CHAPTER 4-Noise Analysis and DB Calculation

1-94 NOISE ANALYSIS and dB calculations
Section Noise Analysis Read it

till it
4 and dB Calculations Hertz!
DEFINITION. Noise: Any undesirable energy that falls within the

passband of wanted signal.
DEFINITION. Interference: Is a form of external noise and happens when

information signal from source produce frequencies that fall outside their
allocated bandwidth and interfere with information signal from another source.
DEFINITION. Distortion: The alteration of information in which the original

proportions are changed, resulting from a defect in communication system.
NOISE ANALYSIS
A. .2 GENERAL CLASSIFICATIONS.
1. Correlated Noise
Correlated noise is noise that is correlated to the signal and cannot be
present in a circuit unless there is an input signal present.
2. Uncorrelated Noise
Noise that is present regardless of whether there is a signal present or
not.
B. .TYPES OF CORRELATED NOISE.
1. Harmonic distortion
Results when unwanted harmonics of a signal are produced through
non-linear amplification (mixing).
Self-Sufficient Guide to ECE by JASON AMPOLOQUIO 1-95
higher
%THD X100%
fun
where:
%THD %Total Harmonic Distortion
higher Quadratic sum of the r.m.s. harmonics
2 2 2
2 3 ... n
fun rms voltage of the fundamental frequency
Sample Problem:
Calculate the total harmonic distortion if the %2nd order and %3rd order are
2.5% and 1.25 % respectively and fundamental amplitude of 8 V.
Solution:
%2 nd Order 2
X100 %3 rd Order 3 X100
f f
2 .5 % 2 x 100 1 . 25 % 3 x 100
8 8
2 0 .2 V 3 0 .1 V
2
0.2 0.1 2
%THD X100
8
2.795%
Answer : 2.795%
2. Intermodulation distortion
Results when unwanted sum and difference frequencies are generated
when two or more signals are amplified in a non-linear device.
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C. .TYPES OF UNCORRELATED NOISE.
1. External
Noise that is generated outside the device or circuit.
i. Atmospheric noise - A naturally occurring electrical disturbance

that originate within the Earth s atmosphere.
ii. Extra-terrestrial noise - Noise that consists of electrical signals

that originate from outside Earth s atmosphere.
a. Solar noise - Noise generated directly from the sun s activity.
b. Cosmic noise - Noise that originate from nearby stars, and

galaxies.
iii. Man-made noise - Noise generated by mankind.
iv. Impulse noise - Consist of sudden burst of irregularly shaped

pulses that generally last between a few microseconds and a
fraction of a millisecond.
2. Internal
Electrical interference generated within a device or circuit.
i. Shot noise - Shot noise is a random fluctuation that accompanies

any direct current crossing a potential barrier caused by the
random arrival of carrier at the output element of electronic
devices.
ii. Partition noise - Partition noise occurs wherever current has to

divide between two or more electrodes and results from the
random fluctuation in the division.
iii. Flicker noise - Flicker Noise is associated with crystal surface

defects in semiconductor and also found in vacuum tubes. Flicker
noise is almost exactly 1/f for low frequency. It is often referred
to as pink noise because most of the power is concentrated at the
lower end of the frequency spectrum.
iv. Burst noise - Burst noise is another low frequency noise that
seems to be associated with heavy-metal ion contamination. Burst
noise produce popping sound if amplified in an audio system,
hence the name popcorn noise or 1/f2.
v. Transit-time noise - Transit time noise occurs when the time taken
by charge carrier to cross a junction is comparable to the period of
the signal.
vi. Thermal noise - Thermal noise is associated with the rapid and
random movement of electrons within a conductor due to thermal
agitation.
Read it till it Hertz jma
Thermal noise is known in several names such as
Brownian noise after its discoverer Robert Brown.
Johnson noise after the man who related Brownian particle

movement to electron movement.
White noise because thermal noise is equally distributed throughout

the frequency spectrum, which is analogous to white light, which
contains all visible frequencies.
Gaussian noise because thermal noise exhibit a Gaussian

distribution.
NOISE CALCULATIONS
A. .NOISE POWER & SPECTRUM DENSITY.
PN kTB SN kT
where:
PN noise power in W
SN noise spectrum density in W/Hz
k Boltzmann's constant (1.38 x 10-23 J/K)
B bandwidth in Hertz
T ambient temperature in K

Sample Problem:
Calculate the spectrum density and thermal noise power for a certain
communication system with an IF bandwidth of 10.7 MHz.
Solution:
For Spectrum Density For Noise Power
23 PN kTB SN x B
SN kT (1.38 x 10 ) x 290
21 W 21
4 x 10 (4 x 10 ) x 10.7 MHz
Hz
14
4.28 x 10 W
21 W 14
Answer: SN 4 x 10 , PN 4.28 x 10 W
Hz
B. .NOISE VOLTAGE ANALYSIS.
VN 4kTBnR L
where:
VN noise voltage in V
RL load resistor in
C. .ADDITION OF NOISE DUE TO SEVERAL SOURCES.
2 2 2 2
Vn(total) Vn(1) Vn(2) Vn(3) ...Vn(N)
where:
Vn(total) total noise voltage in V
ECE Board Exam: NOV 2004

An amplifier operating over a 5 MHz bandwidth has a 100 ohms input resistance.
It is operating at 27 degrees Celsius, has a voltage gain of 200 and an input
signal of 6 Vrms. Calculate the output rms noise.
Solution:
Vn(input) 4KTBNR t
23
4(1.38 x10 )(27 273)(5 x10 6 )(100)
2.88 Vrms
Vn(output ) A x Vn(input) 200 x 2.88 V 5.76 Vrms
Vn(output)rms 5.76 Vrms
ECE Board Exam: APRIL 2004

The resistor R1 and R2 are connected in series at 300 oK and 400 oK
temperatures respectively. If R1 is 200 and R2 is 300 , find the power
produced at the load (RL = 500 ) over a bandwidth of 100 kHz.
Solution:
Vn(total) Vn(1)2 Vn(2)2 4kB T1R 1 T2R 2
23
4(1.38 x 10 )(100 x 103 ) (300 x 200) (400 x 300) 996.8 nV
2
996.8 nV
2
Vn(rms) 2
Pn(load) 0.496 fW
2R L 2(500)
D. .CASCADED AMPLIFIER.

1. Equivalent Noise Resistance (Req)
R2 R3 RN
R eq R1
A12 A12 A 22 A12 A22 2
AN 1
Sample Problem:
The first stage of a two-stage amplifier has a voltage gain of 10, a 600-
input resistor, a 1600- equivalent noise resistance and a 27k output
resistor. For the 2nd stage, these values are 25, 81k , 10k and 1M ,
respectively. Calculate the equivalent input-noise resistance.
Solution:
For R 1
R1 R IN1 R eq1 600 1600
2.2 k
For R 2
R OUT1 x R IN2 27 x 81
R2 R eq2 10
R OUT1 R IN2 27 81
30.2 k
For R 3
R3 1M
For R eq
R2 R3
R eq R1
A12 A12 A22
30.2 k 1M
2.2 k 2
10 102 x 252
2518
Answer : 2.518 k
2. Equivalent Noise Temperature (Teq)
Te2 Te3 TeN

Teq Te1
A12 A12 A 22 A12 A 22 2
AN 1
E. .NOISE IN REACTIVE CIRCUITS.
1. Noise Voltage (VN)
VN 4KTBNR D
Q
RD Q 0L Q2r
0C
where:
RD dynamic resistance in
Q quality factor
0 angular frequency in rad
C capacitance in Farad
L coil inductance in Henry
r coil resistance in

Sample Problem:
A parallel tuned circuit at the input of a radio receiver is tuned to resonate at
125 MHz by a capacitance 23.5 pF. The Q-factor of the circuit is 40 and with
a channel bandwidth of the receiver limited to 10 kHz by the audio sections.
Determine the effective noise voltage of this radio receiver tuned circuit.
Solution:
For the Dynamic Impedance
Q 40
RD 6 12
0C 2 (125 x 10 ) (23.5 x 10 )
2.17 k
For Noise Voltage
VN 4kTBRD
23
4 (1.38 x 10 ) (17 273) (10 x 103 ) (2.17 x 103 )
0.589 V
Answer : 0.589 V
F. .SHOT NOISE CURRENT.

w h e re :
IN s h o t n o is e c u rre n t in A
q c h a rg e o f s in g le e le c tro n
IN 2qI0B
1 .6 x 1 0 - 1 9 C
I0 d c b ia s c u rre n t in A
Bn n o is e b a n d w id th in H z

A diode noise generator is required to produce 10 V of noise in a receiver
with an input impedance of 75 , resistive, and a noise power bandwidth of
200 kHz. What must the current through the diode be?
Solution:
For Noise Current For Diode Current
VN 10 V IN 2qI0B
IN
R 75
0.133 A IN2 (0.133 A)2
I0 19
2qB 2 (1.6 x 10 C) (200 x 103 )
276 mA
G. .SIGNAL-to-NOISE POWER RATIO.
1. Ideal case
S S
N out N in
2. Practical case
S ApSin
N out ApNin Nint ernal
Small Signal-to-Noise Ratio
NOISE SIGNAL + NOISE

SIGNAL
Large Signal-to-Noise Ratio
SIGNAL NOISE SIGNAL + NOISE

H. .NOISE FACTOR & NOISE FIGURE.
1. Noise Factor (F)

Figure of merit used to indicate how much the signal-to-noise ratio
deteriorates as a signal passes trough a circuit or series of circuit.
S
N IN
F
S
N OUT
2. Noise Figure (NF)

Noise factor expressed in dB
NF 10logF
ECE Board Exam: NOV 2004

A transistor has a measured S/N power of 100 at its input and 20 at its output.
Determine the noise figure of the transistor.
Solution:
S
N in 100
NFdB 10 log S
10 log 7 dB
20
N ou
For Cascaded Network
FRIISS Formula Total S/N Ratio
F2 1 F3 1 Fn 1 S S
FT F1 ... 10 logn
A1 A1 A2 A1 A2 ...A n 1 N T N 1
3. Equivalent Noise Temperature (Teq)

The absolute temperature of a resistor that, connected to the input of
a noiseless amplifier of the same gain, would produce the same noise
at the output of a real amplifier.
Teq Ta (F 1) F Noise Factor

Ta Ambient Temperature in K

A 3-stage amplifier is to have an overall noise temperature no greater than
70 degrees K. The overall gain of the amplifier is to be at least 45 dB. The
amplifier is to be built by adding a low-noise first stage to an existing
amplifier with existing characteristics as follows: Stage 2 has 20 dB power
gain; 3 dB noise figure. Stage 3 has 15 dB power gain and 6 dB noise
figure. Calculate the maximum noise figure (in dB) that the first stage can
have.
Solution:
A1 AT A2 A3 45 20 15
10 dB
Teq 70
FT 1 1 1.24
Ta 290
F2 1 F3 1
F1 FT
A1 A1 A2
2 1 4 1
1.24
10 10x100
NF1 10 log F1 0.56 dB
Answer :0.56 dB

4. Equivalent Noise Resistance (Req)
F Noise Factor
R eq R a (F 1)
Ra Antenna Resistance in
5. Relation between Equivalent Noise Temperature & Equivalent Noise

Resistance
Teq R eq
Ta Ra
NOISE LEVEL CALCULATIONS
A. .DECIBEL & NEPER.
1. Decibel (dB)
A unit of measure (abbreviated dB) originally used to compare sound
intensities and subsequently electrical or electronic power outputs;
now also used to compare voltages. An increase of 10 dB is equivalent
to a 10-fold increase in intensity or power, and a 20-fold increase in
voltage.
2. Neper (Np)
A transmission unit used in Northern European countries originally
used to express the attenuation of current along a transmission line,
using natural logarithm.
P1 I1
dB 10 log Np ln
P2 I2
Relation between decibel & Neper
1Neper 8.686 dB 1 dB 0.115 Neper

B. .NOISE MEASUREMENT LEVEL & UNITS.
1. Relative Level Point (RLP)

i. For two-wire switching systems, the sending end terminals of a
long distance have been long considered to be at a point of zero
relative level.
ii. For four-wire switching, these are theoretical points; the CCITT
adopted a relative level of -3.5 dBr (0dBr) for the sending end of a
four-wire circuit. In American system, -2 dBr (0 dBr) is widely
used).
2. Transmission Level Point (TLP)

The American term for relative level point.
3. 0 dBr
Any point in a circuit with the same relative level as the sending
terminal is a point of zero relative level 0 dBr.
4. 0 TLP
Zero transmission level point (0 TLP) is the point at which the test
tone level should be 0 dBm.
Relation between 0 TLP and 0 dBr
0 TLP 0 dBr
5. dBm
dBm is the dB in reference to 1 mW.
6. dBm0
An absolute unit of power in dBm measured at or referred to a point of
0 TLP.
Relation between dBm0 and dBm
dBm0 dBm 0 TLP 0 dBr

Sample Problem:
Calculate the strength of a signal in dBmO if it has an absolute power level
of -27 dBm at -24 dBm TLP.
Solution:
Note that 0 dBr 0 TLP
dBm 0 dBm dBr

dBm TLP
27 dBm 24 dBm TLP
3 dBm 0
Answer : 3 dBm 0
7. dBrn
dBrn is the unit of measurement of noise power used in the Western
Electric 144-type handset with a sensitivity of -90 dBm at 1000 Hz.
8. dBrn0
dBrn0 relates noise power reading in dBrn to 0 TLP to establish a
common reference point throughout the system.
Relation between dBrn0 and dBrn
dBrn0 dBrn 0 TLP 0 dBr
9. dBa
Subsequent to the 144 handset, the Western Electric developed the
F1A handset that is 5 dB less sensitive (-85 dBm at 1000 Hz) to the
older handset (144-type). The noise measurement unit was the dBa.
10. dBa0
dBa0 relates noise power reading in dBa to 0 TLP to establish a
Relation between dBa0 and dBa
dBa0 dBa 0 TLP 0 dBr

11. dBrnC
A third more sensitive handset unit was developed by Western Electric
(500-type) giving rise to the C-message line weighting curve and its
companion unit, the dBrnC.
12. dBrnC0
dBrnC0 relates noise power reading in dBrnC to 0 TLP to establish a
Relation between dBrnC0 and dBrnC
dBrnC0 dBrnC 0 TLP 0 dBr

When measuring a voice channel at a -4 dB test point level, the meter reads -76
dBm. Calculate the reading in dBrnCO.
Solution:
dBrnC 0 dBrnC 0 TLP dBrnC dBm 90
dBm 90 0 TLP
76 90 ( 4)
18 dBrnC 0
Sample Problem:
A 1 kHz tone has a level of 70 dBrnC at a point that is 9 dB TLP. What
would be the maximum C-message weighted noise level at the 0 TLP for a
signal-to-noise ratio of 30 dB?
Solution:
dBrnC 0 dBrnC 0 TLP
70 9
79 signal level in dBrnC0
S
SdBrnC 0 NdBrnC 0
N dB
30 dB 79 NdBrnC 0
N 49 dBrnC 0
Answer : 49 dBrnC 0

13. dBmp
The CCITT weighting unit for commercial circuit which is nominally
identical to the American F1A weighting unit.
14. dBm0p
dBmp0p relates noise power reading in dBmp to 0 TLP to establish a
Relation between dBmp and dBmp0p
dBm0p dBmp 0 TLP 0 dBr
Sample Problem:
A -42 dBmp of noise at a -5 dBr point would be reported as ____ dBm0p.
Solution:
dBm 0p dBmp 0 TLP (0 dBr )
42 ( 5)
35
Answer : 35 dBm 0p
15. pWp
The unit of noise power measured with the CCITT recommended
psophometer. The reference tone is -90 dBm (1 picowatt) at 800 Hz.
16. pWp0
pWp0 relates noise power reading in pWp to 0 TLP to establish a
Relation between pWp and pWp0
pWp0 10 logpWp 0 TLP 0 dBr

C. .NORTH AMERICAN STANDARD.
Weighting Reference Reference Noise

Handset
Curve Frequency Level Unit
144 type 144-Line
1000 Hz -90 dBm dBrn
Handset Weighting
F1A type F1A-Line

1000 Hz -85 dBm dBa
Handset Weighting
500 type C-message -90 dBm

1000 Hz dBrnC
Handset Weighting (retained)
D. .EUROPEAN STANDARD (CCITT).
Weighting Reference Reference

Noise Unit
Curve Frequency Level
Psophometric
800 Hz -90 dBm dBmp & pWp
Weighting
Read it till it Hertz jma
dBrn correspond to dB above reference noise.
dBa correspond to dB adjusted.
dBrnC correspond to dB above reference noise using C-message line

weighting.
dBmp correspond to dB psophometrically weighted.
pWp correspond to picowatts psophometrically weighted.
A 3000 Hz of white noise (not weighted) is attenuated by 8 dB when

measured by 144 weighting network, 3 dB using F1A weighting, 2 dB
using C-message weighting, and 2.5 dB for psophometric weighting.

E. .NOISE LEVEL COMPUTATIONS.
1. Pure Test Tone
Handset Type General Solution
144 Handset dBrn dBm 90

F1A Handset dBa dBm 85
500 type Handset dBrnC dBm 90
Relation between dBrnC & dBa
dBrnC dBa 5
Sample Problem:
A 1 kHz test tone is inserted at a local loop with an amplitude of +4 dBm
and is transmitted towards the central office. In this direction the loop has a
level of +10 dB TLP, because the signal will be attenuated as it moves
towards the central office (about 5 dB). Express the level of the tone in
dBrnCO.
Solution:
dBrnC dBm 90 dBrnC0 dBrnC 0 TLP
4 90 94 10 dB
94 84
And since the signal will be attenuated on its way to the C.O.
dBrnC 0 84 5 dB
79
Answer : 79 dBrnC 0
2. 3 kHz White Noise (Random Noise)
Handset Type General Solution
144 Handset dBrn dBm 90
F1A Handset dBa dBm 82
500 type Handset dBrnC dBm 88
Relation between dBrnC & dBa
dBrnC dBa 6
F. .VOLUME UNIT COMPUTATIONS.
The VU or volume unit is a unit used to measure the power level (volume)
of program channels (broadcast) and certain types of speech or music.
Approximate Talker Power in dBm
Pt(dBm) VU 1.4

Calculate the approximate talker power in dBm for a complex signal with VU
meter readout of 5 VU.
Solution:
Pt(dBm) 5 1 .4 3.6 dBm

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1-94 NOISE ANALYSIS and dB calculations

Section Noise Analysis Read it

DEFINITION. Noise: Any undesirable energy that falls within the

DEFINITION. Interference: Is a form of external noise and happens when

DEFINITION. Distortion: The alteration of information in which the original

B. .TYPES OF CORRELATED NOISE.

fun rms voltage of the fundamental frequency

Loading ECE SUPERBook

C. .TYPES OF UNCORRELATED NOISE.

i. Atmospheric noise - A naturally occurring electrical disturbance

ii. Extra-terrestrial noise - Noise that consists of electrical signals

a. Solar noise - Noise generated directly from the sun s activity.

b. Cosmic noise - Noise that originate from nearby stars, and

iii. Man-made noise - Noise generated by mankind.

iv. Impulse noise - Consist of sudden burst of irregularly shaped

i. Shot noise - Shot noise is a random fluctuation that accompanies

ii. Partition noise - Partition noise occurs wherever current has to

iii. Flicker noise - Flicker Noise is associated with crystal surface

Read it till it Hertz jma

Thermal noise is known in several names such as

Brownian noise after its discoverer Robert Brown.

Johnson noise after the man who related Brownian particle

White noise because thermal noise is equally distributed throughout

Gaussian noise because thermal noise exhibit a Gaussian

A. .NOISE POWER & SPECTRUM DENSITY.

Loading ECE SUPERBook

B. .NOISE VOLTAGE ANALYSIS.

C. .ADDITION OF NOISE DUE TO SEVERAL SOURCES.

ECE Board Exam: NOV 2004

ECE Board Exam: APRIL 2004

Loading ECE SUPERBook

1. Equivalent Noise Resistance (Req)

2. Equivalent Noise Temperature (Teq)

Te2 Te3 TeN

E. .NOISE IN REACTIVE CIRCUITS.

1. Noise Voltage (VN)

Loading ECE SUPERBook

F. .SHOT NOISE CURRENT.

ECE Board Exam: APRIL 2003

G. .SIGNAL-to-NOISE POWER RATIO.

Small Signal-to-Noise Ratio

NOISE SIGNAL + NOISE

Large Signal-to-Noise Ratio

SIGNAL NOISE SIGNAL + NOISE

Loading ECE SUPERBook

H. .NOISE FACTOR & NOISE FIGURE.

1. Noise Factor (F)

2. Noise Figure (NF)

ECE Board Exam: NOV 2004

For Cascaded Network

FRIISS Formula Total S/N Ratio

3. Equivalent Noise Temperature (Teq)

Teq Ta (F 1) F Noise Factor

ECE Board Exam: APRIL 2003

Loading ECE SUPERBook

4. Equivalent Noise Resistance (Req)

5. Relation between Equivalent Noise Temperature & Equivalent Noise

NOISE LEVEL CALCULATIONS

A. .DECIBEL & NEPER.

Relation between decibel & Neper

1Neper 8.686 dB 1 dB 0.115 Neper

B. .NOISE MEASUREMENT LEVEL & UNITS.

1. Relative Level Point (RLP)

2. Transmission Level Point (TLP)