SUBJECT: NAVIGATION

Q. Define GC & RL.

Ans. Great Circle: A circle on the surface of the earth whose centre and radius are
those of the earth itself. It is circle of the surface of the sphere whose centre and
diameter are that of earth. A plane of the great circle divides the earth in two
equal parts. Great circle distance is the shortest distance along the arc of the
great circle however this is not constant.

Meridian and its anti-meridian make a great circle.

Rhumb Line: Rhumb line is a regularly curved line on the surface of the earth
which cuts all the meridians on the earth at same angle. It is curve concaved to
the nearer pole. Rhumb line track is constant between two positions but the
distance is longer.

Equator and meridian are the only two examples on the surface of the earth
which are great circles as well as rhumb line.

All latitudes are rhumb lines. Equator is the only latitude which is RL & GC.

Q. What is Convergency and Conversion Angle? Does convergency increase or

decrease towards pole?
Ans. Convergency: All the meridians on the surface of the earth from equator to the
pole converge and they make angle at the pole. The angle of inclination between
any two meridians is known as convergency.

At equator meridians are parallels to each other, therefore convergency is zero.

At the pole they make maximum angle, the angle is change of longitude.

Zero convergency at equator and maximum at the pole. Therefore it varies as Sin
latitude.

Conversion Angle: The angular difference between RL & GC bearing/track is

conversion angle. CA = C/2. The relation between GC & RL will depend upon the
hemisphere and bearing/direction.

Q. Why GC track is not a constant track?

Ans. Due earth’s convergency. Refer Oxford P.30

Q. What is the variation and convergency of VIDP?

Ans. Variation can be checked from VIDP ground chart. Convergency is a relative term,
question is incomplete.

Q. What is TMG?
Ans. Track Made Good is the actual path of the aircraft over the surface of a track as
distinct from the intended track to be flown. It is often indicated by a double
arrow on charts and maps.

Q. Aircraft requires headwind component of at least 10 knots and has a crosswind

 0
limit is of 35 knots. The angle between the runway and wind direction is 60 .
Calculate maximum and minimum allowable wind speed.
Ans. Formulae to calculate wind is:

Headwind/Tailwind = Wind Velocity X Cos ɸ

X Wind = Wind Velocity X Sin ɸ
(ɸ is the angle between the runway direction and the wind)

Question states that aircraft requires atleast 10 knots of headwind component to

takeoff, hence,

10 = WV COS 600
OR WV = 20 Kt. (Minimum)

35 = WV SIN 600
OR WV = 40 Kt. (Maximum)

Runway crosswind value Thumb rule:

Sin 10=.17
Sin 15=.3
Sin 30=.5
Sin 45=.7
Sin 60=.8
Sin 75=.9
Sin 90=10

Q. What is the difference between True North, Magnetic North, Grid North and
Compass North?
Ans. True North: True north (Geodetic North) is the direction along the earth's surface
towards the geographic North Pole. It is defined as the point in the northern
hemisphere where the Earth's axis of rotation meets the Earth's surface.

Magnetic North: The direction indicated by a magnetic compass. Magnetic North

moves slowly with a variable rate.

Grid North: This is the direction of a grid line which is parallel to the central
meridian on the National Grid. Grid north is a navigational term referring to the
direction northwards along the grid lines of a map projection. It is contrasted with
true north (the direction of the North Pole) and magnetic north (the direction of
the Magnetic North Pole).

It is important to note that what people call the "Magnetic North on the Earth" is
really the South pole of the earth's magnet, since the "North-seeking Pole" of a
lodestone or small magnet (what we call "the North Pole") is attracted to it (and
un-like poles attract).

Q. What is the difference between KM & NM?

Ans. Kilometer is 1/10000th of the average distance on the Earth between the Equator
and either pole. Thus there are 10000 km between the equator and either Pole.
 Nautical Mile is that length of arc of a Great Circle which subtends an angle of
one minute at the centre of curvature of the Earth’s surface. Because the earth is
flattened at the Poles, the radius of curvature is increased and a greater arc is
required to subtend an angle of one minute at the centre of Curvature, hence a
nautical mile is longest at the pole at about 6108 feet and shortest at the equator
and measures about 6046 ft. The average value taken is 6076 ft.

The circumference of the earth can be calculated by

Departure = Change of longitude (Min) X Cos Latitude
=360 X 60 X Cos 0 = 21600 NM

Q. Flying on the equator from 10’E to 11’E, how many feet do you cover?
Ans. 1 NM at Equator = 6046 feet
1 NM at 450 NS = 6076 feet
1 NM at 900 Pole = 6108 feet

Q. Why Compass Swing is applied to compass?

Ans. Refer Oxford P.108 & P179. Any ferromagnetic material (iron or steel) or
electrical circuits in an aircraft may well have a magnetic field which affects the
compass, hence the direction indicated by the compass needle is generally not
Magnetic North. Non-ferromagnetic material, e.g. brass, aluminum, will not have
a magnetic field and so will not affect the compass. Similarly significant changes
in latitudes or maintenance may also introduce some deviation in the compass.

The angle between Magnetic North and the direction indicated by a compass
needle is called the angle of deviation. Deviation varies with heading so it has to
be measured on a series of different headings. This is usually done by
conducting a compass swing. Once deviation has been reduced as far as
possible (by successive adjustment of screw on different headings) the residual
deviation is then recorded on a compass deviation card, which is located in the
aircraft.

Q. How can declination or variation be calculated?

Ans. http://www.geomag.nrcan.gc.ca/mag_fld/magdec-eng.php

Declination is calculated using the current World Magnetic Model (WMM) or the
International Geomagnetic Reference Field (IGRF) model.

For aviation usage, it is given on Jeppesen charts for ready reference.

Canadian topographic charts contain a diagram in the margin which gives the
declination for the year in which the chart was published. Beneath the diagram is
a statement informing the user about the annual change of declination. By
multiplying the annual change by the number of years that have elapsed since
the chart was published and adding the total change to the published declination
value, the user obtains the present day declination.

Q. What are RNAV specification with regard to aircraft approach an aerodrome?

Ans. RNAV Route to Initial approach fix RNAV5;
IAF to Final approach FIX RNAV1;
 FAF to Landing RNAV 0.3;
Missed approach again is RNAV1

Q. What is 1/60 Rule? Calculate aircraft height which is 10 nm away from the
airfield.
Ans. The 1 in 60 rule states that if an aircraft has travelled sixty miles then an error in
track of one mile is approximately a 10 error. However, precise figure of this the
error is 0.960.

Height = Angle X Range X 101 = 3 X 10 X 101 = 3030 ft. AGL.

Q. Define C.P.
Ans. It is that stage of flight from where aircraft takes same TIME either to reach
destination or return back to base irrespective of ground speed.
CP in zero wind:
Only in nil wind conditions, CP lies midway.
CP in tailwind conditions:
In this condition, CP lies towards the base, i.e. distance to CP is less than half.
CP in headwind conditions:
In this condition, CP lies towards the destination i.e. distance to CP is more than
half from base.

Q. Define PNR.
Ans. It is a fuel problem. PNR is that stage of the flight upto which aircraft can fly and
return back to base within given endurance. Distance to PNR is maximum in NIL
wind only. With the presence of winds (headwind or tailwind) distance to PNR
reduces i.e. less than NIL wind.

Q. If a pilot is unable to maintain RVSM, what is the RT phraseology?

Ans. Unable RVSM due Equipment / Due Turbulence.

Q. What is difference between Track (M) and Track (T)?

Ans. Variation

Q. What is the difference between MEL and MMEL?

Ans. While the MMEL is for an aircraft type family, the MEL is tailored to the operator's
specific aircraft and operating environment and may be dependent upon the
route structure, geographic location, and number of airports where spares and
maintenance capability are available etc. The MMEL cannot address these
individual variables or standard terms such as "as required by regulations". It is
for these reasons that a MMEL cannot be approved for use as a MEL. MEL does
not cover essential Airworthiness items such as Engine, Landing Gear, Flaps,
Wings, Flight Control Surface etc. Categories for different classes are:

A : As per remarks
B : 3 Days
C : 10 Days
D : 120 Days

MEL Purpose: The MEL is a joint operations and maintenance document

 prepared for or by an operator to:

1. Identify the minimum equipment and conditions for an aircraft to

maintain the Certificate of Airworthiness in force and to meet the
operating rules for the type of operation;
2. Define operational procedures necessary to maintain the required level of
safety and to deal with inoperative equipment; and
3. Define maintenance procedures necessary to maintain the required level
of safety and procedures necessary to secure any inoperative equipment.

Q. When is LVP enforced?

Ans. The point at which LVPs should be implemented will vary from one aerodrome to
another depending on local conditions and facilities available. The point at which
LVPs are to be implemented must be clearly defined and should be related to a
specific RVR or cloud ceiling measurement. Aerodromes may define higher
values for RVR and ceiling than the ICAO standard depending on local
circumstances

In Delhi, whenever RVR (either TDZ, MID or END) drops down to below 800m
and/or ceiling is below 200 feet, LVP will be enforced (Refer Jeppesen VIDP
Chart 10-1P1).

A take-off performed on a runway, where the RVR is less than 400 m, is termed
as Low Visibility Take-off (LVTO).

Q. When is the RVR reported?

Ans. Jeppesen P.377 The runway visual range shall be reported in meters throughout
periods when either the visibility or the runway visual range is less than 1500m.

Q. What are RVR restrictions?

Ans. The touch-down zone RVR is always controlling. If reported and relevant, the
mid-point and stop-end RVR are also controlling. (All Weather Operation Circular)

Q. Communication failure procedures for VIDP?

Ans. Standard communication failure procedures as per AIP Enroute 1.9. Also refer
Jeppesen VIDP Chart 10-1-P13 (Arrival) & Chart 10-1-P18 (Departure)

Q. How is take-off alternate decided?

Ans. A take-off alternate is required to be designated, whenever weather conditions at
aerodrome of departure are lower than applicable landing AOM at that airport
regardless of CAT II / III capability of the aircraft. Under such weather conditions,
landing back, after departure, below CAT I conditions may be precluded due
degradation of aircraft equipment / performance after take-off, or might not
possible to land back at aerodrome of departure due performance or any other
reasons.

A takeoff alternate needs to be designated; when RVR is less than 550m

(regardless of fail-passive / fail-operational aircraft) OR when visibility / RVR at
departure airfield is less than landing AOM at the same airfield OR when aircraft
cannot land back at airfield of departure due performance / due any other
 reasons.
As per CAR Section 8, Series ‘C’, Part I, on All Weather Operations (AWO), The
take-off alternate aerodrome, for two-engine aeroplanes, in relation to the
departure aerodrome, shall be:

 Located within one hour flight time at a one-engine inoperative cruise

speed.
 Take-off alternate weather (actual and forecast) shall not be less than ILS
CAT I minima

Q. What are the types of scales?

Ans. There are three types of scales:
RF (Representative Fraction)
Statement in Words
A Graduated Scale (Printed on the map)

Q. Jeppesen charts are based on which projection? What are the properties of
Lamberts Conformal Charts (LCC)? Where else do you use it other than aviation?
Ans. The chart is specifically devised for use in middle latitudes. Two parallels which
are 1/6 from the top and 1/6 from the bottom of the area to be projected are
made standard parallels. Parallels are concentric arcs with apex arc in the
centre, not of equidistance to each other. Meridians are straight lines converging
towards the pole and are correctly spaced.

Scale: Scale is correct at selected two standard parallels. In between the

standard parallel it contracts (RF increases) and expands outside the standard
parallel (RF decreases). For practical purposes it is considered a constant scale.
On Lambert chart scale is least at poles.

Convergency: Correct at parallel of origin. Towards the pole, it reduces and

towards the equator it increases.

Rhumb Line: Parallels and meridians are RLs elsewhere it is a curve concaved to
the pole.
Great Circle: GC is a straight line near the parallel or origin. Away from it, it is a
very gentle curve, concaved to the parallel of origin. However, for practical
purposes, it is taken as a straight line.

Limitations: The chart size is chosen in such a manner that the scale error is less
than 1%. An Artificial grid is required to be superimposed for plotting purposes.

Uses:
It is used worldwide for air routes. Jeppesen charts are based on this projection
only. On these charts, air route segments are GC segments and track mentioned
in any segment and bearing measurement are correct and measured at the mid
longitude or the segment. No convergency/conversion angle is required to plot
VOR radio bearing.

Advantages over Mercator:

Plotting of radio bearing is easier. Constant Scale can be used for measure the
 distances. GC tracks can be flown. It can be used in higher latitudes. Mariners
most frequently use a Mercator projection. The Mercator is the most common
projection used in maritime navigation, primarily because rhumb lines plot as
straight lines.

In the United States, the National Geodetic Survey uses Lambert Conformal Conic
Projection to define the grid-coordinate systems used in several states (primarily
those that are elongated west to east).

Q. Find the standard parallels in a lamberts chart.

Ans. See Jeppesen Enroute Chart ME (H/L) 7, its states Parallel at 90 and 350.

Q. What is CANPA? How is it useful?

Ans. Constant Angle Non-Precision Approaches CANPA advocates making a
stabilized constant angle descent rather than a quick descent to the MDA
followed by flying level at the MDA.

CANPA offers a significant safety improvement for non-precision approaches

under all conditions by providing a more stabilized flight path and reduced crew
workload. The resulting stabilized approach from the FAF to the runway greatly
simplifies the flight crew’s task on final approach and allows them more time to
focus on acquiring the runway environment and conducting the landing. This in
turn results in a higher success rate in landing off non-precision approaches,
besides supporting the ICAO goal of having all approaches stabilized by 1000
feet AGL in IMC.

There are three key elements to the CANPA brief:

Computed Landing Altitude: Reference landing altitude should be 50 feet over the
runway threshold (TDZE+50’)

Computed Touch Down Position: Used to determine the zero distance reference.
From this point, the altitude checks at various distances from runway should be
worked out, if not available from the approach chart.

Computed Descent Rate: All approaches are to be flown at a computed constant

descent rate to a Derived Decision Altitude (Height) DDA (H). A descent rate
correction of not more than +/- 300 fpm may be made during the final approach.
If more than +/-300 fpm correction is required on the final approach, the
approach is considered unstabilized and a go-around should be initiated.
(Momentary corrections exceeding +/-300 fpm do not require a go-around).

At DDA (H), if the required visual reference is not established, an immediate

missed approach must be initiated. Aircraft should climb on track to MAP, and
then follow the published missed approach procedure.

Q. How do you carry out a CANPA approach if FAF is not published? How is the FAF
crossing height calculated?
Ans. Where a FAF is not defined in the chart, a pseudo FAF can be worked out on the
inbound track, based on the initial approach/intermediate altitude. From this
point, a rate of descent can be computed, ideally for a 3 degree glide path.
 A straight-in approach may be conducted if the pseudo FAF and the distance of
the aircraft from touchdown can be determined using any of the following aids
DME, FMS, GPS, ATC Radar.

Q. Why is 50 feet added to MDA to calculate DDH in a CANPA approach?

Ans. If a go around is initiated at MDA while descending, the aircraft may go below the
MDA during the missed approach maneuver, which is not allowed. To
compensate for this, the operators must add a margin of at least 50 feet to the
MDA and call it a Derived Decision Altitude (Height), so that executing a missed
approach at the DDA (H) will not cause the aircraft to descend below the MDA.

Q. Why is 50 feet not added to the DH in an ILS approach if the same if done for a
CANPA approach to calculate the DDH?
Ans. As per the definition of DA, missed approach should be commenced upon
reaching the DA incase visual reference is not available. No straight and level
flight in such a case waiting for the visual cue. DA has been catered for this dip
down. Also since it’s a precision approach, vertical guidance is available.

Q. Define Decision Altitude (DA).

Ans. Decision Altitude (MSL) is mentioned on approach chart at which a decision
must be made during an ILS approach or PAR instrument approach to either
continue the approach or to proceed for missed approach.

Q. Define Decision Height (DH).

Ans. Height referenced to the threshold elevation (AGL).

Q. Explain DA & DH.

Ans. Decision altitude (DA) or decision height (DH) is a specified altitude or height in
the precision approach or approach with vertical guidance at which a missed
approach must be initiated if the required visual reference to continue the
approach has not been established. Decision altitude (DA) is referenced to mean
sea level and decision height (DH) is referenced to the threshold elevation. For
convenience where both expressions are used they may be written in the form
“decision altitude/height” and abbreviated “DA/H”.

Where DH is referenced to threshold elevation, Circle to Approach Minima refers

to airport elevation.

Q. What is the meaning of DAH on an approach plate?

Ans. DAH means decision height taken on the radio altimeter.

Q. Define Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA).

Ans. The lowest altitude expressed in feet above MSL on which descent is authorized
on final approach or during circle to land when doing non-precision approach i.e.
without glide slope.

Q. What are the domestic routes on Jeppesen enroute chart? And which of them are
only one way
Ans. HVJW are domestic routes. HV are one way routes.
Q. How would you calculate a Runway Slope and what is the maximum limit?
Ans. Maximum slope allowed is ±2%. It can be calculated by

Difference of Elevation / Runway Length *100

Q. How to calculate climb gradient

Ans. Climb Gradient = ROC/GS x 0.98 (0.98 is derived from 60X100/6080)
Climb Gradient = ROC/GS (Rule of Thumb)

Q. What is the climb gradient of your aircraft?

Ans. If the average rate of climb from ground to FL410 is taken as 1400 ft/min at the
ground speed of 300 kt, it comes out to be 4.6%.

Q. If a climb gradient is given, how would you calculate the required climb ft/min.
Ans. An approximate value for the required feet/minute can be calculated by taking
the groundspeed in knots and multiplying it by the required % gradient.

So for example to get a 5% gradient at 100 knots ground speed requires 100 x 5
= 500 feet/minute ROC.

This is based on the fact that 1 knot = approximately 100 feet/minute. 1 knot is
actually 101.3 feet/per minute so a precise figure in the above example would be
506.5 feet/minute ROC. But 500 feet/minute is reasonable approximation.

Q. What is TCH?
Ans. Threshold Crossing Height. Height of the effective visual glide path over the
threshold.

Q. What is MEHT?
Ans. Minimum Eye Height over threshold. Lowest height over the threshold of the
visual on glide path indication. MEHT or TCH is shown (when known) when less
than 60’ for the upwind bar of a VASI (3 bar) system or less than 25’ for all other
systems including PAPI.

Q. What is the difference between ILS Critical Area & ILS Sensitive Area?
Ans. ILS critical area: An area of defined dimensions about the localizer and glide path
antennas where vehicles, including aircraft, are excluded during all ILS
operations. The critical area is protected because the presence of vehicles
and/or aircraft inside its boundaries will cause unacceptable disturbance to the
ILS signal-in-space.

ILS sensitive area: An area extending beyond the critical area where the parking
and/or movement of vehicles, including aircraft, are controlled to prevent the
possibility of unacceptable interference to the ILS signal during ILS operations.
The sensitive area is protected to provide protection against interference caused
by large moving objects outside the critical area but still normally within the
airfield boundary.

Q. What is SLOP?
Ans. The flight crew may apply Strategic Lateral Offset Procedure in remote
continental airspace within Non-radar airspace when the aircraft is equipped with
automatic offset tracking capability. Within non-radar airspace, the strategic
lateral offset shall be established at a distance of 1 NM or 2 NM (Maximum
2NM) to the right of the centre line of the route relative to the direction of flight.

In airspace where the use of lateral offsets has been authorized, pilots are not
required to inform Air Traffic Control (ATC) that an offset is being applied.
Special Procedures to mitigate Wake Turbulence Encounters and Distracting
Aircraft System Alerts have been provided in the Oceanic Airspace of the
Chennai, Kolkata and Mumbai FIR.

Wake turbulence is likely to be experienced by the lower of two aircraft when it

arrives approximately 15-30 nm behind an opposite direction aircraft which has
crossed directly overhead on the same route.

Q. What is Converted Meteorological Visibility (CMV)?

Ans. A value equivalent to an RVR which is derived from the reported meteorological
visibility, as converted in accordance with the specified requirements in the CAR.

In cases where the RVR is not reported, a pilot may derive RVR/CMV by using a
mathematical conversion depending upon the type of approach lighting and
day/night conditions. CMV shall not be used for take-off, or for calculating any
other required RVR minimum less than 800 m, or for visual approach / circling
approach, or when reported RVR is available. CMV can only be used by Flight
Crew in-flight.

The RVR/CMV derived from the table below may be used by Flight Crew to
commence or continue an approach to the applicable DA/MDA.

Hi Approach & Lighting : Day 1.5; Night 2.0

Any other type of Lighting : Day 1.0; Night 1.5
No Lighting : Day 1.0; Night Not Applicable.

Q. What is Approach Ban?

Ans. Commencement and Continuation of Approach (Approach Ban Policy)

An instrument approach will not be commenced if the reported RVR/Visibility is

below the applicable minimum. If, after commencing an instrument approach, the
reported RVR/Visibility falls below the applicable minimum, the approach shall
not be continued:

 Below 1000 ft above the aerodrome; or

 Into the final approach segment in the case where the DA/H or MDA/H is
more than 1000 ft above the aerodrome;
 If, after passing 1000 ft above the aerodrome elevation, the reported
RVR/visibility falls below the applicable minimum, the approach may be
continued to DA/H or MDA/H.

The approach may be continued below DA/H or MDA/H and the landing may be
 completed provided that the required visual reference is established at the DA/H
or MDA/H and is maintained.

Q. In NDB chart for Runway 07 Chennai, visibility minima for Cat C and Cat D aircraft
is published as 3400 and 5000 m respectively. If prevailing visibility is 3400m,
can the approach be carried out for a Cat B category aircraft?
Ans. Since Cat B aircraft is a slower speed aircraft, minima will remain same or may
even be lower than Cat C or Cat D.

Q. What is the difference between Straight in Approach vs. Straight in Landing?

Ans. Straight-In Approach: An approach with the final approach track aligned within 15
degrees for Category ‘C’ and ‘D’ aircraft and within 30 degrees for Category ‘A’
and ‘B’ aircraft of the extended centerline of the runway of intended runway. An
instrument approach wherein final approach is begun without first having
executed a procedure turn not necessarily completed with a straight-in landing or
made to straight-in landing minimums. A straight-in approach simply means that
you don’t fly a procedure turn or holding-in-lieu-of procedure turn. To fly a
straight-in approach you must ensure that you are approaching the final
approach fix from a direction that does not require a procedure turn, or you have
been cleared for a straight in approach. A straight-in approach has nothing to do
with the landing procedure. A straight-in approach can be made to a circle to land
procedure.

Straight-In Landing: A landing made on a runway aligned within 30 degrees of

the final approach course following completion of an instrument approach.
Straight-in landings are landings made to a runway aligned with the approach
procedure.

Any circle to land is not a straight-in landing.

Q. Define PANS-OPS. What is the difference between PANS-OPS3 and 4?

Ans. PANS-OPS stands for Procedures for Air Navigation Services. It indicates that the
state has specified that the approach procedure complies with ICAO Document
8168, Volume II, First or Second Edition.

PANS-OPS3: Further indicates that holding speeds to be used are those specified
in ICAO Document 8168, Volume II, Third Edition.
PANS-OPS4: Further indicates that the acceleration segment criteria have been
deleted, as formerly published in ICAO Document 8168, Volume II, First, Second
or Third Editions.

Q. What is MNPS?
Ans. MNPS stands for Minimum Navigation Performance Specification. Aircraft
operating in the North Atlantic airspace are required to meet a minimum
navigation performance specification (MNPS). The MNPS specification has
intentionally been excluded from PBN because of its mandatory nature and
because future MNPS implementations are not envisaged.

Q. What are the different positions of the transponder switch in your aircraft and
what does each one mean
Ans. OFF / STANDBY / TA / RA

Q. If you have a glide slope failure what are the indications in your cockpit. How do
you know if it is a Rx or Tx that has failed.
Ans. GS. No indication in the cockpit to find out whether Rx or Tx has failed.

Q. What is MORA? How is MORA calculated?

Ans. This is an altitude derived by Jeppesen. The MORA provides known obstruction
clearance 10NM either side of the route centerline including a 10NM radius
beyond the radio fix reporting or mileage break defining the route segment. The
Route MORA altitude provides reference point clearance within 10NM of the
route centerline (regardless of the route width) and end fixes. Route MORA
values clear all reference points by 1000ft in areas where the highest reference
points are 5000ft MSL or lower. Route MORA values clear all reference points by
2000ft in areas where the highest reference points are 5001ft MSL or higher.
When a Route MORA is shown along a route as “unknown” it is due to incomplete
or insufficient information. MORA on Jeppesen Charts is shown as 1300a
(Remember MORA A).

Q. What is the difference between Grid MORA and MORA?

Ans. Grid Minimum Offroute Altitude (Grid MORA) is an altitude derived by Jeppesen
or provided by State Authorities. The Grid MORA altitude provides terrain and
man-made structure clearance within the section outlined by latitude and
longitude lines. MORA does not assure navaid signal coverage or communication
coverage.

Grid MORA is for a particular quadrant on Jeppesen Chart; whereas, MORA is for
an airway. Grid MORA values derived by Jeppesen clear all terrain and man-made
structures by 1000 feet in areas where the highest elevations is 5000 feet MSL or
lower and by 2000 feet in areas where the highest elevations is 5001 feet MSL or
higher.

When a Grid MORA is shown as “Unsurveyed” it is due to incomplete or

insufficient information. Grid MORA values followed by a +/- denote doubtful
accuracy, but are believed to provide sufficient reference point clearance.
However, tolerance of this can always be cross-checked with the Route MORA or
MOCA.

Values below 10,000 ft will be depicted in Green Color; Values 10,000 ft and
above will be depicted in Magenta Color (Related to the use of Oxygen). Earlier
this benchmark used to be 14000 ft.

Q. Define MEA
Ans. Minimum Enroute IFR Altitude (MEA) - The lowest published altitude between
radio fixes that meets obstacle clearance requirements between those fixes and
in many countries assures acceptable navigational signal coverage. The MEA
applies to the entire width of the airway, segment, or route between the radio
fixes defining the airway, segment, or route. An MEA will assure a clearance of at
least 1000 feet over obstructions or terrain situated within a corridor of at least 5
NM at either side of the track. MEA on Jeppesen Charts is shown as 2500 or
 FL40 or with arrow when it is directional. GPS MEA is suffixed with G eg. 7500G.

Q. Does MEA between two fixes guarantee two way communications when flying
between the two fixes?
Ans. No. MEA assures acceptable navigational coverage and meets the obstacle
clearance requirement. The minimum altitude at which reception will be
adequate is MRA.

Q. What is MOCA? What is MORA? State the difference between the two. Who
derives MOCA and MORA?
Ans. Minimum Obstruction Clearance Altitude or MOCA is derived by Jeppesen. It is
the lowest published altitude in effect between radio fixes on VOR airways, off
airway routes, or route segments which meets obstacle clearance requirements
for the entire route segment and assures acceptable navigational signal
coverage only within 22NM of a VOR. MOCA on Jeppesen Charts is suffixed with
T and shown as 4000T (Remember MOCA T). The MOCA is a true altitude above
MSL. It does not take into account the means of measuring aircraft altitude. If a
pressure altimeter is used for this purpose, the reading must be corrected for
temperature and pressure datum. MORA does not provide for navaid signal
coverage or communication coverage.

Q. What is Minimum Reception Altitude (MRA)?

Ans. MRA is the lowest altitude which is mentioned on the Jeppesen Chart as MRA at
which an intersection can be determined. OR MRA is the lowest altitude above
sea level at which acceptable navigational signal coverage is received to
determine the intersection.

Q. Which one is higher MOCA or MEA?

Ans. MEA is higher than MOCA. MEA assures acceptable navigational coverage,
whereas MOCA assures acceptable navigational coverage only within 22NM of a
VOR.

Q. What is Minimum Crossing Altitude (MCA)?

Ans. The lowest altitude at certain fixes at which an aircraft must cross when
proceeding in the direction of a higher Minimum Enroute IFR Altitude MEA.

Q. What is Maximum Authorized Altitude (MAA)?

Ans. The maximum authorized altitude (MAA) is the highest altitude at which the
airway can be flown without receiving conflicting navigation signals from
NAVAIDs operating on the same frequency.

Q. What is Minimum Safe Altitude (MSA)?

Ans. Altitude depicted on instrument approach, SID or STAR charts and identified as
the minimum safe altitude which provides a 1000 feet obstacle clearance within
a 25 NM (or other value as stated) radius from the navigational facility upon
which MSA is predicated. This altitude is for Emergency Use Only and does not
necessarily guarantee NAVAID reception. When the MSA is divided into sectors,
the altitudes in these sectors are referred to as minimum sector altitudes. The
establishment of minimum sector altitude does not preclude an aircraft to
approach from below, provided, its position has been fixed and it is approaching
 in conformity with an established instrument approach procedure or when being
radar vectored.

Q. Define mountainous area.

Ans. Mountainous Area (ICAO) - An area of changing terrain profile where the changes
of terrain elevation exceed 3000ft within a distance of 10NM.

Q. Define Minimum Holding Altitude (MHA).

Ans. The lowest altitude prescribed for holding pattern which assures navigation
signal coverage, communication and meets the obstacle clearance requirement.

Summary:

MORA 10nm Entire Route Suffix A eg. 1300a

(Jeppese either side
n) of the
entire
Route
MEA 5nm Either Between 2500 or FL40 or Acceptable
(Jeppese Side of the Two Radio with arrow when it Navigation
n) Airway Fixes is directional. GPS Coverage
MEA is suffixed
with G eg. 7500G.
MOCA Not Between Suffixed with T e.g. Acceptable
(Jeppese written in Two VOR 4000T navigational
n) Jeppesen Radio Fixes signal coverage
could be only within
same as 22NM of a VOR
MEA 5nm
*Only GRID MORA is provided by Jeppesen or State Authorities, rest all by Jeppesen Only
SUBJECT: GENERAL

Q. What is Tetrahedron?
Ans. It’s a Ground-based, free-rotating, triangular-shaped wind direction indicator,
generally placed near a runway, often lighted at major airports.

Q. What is Tee?
Ans. It was used in past to indicate the direction of runway in use in old time and can
be illuminated in night. It still exists at airport like Jaipur (See Ground Chart, near
wind-sock).

Q. What are the categories of Aircraft as per speed?

Ans. A : Less than 90
B : 91-120
C : 121-140
D : 141-165
E : 165-210 or above

Q. What is D-ATIS?
Ans. Many airports also employ the use of Digital ATIS (or D-ATIS). D-ATIS is a
text-based, digitally transmitted version of the ATIS audio broadcast. It is
accessed via a data link service such as the Aircraft Communications Addressing
and Reporting System (ACARS) and displayed on an electronic display in the
aircraft.

Q. What are ILS back course approaches?

Ans. These are depicted on Jeppesen charts as a full black arrow (down portion). The
unshielded localizer transmits in both directions to give course guidance.
Because the glide slope is not transmitted on the back side of the localizer, a
back course approach is classified as a non-precision approach as it has no
vertical guidance. The glideslope indications during a back course approach
must always be ignored.

This type of approach typically is found at smaller airports that do not have ILS
approaches on both ends of the runway, where often the older localizer antennas
are less directional. These transmit a signal from the back that is sufficient
enough to be used in a back course approach. Newer localizer antennas are
highly directional, and often cannot be used for a back course approach.

Q. Why temperature limit is mentioned on Cochin GNSS chart?

Ans. The RNP AR approach chart will identify outside air temperature limits applicable
to operators using barometric vertical navigation (Baro-VNAV). Cold
temperatures reduce the effective glide path angle while high temperatures
increase the effective glide path angle without cockpit indication of the variation.

Temperature affects the aircraft’s altitude indications and the effect is similar to
high and low pressure changes, although not as significant. When temperature is
higher than the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA), the aircraft will be
higher than the indicated altitude. When temperature is lower than standard, the
aircraft will be lower than indicated on the altimeter.
 Operators using Baro-VNAV in an aircraft with an airworthiness approval for
automatic temperature compensation, or in an aircraft using an alternate means
for vertical guidance (e.g., Satellite-Based Augmentation Systems), may
disregard the temperature limits.

Also the lowest MSA given on SE sector is 5600 ft. If the pressure correction is
taken by the QNH setting, temperature correction will still be required for a
non-compensated altimeter i.e.

True altitude = PA + (4 x ISA Dev x 1000's of feet)

In this case, approaches are designed while keeping ISA conditions as standard,
a temperature of 50C will mean a deviation of -100C. In such a case true altitude
will be 5280 ft. vs indicated altitude of 5500 ft. At CABOT, minimum altitude is
given as 5500 ft.

Q. Is Cochin GNSS approach a precision approach?

Ans. Refer Jeppesen Glossary P 7&11 of 118. It’s a “semi-precision” approach. An
instrument approach based on a navigation system that is not required to meet
the precision approach standards of ICAO Annex 10 but provides course and
glide path deviation information. Baro-VNAV, LDA with glide path, LNAV/VNAV
and LPV are examples of APV approaches. Since electronic vertical guidance is
provided, the approach minimum altitude will be published as a decision altitude
(DA). GBAS or Class 2, 3 and 4 TSO-C146 WAAS equipment for a GPS precision
approach.

Q. Who issues VOLMET in India?

Ans. In India VOLMET Broadcasts are made by Mumbai and Kolkata Airports.

Q. What is the maximum speed to carry out a DME arc if no speed limit is
published?
Ans. As per ICAO Doc 8168, max speed is 210 kt. below 6000 ft., however, as per
Indian regulations, speed to maintain within 20nm of an aerodrome is 180 kt.

Q. What ATS airspaces are available in India?

Ans. In India, ATS airspaces are designated as Class D, E, F and G and are categorized
as per NOTAM G 0066/99. Delhi, Mumbai comes under Class D Airspace.

Q. What is the difference between Class D & Class E airspace in India?

Ans. In Class D Airspace, traffic information is provided for all IFR & VFR, whereas, in
Class E Airspace traffic information is provided where possible.

Q. What level of precedence should be given to warnings?

Ans. REMEMBER: SWAGAT
Stall
Windshear
GPWS
TCAS
Q. What are the oxygen requirements?
Ans. As per CAR Section 8, Series O, Part III, a flight to be operated at altitudes at
which the atmospheric pressure in personnel compartments will be less than 700
hPa shall not be commenced unless sufficient stored breathing oxygen is carried
to supply:

Note:
700hpa = 10000ft;
620hpa = 13000ft;
376hpa = 25000ft.

a. All crew members and 10 per cent of the passengers for any period in excess
of 30 minutes that the pressure in compartments occupied by them will be
between 700 hPa and 620 hPa; and

b. All crew members and passengers for any period that the atmospheric
pressure in compartments occupied by them will be less than 620 hPa.

c. In addition, when an aeroplane is operated at flight altitudes which the

atmospheric pressure is less than 376 hPa, or which, if operated at flight
altitudes at which the atmospheric pressure is more than 376 hPa and cannot
descend safely within four minutes to a flight altitude at which the atmospheric
pressure is equal to 620 hPa, there shall be no less than a 10 minutes supply for
the occupants of the passengers compartment.

Q. What are the speed limits in Indian Airspace?

Ans. As per Jeppesen Middle East Page No. 279:
Below FL150 and within 25 to 20 DME: 220 Knots
Within 20 NM: 180 Knots
Intercept Leg or 12 NM from touch down: 180-160 Knots
10 – 5 NM: 160-150 Knots

Q. What are the limitations for holding speeds?

Ans. The ICAO Maximum holding speeds are defined as:
Up to 14000 ft: 230kts
14000 ft to 20000 ft: 240kts
20000 ft to 34000 ft: 265kts
Above 34000 ft: M0.83

Q. What is the code for ILS, VOR and NDB in an approach plate?
Ans. ILS : 1 as in chart 11-1
VOR : 3 as in chart 13-1
NDB : 6 as in chart 16-1

If there are two airports in the same city like in Bangalore, then ILS will be 21-1,
VOR will be 23-1 etc.

Q. What is the longest TODA & LDA available in Delhi?

Ans. Longest TODA available is of Rwy 29 – 14534 ft.
Longest LDA Available is of Rwy 10 – 11564 ft.
Q. On a CAT D circling approach, what is the maximum distance from the airfield
that you are allowed to go?
Ans. 2.3 miles

Q. When does the IAS changes from knots to Mach?

Ans. At FL 270.

Q. What is displaced threshold and what is the maximum displacement of the

displaced threshold?
Ans. A displaced threshold is a runway threshold located at a point other than the
physical beginning or end of the runway. The portion of the runway so displaced
may be used for takeoff but not for landing. Landing aircraft may use the
displaced area on the opposite end for roll out.

In Delhi, Runway 29 has the longest permanent displaced threshold of 1460m.

Rwy 28 Width is 148 feet or 45 meters.

Q. What are the different types of lights available?

Ans. HIALS — High intensity approach lights
HIALS II — High intensity approach lights with CAT II Modifications
HIRL — High intensity runway lights
MIRL — Medium intensity runway lights
RL — Low intensity runway lights
PORT-RL — Portable electric runway lights
FLARES — Flare pots or goosenecks
MIALS — Medium intensity approach lights
ALS — Low intensity approach lights
LDIN — Sequenced flashing lead-in lights
RAIL — Runway alignment indicator lights (Sequenced Flashing)
REIL — Runway End Identifier Lights
CL — Standard Centerline Light configuration White lights then alternating red &
white lights between 3000' and 1000' from runway end and red lights for the last
1000'.

Q. What are the lights available on runway / taxiways?

Ans. Runway edge lights are white.
Runway threshold lights are unidirectional green in the direction of approach
Taxiway edge lights are blue.
Taxiway middle marker is continuous yellow line

Runway centerline lights are white and will be alternating red and white from
3000 ft from far end becoming RED in the last 1000 ft.
Rapid taxiway exit centerline lights are initially yellow and green and then all
green.

Q. How does a stall warning system works?

Ans. A Stall Warning is an electronic or mechanical device that sounds an audible
warning as the stall speed is approached. The simplest such device is a stall
 warning horn, which consists of either a pressure sensor or a movable metal tab
that actuates a switch, and produces an audible warning in response.

A Stick Shaker is a mechanical device that shakes the pilot's controls to warn of
the onset of stall.

A Stick Pusher is a mechanical device that prevents the pilot from stalling an
aircraft. It pushes the elevator control forward as the stall is approached, causing
a reduction in the angle of attack. In generic terms, a stick pusher is known as a
stall identification device or stall identification system.

Angle of Attack Limiter

Also referred to as an "alpha limiter" and angle of attack limiter is a computer
that automatically prevents a pilot's computer input from raising the aircraft
above its critical angle of attack. Some angle of attack limiters can be disabled,
while others cannot.

Q. VIDP Chart 11-1A

Ans. According to the EU-OPS requirements, all non-precision approaches shall be
flown using the continuous descent final approach (CDFA) technique with
decision altitude (height), and the missed approach shall be executed when
reaching the DA(H) in the event of an ILS approach or reaching an altitude of
1180 ft in case of a CDFA (LOC Only) approach. If due to some reason, like
sudden increase in tailwind or low descent rate, aircraft is higher than 1180 ft and
reaches the missed approach point (MAP), it should commence a missed
approach incase runway is not insight.

Q. Is President Palace in Delhi a restricted airspace or prohibited airspace?

Ans. Prohibited airspace.

Q. What is the accuracy of Q routes?

Ans. Q Routes are based on RNAV5. Aircraft with high navigation performance are
allowed to fly the RNP routes. With higher accuracy, more airplanes can be
squeezed on an airway. The “Q” routes allow aircraft to aircraft longitudinal
separation of 50NM, while A474 allowed for a 10 minute separation, which
translates to around 75NM. Theoretically, up to 13 airplanes may now fly on Q1,
at any point of time, as compared to 9 on A474.

Q. What should be the weather deviation procedure while flying on the route Delhi to
Kolkata in RVSM airspace and not in radar contact with Varansi or Kolkata.
Ans. Refer weather deviation procedures.

Q. Why LOC only approach is not allowed in VEGT for ILS X?

Ans. As DME is not given.
SUBJECT: INSTRUMENTS

Q. How does FMS plots its position?

Ans. GPS, IRS/INS (If available), DME – DME, VOR - DME

Q. Does FMS uses GC or RL?

Ans. GC

Q. What do we fly GC or RL and why?

Ans. A GC track is divided into segments. At mid longitude of each segment mean of
great circle and rhumb line are same. The segments are chosen in such a
manner that the difference between great circle and rhumb line is minimum.

Q. What are the errors of ASI?

Ans. Instrument Errors
Position / Pressure / Maneuver Induced Error
Density Error
Compressibility Error
Blocked Pitot
Blocked Static

Q. What are the errors of Altimeter?

Ans. Instrument Error
Position / Pressure / Maneuver Induced Error Temperature Error
Pressure Error / Barometric Error
Temperature Error
Lag Error
Blocked Static Error
Hysteresis Error: Expansion and contraction of the capsule for the same change
of pressure should be same. If there is any deviation in the indicated reading,
hysteresis error exists.

Q. What are the errors of VSI?

Ans. Instrument Error
Position / Pressure / Maneuver Induced Error
Lag Error
Transonic Jump: A transonic shock wave passing over the static source will
cause the VSI briefly to give a false indication.

Q. What are the effects of blocked pitot and static on Pressure Instruments?
Ans. ASI
When Static is blocked it tends to under-read during climb and over-read during
descent (Very dangerous situation).
When Pitot is blocked it tends to increase in climb or decrease in descend
steadily, and works like an altimeter i.e. gives an indication proportional to the
altitude.
When Pitot is leaked or fractured and drains are blocked, ASI tends to under
indicate.

Altimeter
 If static is blocked altimeter continues to display the reading at which blockage
occurred. And this will result in over indication if the aircraft descends and under
indication if it climbs.
If alternate source of static is used which is inside the unpressurized aircraft,
altimeter tends to over read as static pressure inside the aircraft is lower than the
ambient pressure due to aerodynamic suction.

VSI
It static is blocked, VSI indication will be too low while climbing or descending.
It chock is blocked, VSI indication will be too high while climbing or descending.
If VSI casing develops a leak, indication will be too high when climbing and too
low when descending.
If alternate source of static is used, VSI may show a momentary climb.

Q. Equivalent Airspeed is Indicated airspeed corrected for what errors?

Ans. IAS ± PE = CAS – Compressibility error = EAS + Density Error = TAS

Q. What are compass Turning and acceleration Errors?

Ans. In NH,
Undershoot North, Overshoot South
Opposite results will be in SH.
Turning errors are significant upto 35 degrees either side of those headings.
ANDS

Q. What is magnetic dip? What is the maximum and minimum value of magnetic
dip?
Ans. The angular difference between a freely suspended needle from its horizontal is
known as Magnetic Dip. This angle varies at different points on the Earth's
surface. The inclination value can be measured with an instrument known as a
dip circle.

The inclination is given by an angle that can assume values between -90° (up) to
+90° (down). In the northern hemisphere, the field points downwards. It is
straight down at the North Magnetic Pole and rotates upwards as the latitude
decreases until it is horizontal (00) at the magnetic equator. It continues to rotate
upwards until it is straight up at the South Magnetic Pole.

Q. What are Gyros? What are their properties? Which instruments use Rigidity and
which use Precession?
Ans. Gyro instruments work on the principle of gyroscopic inertia. Inside each of the
gyro devices is a spinning wheel or disc. Its inertia, once the wheel has been
accelerated, tends to keep the disc stable about its axis of rotation.

Rigidity in Space: Rigidity is that force of gyro which does not allow any external
force which tries to change of the direction of spin axis. Newton's First Law
states "A body in motion tends to move in a constant speed and direction unless
disturbed by some external force". The spinning rotor inside a gyro instrument
maintains a constant attitude in space as long as no outside forces change its
motion. This stability increases if the rotor has great mass and speed. Thus, the
gyros in aircraft instruments are constructed of heavy materials and designed to
 spin rapidly.

The heading indicator and attitude indicator use gyros as an unchanging

reference in space. Once the gyros are spinning, they stay in constant positions
with respect to the horizon or direction. If the rotor axis represents the natural
horizon or a direction such as magnetic north, it provides a stable reference for
instrument flying.

Precession: It is defined as when a force is applied to a running wheel, it does not

act at the point of application and acts at a point 900 ahead in the direction of
rotation. This turning movement, or precession, places the rotor in a new plane of
rotation, parallel to the applied force.

Artificial Horizon & Direction Gyro uses the property of Rigidity.

Rate of turn indicator utilized the property of Precession.

Q. What are the values drift and topple at equator and pole?
Ans. Drift is maximum at the pole and zero at the equator (Same as convergency).
Topple is maximum at the equator and zero at the pole.

Q. What type of gyros are used in AH, DG and TI?

Ans. AH uses Vertical Earth Gyro
DG uses Tied Gyro
TI uses Rate Gyro

Q. With Mach no. constant if the aircraft descends, what happens to your IAS and
TAS?
Ans. While descending, temperature will start increasing, as a result LSS will increase
and TAS will have to be increased in order to maintain the same ratio, hence, IAS
and TAS both will increase.

Q. What is the difference between Inertial Navigation System (INS) and Inertial
Reference System (IRS)?
Ans. Refer KW P. 19
INS uses a stabilized platform with 2 accelerometers aligned north/south and
east/west and 3 rate integrating gyros. The rate integrating gyros and
accelerometer are mounted on the same platform. Schuler pendulum is used.
The errors of INS fall into three categories, bounded, unbounded and inherent. In
an INS, the acceleration are measured in a trihedron which is free from aircraft’s
trihedron, pitch, roll and yaw axis (Remember INS is independent & free).

INS provides aeroplane velocity and position and continuously measure and
integrating its acceleration. This system relies on no external reference and is
unaffected by weather and can operate day or night. All corrections associated
with movement of the earth and transportation of the earth surface applied
automatically.

Acceleration integrated with respect to time gives velocity

Velocity integrated with respect to time gives distance.
 Accelerometer is basically a pendulous device, when the aircraft accelerates, the
pendulum moves due to inertia.

If the navigation function of an INS is inoperative and the control switch is set to
ATT, the output data of the INS are Attitude and Heading.

IRS uses 3 accelerometers and 3 laser gyros on a strapped down platform set at
900 to each other to form a trihedral to sense vertical, lateral and longitudinal
accelerations. In a strapdown inertial system, the accelerations are measured in
a trihedron which is fixed regarding aircraft’s trihedron (pitch, roll and yaw axis).

An RLG as compared to a conventional gyroscope has a little or no “spin-up” time

and it is insensitive to gravitational (g) forces.

Laser (Light Amplification and Stimulated Emission of Radiation) gyros measure

rotation by comparing two laser beams created and directed to rotate in opposite
directions within a very narrow tunnel.

High speed micro processors then achieve a stable platform mathematically

rather than mechanically (as per the INS) - this results in greatly improved
accuracy and reliability.

Integration principles are used as per the older INS system.

Calibration: Completed automatically by computer to enhance the overall

accuracy of the system.

Schuler Tuning is again required to compensate for oscillation errors as the

system is transported over the Earth (this in relation to pendulum theory which
results in an 84.4 minute error cycle as described in the older INS.

The Inertial Reference Unit (IRU) is the heart of the Inertial Reference System
(IRS). It provides all required inertial reference outputs for the aircraft’s avionics.
The primary sources of information for the IRU are its own internal sensors three
laser gyros, and three inertial accelerometers.

The only other inputs required are initial position, barometric altitude, and True
Air Speed (TAS). Initial position is required because present position is calculated
from the distance and direction travelled from the initial start position entered.
Barometric altitude stabilizes the vertical navigation, and thereby stabilizes the
vertical velocity and inertial altitude outputs. The TAS input allows the IRU to
calculate wind speed and wind direction.

Q. What are the advantages of IRS?

Ans. Activation: Almost no spin up time, one second activation for the rate sensor.
Maneuvering: Insensitive to “G” attitude, rolling, pitching manoeuvres.
Construction: Mechanically simple and highly reliable.
Range: Wide dynamic range.
Drift: Very small drift rates - greatest errors induced by the operator.
Q. What are the errors of INS?
Ans. Bounded Errors: Are either fixed or oscillate about a mean. They do not get
bigger with time or distance flown. e.g. a track error of one degree. This is a fixed
error and does not increase with time.

Unbounded Errors: Get larger with time or distance flown. The across track
distance error would be an unbounded error as it is going to get bigger and
bigger. The largest source of unbounded error is the imperfection of the
gyroscopes leading to real wander.

Inherent Errors: The irregular shape and composition of the earth, the movement
of the earth through space and other factors provide further possible source of
error.

Q. What error will INS accept?

Ans. Longitude Error.

Q. What are the errors in IRS? Define Laser lock.

Ans. Drift: The principle source of error with this form of device, as with the
conventional gyro stabilized platform INS device, is associated with random drift
in a conventional gyro. This is caused by laser system noise and is derived
almost entirely from imperfections in the mirrors and their coatings.

Accuracy: The accuracy of the laser system is directly influenced by the length of
its optical path - the longer the path available the greater the accuracy with a
small percentage increase in length leading to a substantial increase in accuracy.

Lock in or Laser Lock: The most significant potential problem is lock-in, also
known as laser lock, which occurs at very low rotation rates. At very low rotation
rates the output frequency can drop to zero which causes the beams to
synchronize that is, no longer indicate the rotation correctly and gives
undesirable errors. This phenomenon is overcome by a vibration device known
as a dither motor which breaks the lock-in. The motor is mounted in such a way
that it vibrates the laser ring about its input axis through the lock in region,
thereby unlocking the beams and enabling the optical sensor to detect the
smaller movement of the fringe pattern. The motions caused by the dither motor
are decoupled from the output of the ring laser gyro / rate sensor.

Q. What is ISDU?
Ans. The Inertial System Display Unit (ISDU) provides pilot interface with the Inertial
Reference Units (IRS). The ISDU allows entry of initialization data for the IRU's.
The display of track angle, ground speed, present position, wind direction and
speed, magnetic heading and system status is available.

Q. How do you navigate to the North Pole?

Ans. Oxford P.436
Difficulties of flying near the poles are rapid change of true direction (due to
convergency) and variation (due to proximity to the magnetic poles). Without an
RNAV system, the solution is to ignore the compass and fly a gyro heading.
 Navigation in polar region can only be done through Grid Navigation technique. In
grid navigation maps are overlaid with a grid of lines indicating gyro north to
which gyroscope is aligned. While gyro steering is being employed, the magnetic
element of the Gyro Magnetic Compass is disconnected.

Q. What do you know about FMS in Hawker?

Ans. The Flight Management System (FMS) provides lateral and vertical flight plan
point-to-point navigation using multiple navigation sensors. The system
generates lateral and vertical steering commands for use by the EFIS and FGS.
The FMS Control Display Unit (CDU) provides flight deck management functions
that include navigation sensor control, radio tuning, and Multifunction Display
(MFD) control menus.

The FMS consists of:

 Two Flight Management Computers (FMCs)

 Two Control Display Units (CDUs)
 Two Global Positioning Sensors (GPS); and
 One Data Base Unit (DBU).

The Attitude Heading Reference System (AHRS), Air Data System (ADS), NAV
receiver (VOR/ILS/ADF), and DME sensor supply data to the FMS. The FMS uses
position data from the GPS, VOR, DME, and sensor data from the AHRS and ADS,
along with the active flight plan and its own data base information to generate
lateral and vertical flight plan based navigation solutions.

Q. When you press TO-GA in your aircraft, what position update take place, IRS/GPS
both?
Ans. GPS/AHRS

Q. If you are navigating using triple INS and if all three fail, how will you navigate?
Ans. GPS & continuously verify position with raw data as well.

Q. What would you do if there is a dual FMC failure in flight?

Ans. Use GPS and continuously verify position with raw data as well.

Q. What is ESIS? Is it a part of Collins Proline 21 in Hawker?

Ans. ESIS is Electronic Standby Instrument System. It is not a part of Proline 21 and is
manufactured by a company called Meggit.

Q. How many channels are there in auto pilot of Hawker?

Ans. Hawker has a 3 Axis Autopilot (Roll, Pitch & Yaw) and is of dual channel.

Q. What is the difference between SAT & TAT?

Ans. Static Air Temperature, or SAT, is the temperature of the undisturbed air through
which the aircraft is flying. Due to the kinetic energy of the speed of the aircraft,
at higher speeds the measured temperature is higher than SAT as that kinetic
energy gets converted into heat at the sensor. Total Air Temperature, or TAT, is
the maximum air temperature that can be attained by 100% conversion of the
kinetic energy of the flow.
Q. What is the difference between TAT & RAT?
Ans. A TAT measuring system measures the Total Air Temperature after Ram Rise on
the forward facing parts of the aircraft, and the engines. A temperature
measuring system qualifies as a TAT gauge if 99% or more of the Ram
Temperature rise is recorded.

A Ram Air Temperature (RAT) measuring system measures the Total Air
Temperature after Ram Rise on the forward facing parts of the aircraft, and the
engines, but due to system inefficiencies measures less that 99% of the
temperature Rise.

Q. What do you have on board Hawker? IRS or INS?

Ans. AHRS (Attitude/Heading Reference System)
The Attitude Heading Reference System (AHRS) generates three axis attitude
and stabilized magnetic outputs for display on the AFDs and is used by the Flight
Guidance System (FGS), Flight Management System, and hazard avoidance
systems.

The AHRS is a dual-independent system made up of:

 Two Attitude Heading Computers (AHC)

 Two External Compensation Units (ECU)
 Two Flux Detector Units (FDU)

The AHC uses it’s own inertial sensors, inputs from the FDUs, and
aircraft-specific information stored in the ECUs to calculate three axis attitude
and heading information.

The FDU detects the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field. Other
inputs to the AHC include alternate air data from the cross-side AHC and
reference inputs from the IAPS (Integrated Avionics Processor System). Controls
located on the flight deck are used to select Compass (magnetic) or Directional
Gyro (free gyro) mode and to slew the compass heading.

The AHC outputs provide attitude, magnetic heading, and system

mode/status/fault data to the EFIS and other aircraft subsystems via the IAPS
and the system bus structure.

• Dual, independent systems with reversion (cross-connect) capability.

• Automatic system initialization.
• Controls to select Compass (magnetic) or DG (free gyro) mode operation.
• Slew switch provided to adjust heading that shows on the AFDs.

Q. Is it possible to obtain true heading in the aircraft?

Ans. It is not possible to obtain true heading in the aircraft, as Flux Detector Unit (FDU)
supplies magnetic heading only.

Q. Explain the GPS system of Hawker.

Ans. The Rockwell Collins GPS-4000A Global Positioning System Sensor provides
 GPS-based navigation and enables GPS-based approaches for aircraft equipped
with flight management systems.

The GPS-4000A uses up to 12 GPS satellites. However, the system is capable to

calculate navigation with a minimum of four satellites with acceptable geometry
or three satellites plus calibrated barometric altitude. With additional satellites,
the Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) detects and isolates
defective satellites while improving navigation accuracy. The unit’s predictive
RAIM capability determines if the future satellite geometry at the destination
airport will support planned arrival procedures.

Key Features & Benefits:

 Fully integrated with the Rockwell Collins Pro Line 4™ and Pro Line 21™
systems
 Provides terminal and en route navigation solutions
 Provides non precision approach navigation
 Supports primary means GPS navigation in oceanic/remote areas
 Supports RAIM, Predictive RAIM and FDE (Fault Detection & Exclusion)
 Supports on-board loading of application software
 12-channel, TSO C129 (B1) compliant GPS receiver
 2 MCU, ARINC 743A compliant
 DO-160D qualified
 Growth to SBAS to support GPS primary means navigation and non
precision approaches with vertical guidance

Q. Explain the Communication system of Hawker.

Ans. The Radio Sensor System (RSS) provides the radios, controls, and displays used
for voice communication, VOR/ILS navigation, distance measurement, ADF
navigation, ATC transponder control, and TCAS Mode S communication.

SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
The RSS provides the radios and controls/displays used for voice
communication (COM), navigation (NAV), and operation within the Air Traffic
Control (ATC) environment. The RSS is a dual-independent system made up of
pilot and copilot side control/display units, radios, and sensors.
Baseline-equipped aircraft come standard with:

 Two VHF COM transceivers with 8.33 kHz channel spacing

 Two NAV receivers (one VOR/ILS/MKR/ADF and one
VOR/ILS/MKR)
 Two Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) Transceivers
 Two ATC Mode-S Diversity Transponders with Flight ID.

Optional equipment includes:

 An extended frequency VHF COM Transceiver with 8.33 kHz

 A third VHF COM transceiver with Data link
 A second ADF receiver (dual VOR/ILS/MKR/ADF)
 Single (standard) or dual HF COM Transceiver with HF antenna
 coupler

The display and control portion of the system consists of the two CDUs and a
pilot side backup COM NAV Control (CTL). The CDUs provide integrated control
of several combinations of aircraft communications and navigation subsystems.

The integrated control includes the setting of radio frequencies, beacon codes,
and operational modes. The CTL provides backup tuning for the pilot-side COM
and NAV radios. The RSS provides digital radio data to the EFIS, navigation
systems, and hazard avoidance systems via the IAPS and system bus structure.
The COM1 and COM2 radio frequencies and ATC ident code are show on the
PFDs. Each side RSS (pilot and copilot) is functionally isolated and acts as a
stand-alone system. Each side RSS can control the cross-side radios/sensors in
the event of a control or display failure.

KEY OPERATING FEATURES

 Integrated control of the COM/NAV/ATC radio suite.
 Manual tuning/control of radio suite from pilot or copilot station.
 FMS AUTO TUNE feature tunes the NAV/DME automatically for
 Multi-sensor NAV.
 ATC Mode-S Diversity Transponders for TCAS operation.
 Flight ID (Elementary Surveillance and Enhanced Surveillance) capable
ATC Transponders.
 Backup tuning for pilot-side COM and NAV radios available from CTL-23
controller in event of dual CDU failure.
SUBJECT: RADIO AIDS

Q. What are emergency radio frequencies?

Ans. The aircraft emergency frequency (also known as guard) is a frequency used on
the aircraft radio band reserved for emergency communications for aircraft in
distress. The frequencies are 121.5 MHz for civilian, also known as International
Air Distress (IAD) or VHF Guard, and 243.0 MHz for military use, also known as
Military Air Distress (MAD) or UHF Guard. Earlier Emergency Locator
Transmitters used the guard frequencies to transmit, but an additional frequency
of 406 Mhz is used by more modern ELTs.

Q. When does trend arrow appears in TCAS?

Ans. A trend arrow up or down appears alongside the symbol when the intruder’s
vertical rate is 500 feet per minute or greater.

Q. How is zero datum obtained for ILS DME at the threshold?

Ans. Refer Oxford P.235
By reducing time delay at transponder.

Q. What are the popular types of Radar Antennas?

Ans. Refer Oxford P.161
Microwave Horn
Parabolic Reflector
Flat Plate Antenna

Q. What is the difference between a conventional CDI, HSI and why putting the right
course on ILS is important despite the ILS instrument is tracking the difference
between 90 & 150Hz lobes?
Ans. If you fly towards a VOR with a conventional CDI with the OBS correctly set
(magnetic track to the VOR), indications will be correct. If you fly towards a VOR
with a conventional CDI with the OBS set 180 degrees off (magnetic track from
the VOR), indications will be reversed.

Try the same with an HSI. In the latter case, the indications are still reversed. But
the left and right indications are with respect to the direction of the course arrow.
Because the course arrow is now pointing downwards, the entire readout system
will be upside down. Thus the readout is reversed twice, and reads in the correct
sense.

For a localizer, the direction of the course arrow is irrelevant. You can fly the ILS
with anything set on the OBS of a conventional CDI. However, if you set the
course arrow of an HSI to 180 degrees off the localizer, the course arrow is now
pointing downwards and the readout system is reversed -- just once now -- so the
instrument reads in reverse.

The autopilot, of course, doesn't care which direction the course arrow is
pointing. So if you try to fly towards a VOR with the course arrow set 180 degrees
off, the autopilot still sees reversed indications and fails to track the VOR.

That was the rational behind the design of the HSI - by spinning the CDI (Course
 Deviation Indicator) needle around a compass rose, and slaving the compass
rose to the aircraft heading, the HSI became a "command" instrument - for VORs
it always operates in the command sense. All you have to do is look at it after
setting up your radial to understand your current position with respect to that
radial.

As both VOR and ILS systems show your displacement from a line based on the
phase difference between two radio signals, the same CDI has always been used
for both systems. With an ILS signal, the "radial" is fixed, so the OBS isn't used by
the system at all - it just detects the phase difference, and displays that on the
needle. For the old fixed CDI display, it didn't matter what you put on the OBS
when flying an ILS - as this bit isn't used at all by the ILS.

Then the HSI came in, and the CDI turns around with the aircraft's heading. Now
when using the ILS you need to set up the needle so that it points "up and down"
with respect to the panel for it to operate in the command sense, and the only
way to do that (as it rotates on a slaved compass card) is to set the OBS to the
track you are going to be flying when you are established on the ILS (i.e. the
inbound track).

For ILS the two lobes, the "left" and "right" lobes, are set up to display correctly
for front course (the most common) approaches. If you are flying an approach to
the reciprocal runway you are pointing the aircraft 1800 in the opposite direction
for the approach, the "Left" and "Right" lobes are therefore 1800 out of sync - so
you need to turn the CDI "upside down" to correct that. (Or flip the back course
switch on the old fixed CDI indicator to reverse the sense.)

HSI being a command instrument senses the deviation required from the correct
course and aircraft’s actual position and gives command to FD. Hence the right
course is required to be put during an ILS with modern systems.

Q. What is ILS Reference Point?

Ans. As glideslope transmitter is placed along the runway to one side, the glideslope
passes over the threshold at about 50 feet. This point over the threshold is called
‘ILS Reference Point’ the height as TCH (threshold crossing height).

Q. What are types of VOR?

Ans. VOR D: DME
VOR H: High Altitude
VOR T: Terminal
VOR L: Low Altitude
VOR STAR: Not available for 24 hrs.

Q. What all uses VHF?

Ans. Radios and Datalink as in LAAS.

Q. What are VOR Accuracy errors?

 Site Error: Uneven terrain, physical obstacles and even over grown grass can
affect VOR signals. VOR are ground monitor to an accuracy of ±10.
  Propagation Error: The signals having left the transmitter giving an accuracy
0
of ±1 suffer further in accuracy as they travel forward and continue to effect
throughout the passage of receiver.
 Airborne Equipment Error
 Aggregate Error: The combined effect of above three errors is known as
aggregate error.
 Pilotage Error
 Beacon Alignment

Q. What is the difference between a VOR & Doppler VOR?

Ans.

Q. What are the VOR interception angles while going outbound and inbound to a
station?
Ans. If the difference between present and required QDM is less than 300, then the
correction angle will be 3 times this difference and it will be added to the required
QDM to obtain heading to intercept. Eg. From present QDM of 900 to intercept
QDM of 700, the difference is 200. Three times of this will be 600 right of present
QDM i.e. 900. Therefore heading to intercept will be 1300.

If the difference between present and required QDM is more than 300, the
corrective angle would be 900 left or right to the required QDM.

Q. What are ADF & NDB Errors?

Ans. Quadrantal Error
Terrain
Night Effect / Sky Wave Interference
Coastal Refraction
Static
Loop Alignment

Q. What are the types of NDB?

Ans. Locator NDBs: Range is 10-25 NM
Holding & Homing NDBs: Range is 50 NM
Enroute NDBs: Range can be 200 NM over land and 500 NM over sea.
Marine NDBs

Q. What is RMI?
Ans. It is a combination of slaved magnetic compass and ADF/radio compass. Dial is
slaved to a remote magnetic compass, and needle is tuned to ADF.

Q. What are the errors of Radio Altimeter?

Ans. Fixed Error: The indicator pointer moves in the steps of 5 feet which means 2½
feet discrepancy may be present anytime.
Mushing Error: Different height of Tx & Rx antenna with respect to terrain.

Q. What are restrictions of pairing VOR and DME?

Ans. VOR and DME frequency can be paired together. The maximum distance
between VOR and DME/TACAN ground installation if they are to have the same
Morse code identifier is 100 feet in terminal area or 2000 feet outside a terminal
 area. If the distance is more than this and the frequency is paired, both VOR and
DME will identify separately and one of the two will have a letter “Z” in the call
sign.

When a DME and VOR are collocated they transmit a total of 4 idents every 30
seconds. The first 3 of these idents are transmitted by the VOR and the 4th is
transmitted by the DME and is of higher pitch. So in a period of 40 seconds, the
DME ident will sound once.

Q. What does RADAR stands for?

Ans. Radar stands for Radio Detection and Ranging. All radars use pulse technique.
Radar transmission is in pulses (not a continuous wave). Transmission is in burst
of pulses.

Q. What are the components of an ILS?

Ans. a) VHF localizer equipment, associated monitor system, remote control and
indicator equipment;
b) UHF glide path equipment, associated monitor system, remote control and
indicator equipment;
c) VHF marker beacons, or a distance measuring equipment (DME) in together
with associated monitor system and remote control and status indicator
equipment.
d) Approach Lighting System.

Q. What are ILS errors?

Ans. False Glideslope: Because of the emission pattern of the glideslope antenna, the
150 Hz signal will be received above the intended glideslope. This will give false,
indeed reverse indications and will occur at an angle of twice the nominal angle.
Aircraft must always approach the glideslope from below.

Signal Reflection (Beam Bending): An apparent bending of the localizer beam

may be caused by presence of aircraft, vehicles or other obstructions near the
transmitter. Although the signal due to diffraction may go around obstructions,
its modulation is affected, causing the apparent kinks. Separate holding points
are designated for aircraft holding while precision approaches are taking place.

Q. Why localizer does not capture false signals?

Ans. Wherever practicable, the localizer capture level of automatic flight control
systems is to be set at or below 0.175 DDM in order to prevent false localizer
captures.

Q. Is outer/middle marker mandatory for ILS Approaches?

Ans. No. The outer/middle marker is not a mandatory component for full ILS or the
localizer. In fact at few newer airports in India for eg. VOHS, none of them is
installed.

Q. On ILS approach if your ILS DME is u/s and OM/MM u/s what will you do?
Ans. ILS can’t be carried out in this case. Alternate approach could be VOR / NDB
Approach (time based) or a visual approach if weather conditions permits.
Q. How many different SSR codes can you have? What are SSR Modes?
Ans. 4096
Mode A & B: Used for identification of the aircraft.
Mode C: For automatic height information
Mode D: Still in experimental stage
Mode S: This is used for communication surveillance in TCAS.

Q. What is the frequency for VOR?

Ans. VOR works between 108.00 – 117.95 MHz.
108.00 - 111.95 MHz (Even)
112.00 - 117.95 MHz (All)
Emission Pattern is A9W

Q. What is the VHF band frequency and wavelength?

Ans. VHF works in the range of 117.975 – 137 MHz.
(Complete Range 30 – 300 MHz.)
Wavelength is between 10 – 1 meters.
VHF works on Frequency Modulation.

Q. What does HF works on?

Ans. HF is single side band and works on Amplitude Modulation.
Frequency Range 3 - 30 MHz
Wavelength 100 - 10 m

Q. What is the difference between HF and VHF?

Ans. VHF works on FM and HF works on AM.
VHF primarily is dependent on line of sight.
HF is used for long distance communication where line of sight is not possible.
AM band is generally noisier; hence HF communications are not very clear as
compared to VHF.

Q. Why lower frequencies are used during night in HF?

Ans. That’s because of the diurnal variation in the ionospheric density. If transmission
is continued at night on a daytime frequency, a longer skip distance will result,
leaving the receiver in the dead space. This is because at night, as we have seen,
the electron density decreases; the signals travel higher in the ionosphere before
refraction, and are refracted less. For these reasons, the working frequency is
lowered at night. This lowering of the frequency adjusts the skip distance
because the lower frequencies are refracted more. Attenuation is also less,
despite the lower frequency, because the electron density is less.

Q. What is skip distance?

Ans. The distance between the transmitter and the point on the surface where the first
sky wave returns from Ionosphere is called the skip distance.

Q. What is dead space?

Ans. The area between the end of the surface wave and the first point of reception of
the sky wave is called the dead space. (Ground Wave is surface wave + Space
Wave)
Q. What is critical angle?
Ans. Critical Angle is the minimum angle at which waves return to Earth. Prior to this,
angles are known as Angle of Incidence.

Q. What is PAPI?
Ans. A precision approach path indicator (PAPI) is a visual aid that provides guidance
information to help a pilot acquire and maintain the correct approach (in the
vertical plane) to an airport or an aerodrome. It is generally located beside the
runway approximately 300 meters beyond the landing threshold of the runway.
PAPI has single wing bar and consists of four light units on the side or both sides
of runway adjacent to the touchdown point. Following are the indications:

On Slope: Two outer lights of each wing bar are white and two inner lights (closer
to the runway) are red (OWIR).

Three Red : Slightly Low 2.80

All Red : Lower than 2.50
Three White : Slightly High 3.20
All White : Higher than 3.50

Precision Instrument Runway Markings:

Threshold Marker to Touchdown Zone Marker Distance: 500 Feet
Touchdown Zone Marker to Fix Distance Marker Distance: 500 Feet
Total from Threshold to Fix Distance Marker: 1000 Feet

Q. What is VASI?
Ans. Two bar VASI has two pairs of wing bars extending outward of the runway
usually at 500 feet and 1000 feet from the approach threshold.

VASI approach slope only provides guaranteed obstacle clearance in an arc 100
left or right of the extended centerline out to a distance of 4NM from the runway
threshold.

Standard glide slope angle on VASI is 30. For Two Bar VASI:

All Bars White: High on Approach

Near Bar White and Far Bar Red: On Glide Slope
All Red: Low on Slope

Q. What is TVASI?
Ans. A Tri-colored VASI is a single light that appears amber above the glide slope,
green on the glide slope and red below it (Amber, Green & Red). It has fallen out
of widespread use, partly because pilots who are unfamiliar with them have been
known to misinterpret the lights and 'correct' in the wrong direction. These errors
are increased due to a major design shortcoming of the tri-colored VASI. While
on approach, the colour amber (above slope) can be seen at a very thin angle of
approach between green (on slope) and red (below slope) due to the mixing of
red and green which gives an amber colour. Pilots not familiar with this may see
the amber light and think they are above glide slope and then descend rather
than make the proper correction and ascending back to glide slope. Despite this
 shortcoming, it is (reportedly) in widespread use in Eastern European countries,
especially Russia and Ukraine.

Q. What is PVASI?
Ans. A pulsating visual approach slope indicator (PVASI) is a single box system. The
signal format is

 Solid white when established on the proper descent profile,

 Solid red when below the proper descent profile.
 An active pulsating white light is seen when well above or pulsating red
when well below.

Although PVASI is a single box system, its signal was evaluated by the U.S. Air
Force and found to be much more accurate than VASI and equivalent to the
four-box PAPI. These are obsolete now and are replaced by the PAPI as they
were easily confused with other airport and surrounding lights.

Q. What are GPS Errors?

Ans. Ionospheric Refraction Error (most significant error): UHF signals are not
normally regarded as being refracted by the ionosphere, but such accuracy is
required that even the very small amount of refraction they suffer increases the
time taken for the signal to reach to the receiver as it bends through a shallow
angle. When combined with the delay from other satellites, it is called the
“Ionospheric Group Delay” and produces a total position error in order of 5
meters.

Satellite Clock Error (Non-Synced errors upto 1.5 meters in range)

Satellite Ephemeris Error: If satellite is not at its precise location (within ±0.5
meters)

Geometric dilution of position error (GDOP): Satellites should be in different part

of the sky and spheres must cut each other cleanly at an angle of 600.

Multi path error: Occurs due to reflected signals which are generally weak in
strength and come to receiver from unusual angles.

Tropospheric Refraction Error: Refraction & attenuation also takes place in the
troposphere. However, this is small and acceptable.

Solar disturbances: Occurs due to solar wind and damaging radiations.

Receiver measurement errors: Basically instrument error.

Q. What is the difference between GPS and GNSS?

Ans. GNSS stands for Global Navigation Satellite System, and is the standard generic
term for satellite navigation systems that provide autonomous geo-spatial
positioning with global coverage.

The term GPS is specific to the United States' GNSS system, the NAVSTAR
 Global Positioning System. As of 2008, the United States NAVSTAR Global
Positioning System (GPS) is the only fully operational GNSS. Similarly, GLONASS
is a Russian GNSS. India's next generation GNSS is known as GPS Aided Geo
Augmented Navigation (GAGAN).

Q. What is PRM ILS Approach?

Ans. The Precision Runway Monitor (PRM) is a highly accurate air traffic surveillance
system used by a specialist PRM Controller to maximize air traffic flow to parallel
runways during periods of inclement weather. PRM allows qualified pilots to
accept reductions in lateral separation standards during ILS approaches to
parallel runways separated by less than 1,525 meters.

Without PRM, ATC is required to apply a 2NM stagger separation between

aircraft on adjacent ILS approaches. The specialized controller interfaces will
alert ATC to any tendency an aircraft may have to deviate towards the adjacent
centre line. In this event the PRM Controller will advise the pilot of the deviation.
A “No Transgression Zone” (NTZ) with a width of 610 meters is established
between the parallel approach paths to provide a suitable safety buffer between
aircraft on adjacent ILS approaches. If an aircraft is observed to penetrate the
NTZ, a “Breakout” procedure will be initiated immediately by the PRM Controller
and both that aircraft and any conflicting aircraft on the adjacent approach will
be turned away (Remember 2nm, 1525m, 610m).

Pilot Requirements: To take advantage of the PRM system, pilots must

familiarize themselves with the procedures to be used. An infringement of the
NTZ does not allow any time for confusion or indecision on the part of the pilots
or controllers. Breakout instructions require an immediate response. A thorough
cockpit briefing between crew members well in advance of commencing the
approach is an essential part of an ILS PRM approach. All flight crew members
must be thoroughly familiar with the procedures to be followed in the event of a
breakout. Separate approach charts have been issued specifically to be used for
ILS PRM approaches.

Q. What is the significance and difference between ILS X, ILS Y, ILS Z?

Ans. ICAO Doc 8168 states that a single letter suffix, starting with the letter Z,
following the radio navigation aid type shall be used if two or more procedures to
the same runway cannot be distinguished by the radio navigation aid type only.
The single letter suffix shall be used as follows:
i. When two or more navigation aids of the same type are used to support
different approaches to the same runway;
ii. When two or more missed approaches are associated with a common
approach, each approach shall be identified by a single letter suffix;
iii. If different approach procedures using the same radio navigation type are
provided for different aircraft categories; and
iv. If two or more arrivals are used to a common approach and are published
on different charts, each approach shall be identified by a single letter
suffix.
v. If different DME is used for eg. VOR and ILS DME.
vi. If different DA are given. The one you use in this case will be dependent
on what missed approach climb gradient you aircraft is capable of.
Q. What is Doppler Principle or Doppler Shift?
Ans. The Doppler Effect (or Doppler Shift) was discovered by Christian Doppler in
1842, is the change in frequency of a wave for an observer moving relative to its
source. It is commonly heard when a vehicle sounding a siren or horn
approaches, passes, and recedes from an observer. The received frequency is
higher (compared to the emitted frequency) during the approach, it is identical at
the instant of passing by, and it is lower during the recession.

The relative changes in frequency can be explained as follows. When the source
of the waves is moving toward the observer, each successive wave crest is
emitted from a position closer to the observer than the previous wave. Therefore
each wave takes slightly lesser time to reach the observer than the previous
wave. Therefore the time between the arrivals of successive wave crests at the
observer is reduced, causing an increase in the frequency. While they are
travelling, the distance between successive wave fronts is reduced; so the waves
"bunch together". Conversely, if the source of waves is moving away from the
observer, each wave is emitted from a position farther from the observer than the
previous wave, so the arrival time between successive waves is increased,
reducing the frequency. The distance between successive wave fronts is
increased, so the waves "spread out".

For waves that propagate in a medium, such as sound waves, the velocity of the
observer and of the source is relative to the medium in which the waves are
transmitted. The total Doppler Effect may therefore result from motion of the
source, motion of the observer, or motion of the medium. Each of these effects is
analyzed separately. For waves which do not require a medium, such as light or
gravity in general relativity, only the relative difference in velocity between the
observer and the source needs to be considered.

Doppler Shift DS = 2 V Cos ᶲ / Wavelength

Where V is in Meters/Sec; DS and W/v is in Hz

Q. What is the difference between GPWS & EGPWS?

Ans. EGPWS (Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System) is actually the trade name
that Honeywell uses for the "TAWS" system. TAWS stands for Terrain Awareness
and Warning System.

The main difference between GPWS and EGPWS is the introduction of a terrain
data base and an interface to a source of position data, typically an FMS or an
onboard GPS receiver.

TAWS use these additional resources to produce FLTA (Forward Looking Terrain
Avoidance) alerts and warnings, RTC (Reduced Terrain Clearance) alerts and
warnings and PDA (Premature Descent along Final Approach Segment) alerts.

The means of warning is aural and visual via the classic “Pull-Up” and
“Glide-slope” annunciations, but the Class A variety of TAWS also must have a
terrain display that provides the pilot with a visual “map” of the underlying terrain.
The terrain display is color coded (red-amber-green) representing impact threats.
 The conventional GPWS could not detect flight into precipitous terrain (such as
shear cliffs) effectively. It could obviously detect descent rates and closure to the
ground, but could not predict precipitous rising terrain in the flight path ahead.

The Honeywell EGPWS system also offers obstacle alerting that warns of large
towers and buildings that meet the warning criteria. This however is not a
requirement of “TAWS”.

Class A TAWS systems are required by aircraft operating in the "airline" category
and some of the larger "commuter category" aircraft.

Class B TAWS (which requires no radio altimeter interface or terrain display) is

required by smaller (but not all) commercial aircraft.

Q. How does Terrain Ahead warning works in an EGPWS?

Ans. A terrain conflict intruding into the caution ribbon activates EGPWS caution lights
and the aural message. The caution alert is given typically 60 Second warning
alert up to 8 nm look ahead of the terrain/obstacle conflict and is repeated every
seven seconds as long as the conflict remains within the caution area. When the
warning ribbon is intruded (typically 30 seconds prior to the terrain/obstacle
conflict), EGPWS warning lights activate and the aural message “TERRAIN,
TERRAIN, PULL UP” or “OBSTACLE, OBSTACLE, PULL UP” is enunciated with
“PULL UP” repeating continuously while the conflict is within the warning area.
(Remember EGPWS Alert at 60 seconds, 8nm every seven seconds, and warning
at 30 seconds).

Q. What is Windshear?
And. Windshear is defined as a sudden change of wind velocity and/or direction.

Vertical windshear has variations of the wind component of 20 kt per 1000 ft to

30 kt per 1000 ft are typical values, but may reach up to 10 kt per 100 ft.

Variations of horizontal wind component change in airspeed of 30 knots for light

aircraft, and near 45 knots for airliners and may reach up to 100 kt per nautical
mile.

Q. What is a Microburst?
Ans. A damaging downburst wind produced from a severe thunderstorm, that covers
an area less than 4 kms. Microburst last for less than 5 minutes. Normally,
microburst are the strongest downburst wind, and are capable of immense
destruction. They should be thought of and treated no differently than tornadoes.

Q. What is the difference between Reactive Windshear and Predictive Windshear

Warning?
Ans. The windshear warning is based on the assessment of aircraft performance
(flight parameters and accelerations). The windshear warning is generated
whenever the energy level of the aircraft falls below a predetermined threshold.

The windshear warning system associated to the Speed Reference System (SRS)
 mode of the flight guidance constitute the Reactive Windshear Systems (RWS),
since both components react instantaneously to the current variations of aircraft
parameters.

To complement the reactive windshear system and provide an early warning of

potential windshear activity, some weather radars feature the capability to detect
windshear areas ahead of the aircraft. This equipment is referred to as a
Predictive Windshear System (PWS). PWS provides typically a one-minute
advance warning.

An RWS works on the principle of comparison between inertial and aerodynamic

data through Speed Reference System (SRS) whereas a PWS works with the help
of Doppler Weather Radar.

Q. What is FANS?
Ans. FANS (Future Area Navigation Systems) is a concept made by ICAO to use the
Airspace more efficiently by developing the operational concepts for the future of
Air Traffic Management.

Operationally speaking, the biggest change provided by FANS is the way pilot and
controllers communicate. In addition to the classical VHF and HF voice, and to
the more recent satellite voice, digital CPDLC (Controller Pilot Data Link
Communications) expands the set of communication means between pilots and
controllers.

FANS routes or air spaces are associated with a given RNP (Required Navigation
Performance) value. This RNP is a statement on the navigation performance
accuracy necessary for operation in this air space.

CPDLC is a powerful tool to sustain data link communications between a pilot

and the controller of the relevant flight region. It is particularly adapted to such
areas where voice communications are difficult (e.g. HF voice over oceans or
remote part of the world), and became very convenient to alleviate congested
VHF of some dense continental airspaces when utilized for routine dialogue (e.g.
frequency transfer).

ADS stands for Automatic Dependent Surveillance. Two kinds of ADS exist:
1) ADS-Broadcast (ADS-B)
2) ADS-Contract (ADS-C)

These two kinds of ADS are quite different, as they do not rely on the same
system. ADS-Contract is quite similar to CPDLC as it requires the establishment
of a connection between the aircraft and the ATC centre. As per CPDLC, a
notification should have been performed prior to ADS-C operations. Through this
data link, the ADS-C application reports data requested in a contract established
between the airborne system and the ATC ground system. Considering the range
of ADS-C and ADS-B, they are expected to complement each other for a complete
coverage during a transoceanic flight for instance when the aircraft is out of VHF
coverage, ADS-C makes the link between the aircraft and the ATC centre. When in
VHF coverage, ADS-B makes the link with any ATC centre or aircraft in the
 vicinity, equipped with an ADS-B receiver.

ADS-B is a radically new technology that is redefining Air Traffic Management

today. Already proven and certified as a viable low cost replacement for
conventional radar, ADS-B allows pilots and air traffic controllers to “see” and
control aircraft with more precision, and over a far larger percentage of the
earth's surface, than has ever been possible before. ADS-B uses a combination of
satellites, transmitters, and receivers to provide both flight crews and ground
control personnel with very specific information about the location and speed of
airplanes in the area.

Q. What is WAAS & LASS?

Ans. They are differential GPS systems.

The Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) is an air navigation aid developed
by the FAA to augment the Global Positioning System (GPS), with the goal of
improving its accuracy, integrity, and availability during the en-route navigation
using LORAN-C transmitters. WAAS uses a network of ground-based reference
stations to measure small variations in the GPS satellites signals. Measurements
from the reference stations are routed to master stations, which send the
correction messages to geostationary WAAS satellites in a timely manner (every
5 seconds or better). Those satellites broadcast the correction messages back
to Earth, where WAAS-enabled GPS receivers use the corrections while
computing their positions to improve accuracy. ICAO calls this type of system a
Satellite Based Augmentation System (SBAS). Europe and Asia are developing
their own SBASs, the Indian GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) and
the European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS). Chinese GPS
system which is named Beidou was operational in December 2012 and has 16
operational satellites. It plans to provide global coverage from 2020.

The Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS) is an all-weather aircraft landing

system based on real-time differential correction of the GPS signal. Local
reference receivers located around the airport send data to a central location at
the airport. This data is used to formulate a correction message, which is then
transmitted to users via a VHF Data Link during the approach procedures. A
receiver on an aircraft uses this information to correct GPS signals, which then
provides a standard ILS-style display to use while flying a precision approach.
ICAO calls this type of system a Ground Based Augmentation System (GBAS).
This information is used to create an ILS-type display for aircraft approach and
landing purposes.

LAAS mitigates GPS threats in the Local Area to a much greater accuracy than
WAAS and therefore provides a higher level of service not attainable by WAAS.
LAAS's VHF uplink signal is currently slated to share the frequency band from
108 MHz to 118 MHz with existing ILS localizer and VOR navigational aids. LAAS
utilizes a Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) Technology in servicing the
entire airport with a single frequency allocation. With future replacement of ILS,
LAAS will reduce the congested VHF NAV band. One of the primary benefits of
LAAS is that a single installation at a major airport can be used for multiple
precision approaches within the local area. This represents a significant cost
 savings in maintenance and upkeep of the existing ILS equipment. Another
benefit is the potential for approaches that are not straight-in. Aircraft equipped
with LAAS technology can utilize curved or complex approaches such that they
could be flown on to avoid obstacles or to decrease noise levels in areas
surrounding an airport. This technology shares similar characteristics with the
older Microwave Landing System (MLS) Approaches, commonly seen in Europe.
Both systems allow lower visibility requirements on complex approaches that
traditional Wide Area Augmentation Systems (WAAS) and Instrument Landing
Systems (ILS) could not allow. (Remember LAAS uses Time Division Multiple
Access (TDMA) Technology).

Q. What is GLS?
Ans. GNSS Landing System is a Precision instrument approach.

Q. What is Ground-based augmentation system (GBAS)?

Ans. An augmentation system in which the user receives augmentation information
directly from a ground-based transmitter.

Q. What is GAGAN?
Ans. The GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN) is a planned
implementation of a regional Satellite Based Augmentation System (SBAS) by
the Indian government. It is a system to improve the accuracy of a GNSS receiver
by providing reference signals.

The project involves establishment of 15 Indian Reference Stations, 03 Indian

Navigation Land Uplink Stations, 03 Indian Mission Control Centers and
installation of all associated software and communication links. GAGAN is
planned to get into operation by the year 2014. It will be able to help pilots to
navigate in the Indian airspace by an accuracy of 3 meters. This will be helpful for
landing aircraft in tough weather and terrain like Mangalore and Leh.

The project is being implemented in three phases through 2008 by the Airport
Authority of India with the help of the Indian Space Research Organization's
(ISRO) technology and space support. US defense contractor Raytheon is the
technology partner to build the system.

The space component will become available after the GAGAN payload on the
GSAT-8 communication satellite, which was launched recently, is switched on.
This payload was also on the GSAT-4 satellite that was lost when the
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) failed during launch in April
2010.

To begin implementing a satellite-based augmentation system over the Indian

airspace, Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) codes for L1 frequency and
L5 frequency were obtained from the United States Air Force and U.S Department
of Defense on November 2001 and March 2005. The system will use eight
reference stations located in Delhi, Guwahati, Kolkata, Ahmedabad,
Thiruvananthapuram, Bangalore, Jammu and Port Blair, and a Master Control
Center at Bangalore.
GRID MORA Colors
Blue circle green circle (TMA, airport etc.) on Enroute charts
Highest obstacle natural or man made
MSA ARP Aerodrome Reference Point
Guwhati Approach Plates
Patna Approach Plates
Cochin Approach Plates – RNAV

Colour or TCAS RA? Red or Magenta? Diamond or Square? SOLID RED SQUARE
When does an arrow comes on traffic?
What kind of indication TCAS RA gives on vertical climb?

Why MZFW is important?

Climb Gradient
Performance – definition of V1, V2, How Vso is calculated
Balanced Field Length

Srinagar QNH procedures (different QNH settings) – will it initiate a TCAS warning
Tolerance of Altimeter on Ground and in Air
Nuisance RA
Level to maintain after pressurization failure? MEA
Actions if ASI fails in RVSM
What if weather is below minima at ETOPS suitable airport before takeoff.
METAR VCSH (5 nm)

Type of Radar Antenna oxford 161

Seasons
Equinox
Convergency
CA
Lambert properties
Mercator advantages
MOCA MORA RVSM
RVSM

Outer marker symbol

Schular tuning; first and second integration
NDB Property
NDB Principle
INS/IRS
Accelerometer
IRS Fixed with aircraft?
Enroute RNP 5 & 10
Precision RNAV + or – 1NM

1/60
Height = Angle X Range X 101 = 3 10 100
10 nm away from the airfield calculate aircraft height

Height = 200 ft; Range 10000 ft

Height = Angle X Range X 101

% = Height (NM) / Range * 100
ROD = angle X GS X 100/60
% = ROD/GS * 6080

Distance = Speed * Time