of available data to pinpoint the

difference between men and women on account of gender. As stated in the introductory section

of this paper, the roles, activities, opportunities and access to and control over resources of men

and women vary across different socio-economic and cultural settings. Within the same setting

itself their roles and learned behavior could be different.

Men and women have different knowledge, experience, needs, and access to resources.

Different gender roles result in one sex having an unequal role in decision making while the

other has little or no and being denied the benefits from development. Gender analysis, thus,

explores these differences and provides information about gender relations in different settings.

Gender analysis is indispensable in order to promote gender equality and achieve

sustainable development. Careful analysis of the differences between men and women enable

researchers and policy makers to explicitly show the disparities between the two sexes due to

gender roles, in which women are mostly affected, and challenge the disparity for equality to be

guaranteed. By doing so, gender analysis adds insight into how the issue of gender equality is

incorporated into development policies and programs to pursue efficient development goals in

which women generally participate in and benefit from development programs.

Some of the specific steps to be taken in order to perform this gender analysis would be:

 Strengthening of government partnership with media in covering various women’s issues

 Formulation and implementation of legislative measures that will eliminate gender bias

 Increase in women’s awareness of their economic rights and opportunities

 Establishment of an enabling environment that will ensure the effective implementation

of policies for the protection of women workers.

Gender Mainstreaming refers to the strategy for making women's as well as men's concerns

and experiences an integral dimension of the design, implementation, monitoring, and evaluation

of policies and programs in all political, economic, and societal spheres so that women and men

benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated. It is the process of assessing the implications

for women and men of any planned action, including legislation, policies, or programs in all

areas and at all levels.

In order to achieve gender mainstreaming, we can start by applying the following steps:

 GAD mainstreaming in the bureaucracy

 Enhancement of women’s leadership roles and participation in decision making

 Enhancement of women’s access to/utilization of basic social services

 Promotion and advancement of women and girl-children’s human rights

  Enhancement of sustainable access of women to capital, market, information, technology,

and technical assistance.

Women’s empowerment is the process by which women gain greater control over the

circumstances of their lives. It is a multidimensional concept, which purports to measure a

woman’s ability to control resources, her ability to choose and control different outcomes, and

above all enhance her self-esteem. It can be examined based on different indicators. Until

recently, variables such as education and employment were commonly used to capture

empowerment and other related concepts such as women’s autonomy and status. While those

proxy measures are important and are ideally associated with empowerment, they may not

capture all aspects of the multidimensional concept of empowerment.

A woman’s level of education, her employment status, particularly employment for cash, and

media exposure are expected to be positively related to empowerment (Mason, 1986; Kishor,

2000). Women who are educated, employed, and exposed to the media are likely to be better

equipped with the information and the means needed to function effectively in the modern world.

Together these factors are expected to influence women’s inherent abilities as well as their

attitudes towards gender roles.

Empowerment of women can be expected to vary over the life cycle since the rights and

responsibilities of women vary with age and the parity. Older women and women with children

are likely to have greater status, rights and responsibilities than younger women or women with

no children. In addition, the characteristics of the place of residence as well as the socio-

economic status of the household define the actual opportunities available to women. Local

studies on women’s empowerment are rare. Particularly studies based on direct indicators of

empowerment such as decision making power on household matters, autonomy in seeking health
care, attitude towards resisting wife beating and attitude towards right to refuse sex with husband

for any reason are scarce. As a result, there is lack of comprehensive knowledge regarding

different dimensions of women’s empowerment and the factors associated with them. It is

believed that implementation of pertinent policies and programs targeting gender equality and

women’s empowerment can benefit immensely from current studies in this area.

To increase the economic empowerment of women, the following steps are highly

recommended:

 Enhancement of employment and livelihood skills of women, particularly in high-

value-adding industries and agricultural activities

 Strengthening of women’s representation in economic decision-making bodies

 Promotion of a gender-responsive delivery of justice to violence against women

(VAW) survivors

 Strengthening of women’s role in promoting gender-responsive governance

Once this recommendation would be implemented it is also suggested that Gender and

Development principles would be integrated in our cultural belief, perceptions, practices, values,

roles, attitudes and structural arrangements so that we will achieve holistic gender equality and

development in our society.

 EDUCATION AS THE PATHWAY TOWARDS GENDER EQUALITY

Amartya Sen, often referred to as the father of the concept of ‘human development’, reminds us
of a quote by H.G. Wells, where he said that “human history becomes more and more a race
between education and catastrophe”. Sen maintains that “if we continue to leave vast sections of
the people of the world outside the orbit of education, we make the world not only less just, but
also less secure”. To Sen, the gender aspect of education is a direct link between illiteracy and
women’s security.

Not being able to read or write is a significant barrier for underprivileged women, since this can
lead to their failure to make use of even the rather limited rights they may legally have (to own
land or other property, or to appeal against unfair judgment and unjust treatment). There are
often legal rights in rule books that are not used because the aggrieved parties cannot read those
rule books. Gaps in schooling can, therefore, directly lead to insecurity by distancing the
deprived from the ways and means of fighting against that deprivation.1

For Sen, illiteracy and innumeracy are forms of insecurity in themselves, “not to be able to read
or write or count or communicate is a tremendous deprivation. The extreme case of insecurity is
the certainty of deprivation, and the absence of any chance of avoiding that fate”.2 The link
between education and security underlines the importance of education as akin to a basic need in
the twenty-first century of human development.

GENDERED EDUCATION GAPS: SOME CRITICAL FACTS

While a moral and political argument can continue to be made for the education of girls and
women, some facts speak powerfully to the issue at hand. Girls accounted for 53 per cent of the
61 million children of primary school age who were out of school in 2010. Girls accounted for
49 per cent of the 57 million children out of school in 2013. In surveys of 30 countries with more
than 100,000 out-of-school children, 28 per cent of girls were out of school on average compared
to 25 per cent of boys. Completion of primary school is a particular problem for girls in sub-
Saharan Africa and Western Asia.3

Surveys in 55 developing countries reveal that girls are more likely to be out of school at a lower
secondary age than boys, regardless of the wealth or location of the household. Almost two
thirds of the world’s 775 million illiterate adults are women. In developing regions, there are 98
women per 100 men in tertiary education. There are significant inequalities in tertiary education
in general, as well as in relation to areas of study, with women being over-represented in the
humanities and social sciences and significantly under-represented in engineering, science and
technology.

Gender-based violence in schools undermines the right to education and presents a major
challenge to achieving gender equality in education because it negatively impacts girls’
participation and their retention in school. In addition, ineffective sexual and reproductive health
education inhibits adolescents’ access to information and contributes to school dropouts,
especially among girls who have reached puberty.

The education of girls and women can lead to a wide range of benefits from improved maternal
health, reduced infant mortality and fertility rates to increased prevention against HIV and
AIDS.4 Educated mothers are more likely to know that HIV can be transmitted by breastfeeding,
and that the risk of mother-to-child transmission can be reduced by taking drugs during
pregnancy.

Each extra year of a mother’s schooling reduces the probability of infant mortality by 5-10 per
cent. Children of mothers with secondary education or higher are twice as likely to survive
beyond age 5 compared to those whose mothers have no education. Improvements in women’s
education explained half of the reduction in child deaths between 1990 and 2009. A child born to
a mother who can read is 50 per cent more likely to survive past age 5. In sub-Saharan Africa, an
estimated 1.8 million children’s lives could have been saved in 2008 if their mothers had at least
a secondary education. In Indonesia, 68 per cent of children with mothers who have attended
secondary school are immunized, compared with 19 per cent of children whose mothers have no
primary schooling. Wages, agricultural income and productivity—all critical for reducing
poverty— are higher where women involved in agriculture receive a better education. Each
additional year of schooling beyond primary offers greater payoffs for improved opportunities,
options and outcomes for girls and women.

In the varied discussions on the post-2015 education related agendas, there was strong consensus
that gender equality in education remains a priority. Various inputs noted that inequalities in
general, and particularly gender equality, need to be addressed simultaneously on multiple
levels—economic, social, political and cultural. A response on behalf of the International
Women’s Health Coalition maintained that “all girls, no matter how poor, isolated or
disadvantaged, should be able to attend school regularly and without the interruption of early
pregnancy, forced marriage, maternal injuries and death, and unequal domestic and childcare
burdens”.

Other inputs highlighted the importance of ensuring access to post-basic and post-secondary
education for girls and women. Referring to secondary education, the German Foundation for
World Population noted that the “completion of secondary education has a strong correlation
with girls marrying later and delaying first pregnancy.” While access to good quality education is
important for girls and women, preventing gender-based violence and equality through education
clearly also remains a priority.

Gender-based discrimination in education is, in effect, both a cause and a consequence of deep-
rooted differences in society. Disparities, whether in terms of poverty, ethnic background,
disability, or traditional attitudes about their status and role all undermine the ability of women
and girls to exercise their rights. Moreover, harmful practices such as early marriage, gender-
based violence, as well as discriminatory education laws and policies still prevent millions of
girls from enrolling and completing their respective education.5

Additionally, given the extensive and growing participation of women in income generating
activities, education for girls and women is particularly important, especially in attempting to
reverse gendered patterns of discrimination. Not only is it impossible to achieve gender equality
without education, but expanding education opportunities for all can help stimulate productivity
and thereby also reduce the economic vulnerability of poor households.

GENDER EQUALITY, EQUITY AND HUMAN RIGHTS

Equity is the strongest framing principle of a post-2015 rights-based agenda, and underlines the
need to redress historical and structural inequalities in order to provide access to quality
education at all levels. This heralds what was effectively one of the strongest themes that
emerged in the post-2015 education consultations, i.e., a rights-based approach in which rights
are indivisible. This implies that all aspects of education should be considered from a rights
perspective, including structural features of education systems, methods of education, as well as
the contents of the education curricula. Indeed, overcoming structural barriers to accessing good
quality education is vital for realizing education rights for all.

In related post-2015 consultations, equity is affirmed as a fundamental value in education.

Several inputs noted that inequality in education remains a persistent challenge. This is
connected to a focus in the Millennium Development Goals on averages without an
accompanying consideration of trends beneath the averages. Many contributions in the education
consultation, as well as in the other thematic consultations, highlighted the lack of attention to
marginalized and vulnerable groups.

Equal access to good quality education requires addressing wide-ranging and persistent
inequalities in society and should include a stronger focus on how different forms of inequality
intersect to produce unequal outcomes for marginalized and vulnerable groups. Post-2015
consultations suggest that overcoming inequality requires a goal that makes national
governments accountable for providing minimum standards and implementing country specific
plans for basic services, including education. Equity in education also implies various proactive
and targeted measures to offer progressive support to disadvantaged groups.

Amartya Sen notes empirical work which has brought out very clearly how the relative respect
and regard for women’s well-being is strongly influenced by their literacy and educated
participation in decisions within and outside the family. Even the survival disadvantage of
women compared with men in many developing countries (which leads to “such terrible
phenomenon as a hundred million of ‘missing women’) seems to go down sharply, and may even
get eliminated, with progress in women’s empowerment, for which literacy is a basic
ingredient”.

In the summer of 2009, the International Labour Organization (ILO) issued a report entitled
“Give Girls a Chance: Tackling child labour, a key to the future”, which makes a disturbing link
between increasing child labour and the preference being given to boys when making decisions
on education of children. The report states that in cultures in which a higher value is placed on
education of male children, girls risk being taken out of school and are then likely to enter the
workforce at an early age. The ILO report noted global estimates where more than 100 million
girls were involved in child labour, and many were exposed to some of its worst forms.
Much of the research around women and education highlights the importance of investing in the
education of girls as an effective way of tackling the gamut of poverty. This is in line with
assertions made in numerous other references, which also point to a strong link between
education, increased women’s (as opposed to girls’) labour force participation, the wages they
earn and overall productivity, all of which ultimately yields higher benefits for communities and
nations. In other words, it pays to invest in girls’ and women’s education.

GENDER SOCIALIZATION

In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Western feminist stalwarts, such as Simone de Beauvoir, were
elaborating the difference between biological ‘sex’ and social gender. Anne Oakley in particular,
is known for coining the term gender socialization (1979), which indicates that gender is socially
constructed. According to Oakley, parents are engaged in gender socialization but society holds
the largest influence in constructing gender. She identified three social mechanisms of gender
socialization: manipulation, canalization, and verbalization (Oakley, 1972). Oakley noted that
gender is not a fixed concept but is determined by culture through the use of verbal and
nonverbal signifiers and the creation of social norms and stereotypes, which identify proper and
acceptable behavior. The signifiers are then perpetuated on a macro level, reinforced by the use
of the media, as well as at the micro level, through individual relationships.

The concept entered mainstream lexicon on gender relations and development dynamics, and
through criticism and counter criticism, ‘gender socialization’ itself became an important
signifier. As a tool to highlight discriminatory practices, laws and perceptions (including
stereotypes), gender socialization is often identified as the ‘root cause’ which explains various
aspects of gender identities, and what underlies many gender dynamics.

In 2007, the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) defined gender socialization as “[T]he
process by which people learn to behave in a certain way, as dictated by societal beliefs, values,
attitudes and examples. Gender socialization begins as early as when a woman becomes pregnant
and people start making judgments about the value of males over females. These stereotypes are
perpetuated by family members, teachers and others by having different expectations for males
and females.”

There is, therefore, a clear interaction between socio-cultural values (and praxis) with gender
socialization. This only partly explains why it is that in many developing societies there is a
persistent prioritization of women’s ‘domestic’ roles and responsibilities over public ones. Most
young girls are socialized into the ‘biological inevitability’ of their socially determined future
roles as mothers. This is closely connected, in many relatively socially conservative contexts,
with the need to ensure (the prerequisite of) marriage.

Most related studies maintain that women with formal education are much more likely to use
reliable family planning methods, delay marriage and childbearing, and have fewer and healthier
babies than women with no formal education. The World Bank estimates that one year of female
schooling reduces fertility by 10 per cent, particularly where secondary schooling is undertaken.

In fact, because women with some formal education are more likely to seek medical care and be
better informed about health care practices for themselves and their children, their offspring have
higher survival rates and are better nourished. Not only that, but as indicated earlier, these
women are less likely to undergo early pregnancy. Being better informed increases the chances
of women knowing how to space their pregnancies better, how to access pre and post-natal care,
including prevention of HIV/AIDS, sexually transmitted diseases and family planning in general.
The World Bank estimates that an additional year of schooling for 1,000 women helps prevent
two maternal deaths.

The World Bank, along with UNICEF and the United Nations Population Fund highlight in
several of their reports the intergenerational benefits of women’s education. An educated mother
is more likely, it is maintained, to attempt to ensure educational opportunities for her children.
Indeed, the World Bank specifically notes that “ in many countries each additional year of formal
education completed by a mother translates into her children remaining in school for an
additional one- third to one-half year”.6

In short, girls’ education and the promotion of gender equality in education are critical to
development, thus underlining the need to broadly address gender disparities in education.

The rhetorical question that needs to be raised here is whether the consistent elements of gender
socialization in the region, and the confusing messages for both sexes, can only lead to
entrenching processes of gender inequality. At the very least, it is safe to argue that gender
socialization, combined with the continuing discrepancies in education opportunities and
outcomes not only provide a negative feedback loop, but effectively contribute to entrenching
patriarchal norms.
Political events and the endorsement of political leadership are often catalytic, if not necessary
determinants, of policy change. In fact, most education reform programmes are often linked to
political dynamics. To date, such reforms are typically launched through a political or legal act.
In most cases, countries prioritize aspects such as forging a common heritage and understanding
of citizenship, instruction in particular language(s), and other means of building capacities as
well as popular support for party programmes. All developing country governments have, at one
time or another, put special effort into including girls in the education system. While there is a
continuous role for policy makers and governments, it is increasingly clear that the socio-cultural
terrain is where the real battles need to be waged in a studied, deliberate and targeted fashion.

Influencing the way people think, believe and behave; i.e., culture is the single most complicated
task of human development. And yet, in policy and advocacy circles globally, this particular
challenge still remains largely considered as ‘soft’ and, at best, secondary in most considerations.
What is maintained here is that within the current global geopolitical climate, particularly where
an increasing number of young men—and now also young women—are reverting to extremes
such as inflicting violence, and where this is often exacerbated by socialization processes which
often enforce certain harmful practices (e.g., early marriage) and outdated forms of gender
identity and roles, then culture needs to be a high priority.

Needed cultural shifts require several key conditions. One of these is the importance of bridging
the activism around gender equality and doing so by involving both men and women. While this
still remains anathema to many women’s rights activists, it is nevertheless necessary that men
become more engaged in gender equality work, and that women realize that their rights are
incumbent on the systematic partnership with men and on appreciating the specific needs and
challenges that young boys and men themselves are struggling with.

Another critical determinant of cultural change is that it has to be from within. Those who have
worked with human rights issues more broadly have had to learn the hard way that any change
that appears to be induced ‘from outside’, even if responding to a dire need and with perfectly
sound reason, is destined for failure in many cases. Sustainable change has to be owned and
operated locally. This points to the importance of identifying the ‘cultural agents of change’ in
any given society, which include both its men and women activists, religious leaders, traditional
and community leaders (in some cases these categories converge), media figures, charismatic
community mobilizers, and especially youth themselves, who are the most critical agents of
change.

At the same time, it is a fallacy to think that there can be no linkages whatsoever between local
ownership and external dynamics. International, especially multilateral, development partners
have an important role to play in facilitating the bridge building between and among the cultural
agents of change themselves on the one hand, and between them and their respective
policymakers on the other. But in this day and age of technology and increasing speed of
technology, international development actors, as well as transnational academic actors, are
already facilitating the building of bridges between youth. Some of this is already happening
through a plethora of fora (including social websites), and the impact remains difficult to gauge.

All this points to the fact that education in the traditional sense of school enrolment, drop-out
rates, curricula development, and structural dynamics thereof are in multiple stages of transition.
It remains to be seen how, and in what way, new forms of education, knowledge acquisition, and
information sharing will significantly change patterns of gender socialization itself. It is too soon
to definitely assess the shifting sands we are standing on. Nevertheless, it would be a mistake to
either overestimate the power of entrenched patriarchy, or to underestimate the capacity of
women and men to significantly refashion their realities. At the same time, the changes in the
culture of international development goal setting are already producing critical insights and
inputs which are shaping the agenda of global, regional and national dynamics for upcoming
decades.
GENDER EQUALITY: ITS RESULTS, CONSEQUENCES, PROVOCATIONS AND

REMEDIES

by

MRS. PEREGRINA R. DAÑO

A thesis submitted to Dr. Cesar Dizon Jr.

in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Subject
Thesis and Research Writing
1st Semester, 2019-2020

GRADUATES SCHOOL
FAR EAST ADVENT SCHOOL OF THEOLOGY INTERNATIONAL INC.
The School of Advance Study in the Science of Ecclesiastical Law
SEC. REG. NO. CN200306784 & TIN 242-732- 001- 000

November 2019
 ACKNOWLEGEMENT

In the present world of competition there is a race of existence in which

those are having will to come forward succeed. Thesis writing is like a bridge theoretical

and practical working. With this willing I joined this particular Thesis Writing. First of all, I

would like to the Supreme Power the Almighty God who is obviously the one has always

guided me to work on the one has always guided me to work on the right path of life.

Without his grace this thesis could not become a reality. I am very much thankful to my

husband and my children for their love, understanding, prayers and continuing support

to complete this research work.. I am feeling oblige in taking this opportunity to sincerely

thanks to Dr. Cesar D. Dizon Jr. our instructor encouraged me to continue my masters’

degree. To my co- teachers who helped me when I needed their help. Finally, my thanks

go to all the people who have supported me to complete the research work

directly or indirectly. I have no valuable words to express my thanks, but my heart is still

full of favours received from every person.

-Peregrina R. Daño
 NAME OF PANELIST

CESAR D. DIZON JR. Ph. D., DD PHUM

FREDELYN B. DIZON Ph. D.

TERESITA G. JOYA Ph. D.

92%
Final Rating
 Addres: New Agutaya, San Vicente, Palawan
Mobile Number: +639126569005
Email Add: peregrinadano0001@deped.gov.ph

PEREGRINA R. DAÑO

PERSONAL DATA:

Date of Birth: June 15, 1958

Place of Birth: New Agutaya, San Vicente, Palawan
Civil Status: Married
Citizenship: Filipino
Height: 47 Kls.
Weight: 162 cm
Fathers Name: Daniel Bacuel Raguin
Mothers Maiden Name: Maria Adier Edradan

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND:

Primary: New Agutaya Elementary School

New Agutaya, San Vicente, Palawan
1967- 1973

Secondary: San Vicente National High School

Poblacion, San Vicente, Palawan
1977- 1981

Tertiary: Bachelor of Arts

Concentration in History
Palawan State University
1984- 1988

EMPLOYMENT HISTORY:
Public Teacher Reg. Permanent: 21 years in service