Information Technology Booklet Section 1-3

John Gordon
Contents Page
Module 1: Fundamentals of Hardware and Software 2
Module 2: Program Solving and Program Design 68
Module 3: Program Implementation
Module 4: Applications and Implications of Information and
Communications Technology
Module 5: Information Processing
Module 6: Word Processing, Presentations and Webpage-design
Module 7: Spreadsheet
Module 8: Database
Information Technology Workbook on Section 1-8 Page 2

Module 1
Fundamentals of Hardware and Software
Topics at Glance:
 Describe a general-purpose computer system

 Explain the functions of the major hardware components of a computer system
 Outline the functions and uses of primary storage devices
 Compare the capacity of various secondary storage devices
 Uses of various input and output media
 Manipulation and data storage
 Interpret various hardware specification
 System and Application Program
 Processing modes
 User-interface

A General-Purpose Computer System
What is a computer?
A computer is an electronic device that processes data following a set of instructions

to produce information.
Uses of a computer
For their data processing speed

For their data processing accuracy
Storage
Ability to work continuously
Functions of a computer
Input
Processing
Output
Storage
Stages of Processing

Functions of The Major Hardware Components of a Computer System
All hardware components of a computer are called Peripherals.
Input
In order for information to be produced, data must be inputted/enter into the

computer using various input devices.
Processing
The process takes place in that part of the computer called the Central Processing
Unit (CPU). The CPU, also known as the Processor is „the brain‟ of the computer.
It takes raw data and, following a set of instructions (programs), converts it into
information. The speed at which the CPU processes data is measured in megahertz
(millions of machine cycles per second) or for newer machines in gigahertz (billions of
machine cycles per second). A machine cycle is the sequence of instructions preformed
to execute one program instruction. The CPU consists of two smaller units known as
the Control Unit (CU) and the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU).
Components of The Central Processing Unit

The Control Unit (CU)
The Control Unit is the main part of the CPU. It directs and coordinates all the
activities within the CPU. The Control Unit determines the sequence in which the
instructions are executed. However, it does not execute the instruction itself; instead,
it sends the data and instructions to the ALU for processing. The CU is primarily
responsible for the movement of data and instructions from itself to the main memory
and ALU and back. The CU executes instructions by preforming the following steps:
Fetching the instruction from memory

Decoding the instruction
Fetching the data required by the instruction from memory
Sending the data and instruction to the ALU for processing
Sending the data to the memory unit after processing.
The control unit contains a number of registers. A register is a temporary storage

location that holds a single instruction or data item. Registers are used to store data
and instructions that are needed immediately and frequently. Two examples of
registers found in the control unit are the Program Counter (PC) and the Instruction
Register (IR). The program counter holds the address of the current instruction (i.e.
the instruction being processed) and the instruction register holds the instruction
itself.
The Arithmetic and Logic Unit
The ALU preforms all the arithmetic and logic functions in a computer. For example, if
an instruction involves an arithmetic operation such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication or division or the comparison of data, the control unit sends the data to
the ALU for processing.
Some of the logic functions are comparison such as:
Storage (The Main Memory)
The main memory/immediate access is directly accessible to the CPU. It holds data
and instructions the computer is processing at the same time. Therefore, the data
collected would be place in main memory while it is being processed. Storage is done
while the processing stage occurs.
Output

After information has been processed, the results are then displayed on the screen for
the user to read and understand.
*So in summary we can say, Input devices enters data to be processed. The CPU
process the data into information and after processing, the data and information can
be either stored in a secondary device or be displayed Output devices so that the user
can understand.
QUICK SELF QUIZ (PAST CSEC QUESTIONS)
1. Explain the term peripheral device
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Give two examples of a Peripheral Device in a computer system
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
A. CU B. ALU F. Main Memory
Using the list above, answer the following questions:
Which component preforms the following functions:
1. The calculation and comparisons …………………………………………

2. Stores programs and data that are
Currently being used by the CPU …………………………………………
3. Decodes and Process instructions …………………………………………
Input Devices
Some of the Input devices that are mostly used in today‟s world are:
Mouse
The movement of the mouse over a flat surface is mirrored by a pointer/cursor

displayed on the monitor screen. On the mouse is a ball that rolls up and down; used
for scrolling a page upwards and downwards. On both sides of the mouse, lies two
buttons, the right and the left. This device helps you to make selections from menus,
move objects around the screen, paint and draw objects also.

Keyboard
This is one of the most commonly used input device. On it are displayed a number of
keys, each when pressed sends a digital code to the computer and automatically that
key is displayed on the monitor screen or the action taken place. For example: CTRL+v
is a shortcut key for paste. If these keys are pressed, then what ever you have copied
onto your clipboard will now be paste.
Types of keyboard:
Braille Keyboard: has raised dots to aid the blind.
The concept Keyboard: contains flat embedded switches which are whole words,
pictures or symbols are displayed. These keyboards are uses in businesses such as
restaurants, so the operator can visually add up the cost of standard menu items.

The Left-handed Keyboard: designed mainly for left-handers.
The Virtual Keyboard: projected on the screen, where it registers finger movement and
translates the finger movement into keystrokes. Example: keyboards on touch screen
phones.
Scanner

Scanners are designed to scan images to JPEG files onto the computer as well as text
to a word processing file on the computer. There are four different kinds of scanner:
the flat bed, the hand-held, the drum and the sheet-fed scanners.
Joystick
A joystick is a device which lets you control the movement of an object on the screen
by operating a small lever. It is used mainly for computer games.
Barcode reader
A barcode is a set of vertical lines of differing thickness with a string of numbers

printed at the bottom. The barcode is read by a scanner in which a laser beam scans
the barcode and the light is reflected back into the scanner. The information is then
read by the computer which provides fast and error-free data entry. This method is
best used for recording the sale of items you may see in supermarkets, libraries and
things on magazines.

Optical Mark Reader
The OMR detects the position and intensity of black marks on white paper, mostly
made by pencil lead or ink marks in appropriate boxes. These are commonly used for
marking multiple choice questions on exams paper or questionnaires given out by
market researchers.
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
MICR is mainly used in the banking industry for reading cheques. On bank cheques,
you can find the cheque number, the bank branch number, the customer‟s account
number and the amount of money which is printed using a special magnetic ink that
contains iron oxide. However, only a special font size is recognized as it only
recognises a special size of character.
Advantages
Documents are difficult to forge

Document can still be read after the cheque is being written on, folded, soiled,
etc.
Disadvantages
MICR readers are difficult to forge

The system can only accept a few characters.
Optical Character recognition/Reader (OCR)

OCRs are used mainly for reading characters from papers. These readers scan text on
paper to an electronic document. In other words, they convert paper-based documents
to pdf or word processing files. Therefore, can be in good use for creating computer
archives of documents you may find the need for in a few years after.
However, OCRs cannot understand handwritten text, if the letters are not properly
formed and even up to printed documents with unusual fonts.
Example:
Light pen
As the name suggest, it is shaped as a pen and is connected to a VDU/monitor. It

allows you to make selections more accurately on a screen. The tip of the light pen
contains a light-sensitive element which when placed against the screen, detects the
light from the screen and enables the computer to identify the location of the pen on
the screen.
Light pen allows the user to draw directly on the screen. However, they are not as
accurate as a digitalising tablet
Touch terminals
This pointing device lets you interact with the computer by touching the screen. The
pointer is the human finger. There are three forms of touch screens: pressure-
sensitive, capactive surface and light beam. These screens can be used in the bank for
ATM machines, or even up to the personal computers, tablets and smartphones
introduced to the human world today.

Voice recognition
All modern computers contain a built-in microphone for sound capture. Today‟s
modern cell phones and computers are adapted for this function where a human
speech is inputted and the phone or computer execute the command given.
scanners
Biometrics refers to the science of identifying an individual through the body

characteristics such as face geometry and hand geometry such as iris or retinal scans,
vein and voice patterns and fingerprints. All these forms of identifying a person can be
inputted to the computer system to be used for security purposes.
Sensors
Chemical or physical changes in humans and their environment can be converted to

electrical signals using sensors that pass information to a computer where it is
analysed, stored and manipulated by specialist software. These sensors are useful in
the fields of medicine, environmental planning and reservation, weather reporting and
so on.

Sensors can be used to measure light, sound, pressure, heat, pulse, water level, or
even the opening and closing of a door.
Digital camera
Digital cameras capture an image and store it in memory within the camera. These
stored images can be uploaded or inputted into the computer system to be
manipulated or printed.
Output devices
Output devices are pieces of equipment that are used to get information or any other
response OUT of a computer. If the output can be read by humans, it is said to be
human readable and if it can be read by computers or machines, then it is said to be
machine readable.
There are two types of output:
Softcopy: output or temporary output refers to information displayed on a monitor

screen or in audio or voice form through speakers.
Hardcopy: output is more permanent and the information is displayed or printed out
on paper.
Monitor
The monitor or the visual display unit (VDU) also called the „Screen‟ can output still or
moving pictures. The screen is similar in appearance to a television and helps the user
to interface visually with the computer. Images and text are formed by tiny dots of
coloured lights called pixels (Short of Picture Element). A pixel is the smallest unit on
the screen, it can be turned on and off or coloured in different shades. Pixels are so
numerous; they appear to form a smooth image on the screen.

Types of monitors
1. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) – this type of screen display is out-dated, and is the same
as that of the standard television set. A colour display has three different types of
particles coating the inner screen. Each particle produces different colour: red,
green, blue (RGB). These colours light the pixels on the screen. When viewed from
a little distance away, the colours appear to blend forming a full range of colours
required.
2. Flat panel display – are of two types:

 LCD Liquid Crystal Display: this display, as the name suggest, uses liquid
crystal which change their appearance when an electric current is passed
through them. It is small, light and flat with no moving parts, and used much
less power than the CRT display. It is therefore extensively used on laptop
computers.
 Plasma Display uses a light created by a plasma discharged from phosphors

between two flat panels of glass.

Characteristics of Monitors
A monitor‟s full capabilities depend on several factors:
 The graphics/video card or adapter being used – this is the link between the
computer‟s processor and the monitor. It is a circuit board that connects the
processor to the monitor. It determines the display resolution, the number of
colours available and the refresh rate of the monitor. Both the types of monitors
and graphics card determine the resolution. The adaptor contains VRAM (Video
RAM memory) that will support a certain resolution. You cannot set a
resolution higher than the adaptor can support. The more powerful the card is,
the more capable the monitor will be in all these aspects
 The monitor‟s size – this is the diagonal dimension of the screen. Common sizes
include 15-inch, 17-inch and 19-inch monitors.
 Its resolution – determines the clarity and sharpness of an image when

displayed on the screen. The more pixels there are on a screen, the higher the
resolution, and the greater the level of detail that can be shown in an image.
 The „image aspect ratio‟ – refers to the height of an image on the screen. Most
monitor have 4:3, breath to a height ratio.
 Its „refresh rate‟ – refers to the number of times the image is repainted or
refreshed on the screen per second. We get the impression that, for example a
drawing on the screen is still but in fact it is being repainted continuously. If
this process is slow, the screen may tend to flicker.
Printers:
This type of output device provides a hardcopy of the outputted data. There are two
types of printer:

Impact printers: contains a number of metal hammers which strike an inked ribbon
placed between the print head and the paper. These hammers may contain complete
characters, which are basically dots that are used to build up a character. Examples
of these are like the:
Dot Matrix Printer
 Characters are formed from a matrix of dots

 Speed is usually 30-550 characters per second (CPS)
 The nosiest of the printer family
 Relatively fast
 Print obtained is usually poor.
Daisy Wheel Printer
 Similar print to that of a typewriter

 Print is made by the hammer like action hitting the print ribbon.
 Not efficient as print at slow (less than 90 cps)
 Provides good text quality as they are crisp and clean
 The size can only be change using a different wheel.

Drum Chain or Band
 Contains characters on a drum, chain or band that rotates at a constant speed.

 Keys strike the page as the required amount of characters pass the print
section
 Characters are printed in the order in which thy pass the head.
 2500 lines can be printed in one minute. They can be used in printing large
volume of paper.
Non-Impact printers: non-impact printer does not strike the paper, so they are much
quieter. Examples of these printer are:
The Thermal Printer: Fine heated pins form characters on heat-sensitive paper. These
printers are widely used in battery powered calculators, fax machines and some
ATM‟s.
Laser Printer

This device uses a dry powdered ink and a laser beam to produce print. This produces
a very fine dot matrix pattern which is transferred onto a page where it is fused onto it
by heat and pressure, producing a very good output quality.
Ink-jet printer
These works by spraying ink onto the paper in a dot matrix pattern. These can print
bot black and white and colour, and are used mainly in homes also produces good
quality image. However, these, don‟t produce a better image quality as the laser but
are much cheaper and affordable to buy.
Plotter
 Used to draw high quality blue prints, graphics, maps and vectors.
 Plotters c=are slow but can draw continuously using a variety of colours
 Aid in CAD (Computer Aided Design) and architectural drawings.
 Paper is laid on a flat bed or on a rotating drum.

Projector
These are used to create and deliver dynamic multimedia presentations. For example,
power point presentations in which sounds, photos, video, text, animations are
combined to produce an interesting output.
Speakers
these computer generated device produces, any sound, music, or even the normal
speaking voice to be outputted for the user to hear.
Primary and Secondary Storage
Storage refers to the media and devices used by a computer to keep data and
instructions available for immediate or later use. Storage can be grouped into two
categories:

Primary storage
Secondary storage
Primary Storage
Primary storage (also called main memory or Immediate Access Store (IMAS)) are a
group of chips that is located in the mother-board (main circuit board) of the
computer.
A memory chip is an Integrated Circuit (IC) made up of millions of transistors and

capacitors.
The distance the electrical signals travel from the CPU to primary storage or vice-versa
is much shorter than the distance between the CPU and secondary storage devices
which are connected to the mother board via cable. This shorter distance, along with
the design of the chips allows the faster interchange of data instructions.
Primary storage consists of two types of memory chips:
Radom Access Memory (RAM)

Read Only Memory (ROM)
RAM (Radom Access Memory)
A computer uses RAM to hold data and instructions (programs) temporarily while
processing is taking place using that data and program. It also holds the data that
results from processing – data that is waiting to be output or stored in a secondary
storage device. RAM therefore is also called main memory.

Programs and data stored in secondary storage must therefore first be loaded into
RAM before they are processed. For example, before a letter can be typed or the data
for spreadsheet enter, the CPU must first load the application programs such as a
word processing or spreadsheet program and whatever the user inputs using them,
are held in RAM until the application or power is turn off.
This means that whatever information is stored on RAM, it can only be accessible if
the program is loaded or if the device is off. Once it closes or shuts down, all data and
information is lost, because the information in RAM is temporary and changeable.
Read Only Memory (ROM)
ROM chips hold data and instructions necessary for starting up the computer when it
is switch on. It is commonly used to store system level programs such as BIOS (Basic
Input/ Output System) program. ROM chips may also hold translators for high level
language and operating systems.
Instructions stored in ROM are fixed at the time of manufacture and are sometimes
being described as “hard-wire.” This means that whatever instructions are stored ROM
are always present, whether the computer is on or not. Therefore, we can say ROM
chips are non-volatile. This means that it cannot be reprogramed, or data stored
cannot be deleted easily, because it is read-only. Users of a system cannot infect ROM
chips with a virus.

Variations of ROM chips:
Programmable ROM (PROM):
This is a type of ROM that can be programmed using special equipment; it can be
written to, but only this is useful for companies that want to make the own ROM form
software they write themselves when they change their code they can create new
PROMs without requiring a whole ROM manufacturing.
Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM)
An EPROM is a ROM that can be erased and reprogrammed which can make it more
useful than ordinary PROM, although EPROM chips do not last as long. This is done
by exposing the chip to ultraviolet light of a specific frequency for a specific period of
time. Reprogramming may become necessary if they are updates to the current data or
instruction that are held in EPROM.
Units of Storage

A computer consists of a number of bistable devices to process and store data.
Meaning that a bistable device can be one of two states at any point in time. These two
states are represented by 0 and 1 and are called bits.
A bit is the smallest unit of storage. It is also the short for Binary Digit
The amount of data and instructions that can be stored in the memory of a storage
medium (plural media) is measured in bytes. A byte is a combination of 8 bits. One
byte has the power to represent ONE (1) Character.
A character can be a letter, a number, a symbol, a punctuation mark or a blank space.
A word is the number of bits the computer can process in one operation.
A word length is the number of bits in a word.
Unit of storage Symbol Equal to
Bit b -
Bytes B 8 bits
Kilobyte KB 1024 bytes
Megabyte MB 1024KB
Gigabyte GB 1024MB
Terabyte TB 1024GB
Secondary Storage
Secondary Storage also called axillary storage or back-up storage is used to store data
and instructions when they are not being processed. Secondary storage is more
permanent that main memory since data and instructions are retained when the
power is turn off. Secondary storage is also much cheaper that primary storage and is
unlimited, i.e. you can have as much of it you can afford.
A computer for home use will not have as much secondary storage as a computer used
in large organisation such as banks, hospitals or an insurance company. Because of
this diverse range of storage needs, a number of secondary storage devices are
available. Devices are chosen for a particular used based on their:
Storage capacity
Access (the time need to locate the data and transmit it to the CPU)
Size (necessary for storage on selves or portability)
Portability (ability to be easily removed and use another system)
Cost

Secondary Storage Devices
Magnetic Tapes
Magnetic tape is a ribbon plastic material with a metal oxide film on which data is
recorded as magnetised or unmagnetised spots. The magnetic orientations of the
magnetised and unmagnetised spots represent the binary digits 0 and 1. On
mainframe computers the tape is stored on reels of cartridges. In microcomputers are
stored in cartridges similar to those used to store music, but of a much higher quality.
Just like the tape in a tape recorder, data can be written to, read from, the tape as it
passes the magnetic heads.
Magnetic tape is not suitable for data files that are revised of updated often because it
stores data sequentially. This means that data is retrieved in the order in which they
are stored. Therefore, accessing data is very slow as you cannot go directly to an item
of data on the tape. It is necessary to start at the beginning of the tape and search for
the data as the tape goes past the heads.
However, magnetic tapes are erasable, reusable, and moderately durable, and are
made to store large quantities of data inexpensively. For these reasons; they are
mainly used for emergency back-up purposes.
Magnetic Disks
Magnetic Disks are one of the most widely used secondary storage media for
computers. All magnetic disks provide direct access to the data stored. This means
that you can go directly to a specific piece of data without having to access any other
data either before or after the data you want. The capacity and access speeds of
magnetic disk vary with each device or medium. Magnetic disk includes floppy disks
(diskettes) and hard disks.
Floppy disks
A floppy disk is a removable, flexible plastic disk coated with a magnetised material.
 Each surface contains asset of numbered concentric rings known as Tracks.

 The tracks are also divided into wedges shapes (pizza slices) pieces known as
sectors, which themselves are numbered. A sector is the amount of data that can
be read from or written to a disk by the computer in one read/write operation.
 A cylinder is made up of all the tracks of the same number from all the metal disk
that make up the hard disk.
Before a disk can be used to store data, it must be formatted. Formatting a disk
means writing electronic information on the disk so that the computer can recognize
the disk as a valid storage device and data can be stored. The formatting process sets
up a method of assigning addresses to different areas. It also sets up an area for
keeping the list of addresses. Without formatting, there would be no way to know what
data is stored. When a disk is formatted, the following happens:
 All data in the disk is erased

 The surface of the disk is checked for any physical or magnetic effects
 A file allocation table (FAT) is created to record where data is stored.
Floppy disks are useful for transferring data between computers and for keeping a
back-up of small files. They are relatively slow to access because of their rotation
speed. Floppy disk holds 1.44mb of information. This is plenty of space for storing
text documents (word or excel files), but for files containing graphics a floppy disk may
not be sufficient.

Hard Disks
Hard disks are thin but rigid, inflexible disks made of highly polished metal. The
surface of each side of a disk also called platters is covered with a substance that can
be magnetised, thereby allowing data to be stored on both sides as magnetised or
unmagnetised spots.
The disks constantly rotate at a high speed and may have one read/write head per
disk (moveable head) or, on more expensive, every track has its own head (fixed head).
The combination of the disk read/write head and the circuitry that goes with these are
called hard disk drives.
Hard disks are much slower than internal memory. To increase the speed at which
data is write and read from a hard disk, a cache is sometimes included.
All modern PCs comes with a hard drive housed in the system Unit. These are usually
not removable and comes with a varied storage capacity of 20-500 GB and more.
Optical storage
Optical disks are disks that can be read by laser lights. They are made of
polycarbonate plastics and data is usually stored on a layer inside the plastic.
CD-ROM (Compact Disk- Read Only Memory) – means that you can only read (access)
what is on the disk, but you cannot change or add anything.

CD-R (Compact Disk –recordable) – this disk allows you to write data onto the disk
only once using a CD recorder (burner).
CD-RW (Compact Disk-Re-Writable) – is now effective for back-up storage. The data
stored on the disk can be erased and new data can be recorded as many times you
want.
DVD stands for Digital Versatile Disk. The main types are DVD-ROM (read only), DVD-
R (recordable) and DVD-RW (Rewritable). They look similar to a CD-R disk but are
capable for holding much more information. A typical DVD disk can hold 4.7GB and
17GB of information. They are mainly used for storing movies. The quality of sound
and video output is much superior to video tapes.
Flash Drives
In the modern world, today, mostly persons use flash drives or USB flash drives. It is
rewritable and removable. Videos, songs, documents, pictures can all be store on flash
drives and can also be deleted if these files are no longer in use. They are available in
all shapes and sizes and has a memory capacity of over 32GB!
Memory Cards/Memory sticks
Almost all the phones available today can hold a memory card or a computer/camera
can have a SD card connected to it. It is small and portable and you can take them
anywhere you want.

Name of Storage Storage Name of Storage Storage
Device Capacity Device Capacity
Varies with devices;
Magnetic Tape Usually 2-8GB Flash Drives 2GB to 32GB and
more
Varies with devices
Floppy Disk 1.44mb Memory Cards
1GB to 64GB
Hard Disk:
(Removable) 40-120 GB
USB Drive (mp3s) Up to 1 GB
(Fixed) 2 GB and more
CDs Up to 800 MB
DVDs Up to 17GB
Summary of some terms associated with Storage
Read/Write Head: A read/write head is a specific physical part of a hard disk that is
responsible for reading data from, and writing data to, the disk.
Sector: the amount of data that can be read from or written to a disk by the computer
in one read/write operation.
Tracks: a set of numbered concentric circles on the surface of a disk.
Cylinders: All the tracks of the same number from all the metal disks that make up
the hard disk.
Buffer: a temporary area holding data that is in transit from one device to another, so
that neither device is delayed by the other.
Cache: Very fast memory processor can access much more quickly than RAM.
Sequential Access: this means that you can access data in the order that they are
stored.
Direct Access: this means that you can go directly to a specific piece of data without
having to access any other piece of data.

SATA (Serial ATA): The standard hardware interface for connecting hard drives, and
CD/DVD drives to the computer.
IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics): is a standard electronic interface used between

a computer motherboard's data paths and the computer's disk storage devices.
SCSI (Small Computer System Interface): is an interface that allow personal computers
to communicate with peripheral hardware.
Data Storage and Representation
Data: all that is raw facts and figures that a computer processes by following a set of
instructions (called a program) into information.
Types of Data:
Discrete Data: data that can be counted for. Example the number of letters in the
alphabet.
Continuous Data: is data that can be measured and be recorded at many different
points. Example the temperature of a liquid, weather, length, volume etc.
A computer consists of a number of bistable devices to process and store data.

Meaning that a bistable device can be one of two states at any point in time. Example
a light bulb. When the bulb is turned on and in use we use 0 to represent the bulb
being on, and 1 when it is off.
Base Ten
Normal numbers we use every day are written in base ten (decimal). Example 0, 1, 2,
3, 4. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. The first column is represented in units, the second is represented
in groups of ten, and the column after is represented in groups of hundreds and so on.
For example: The number 631 is represented by

Hundreds Tens Units six hundred, three tens and 1 unit
6 3 1
Binary Number System (Base two)
The binary number system consists of two digits 0 and 1. The binary digits are also
known as bits (short for Binary digits). In base two, each column is two times bigger
than the column on the right.
So for number 101011, we can represent this as:
25 24 23 22 21 20
1 0 1 0 1 1

Converting Base Ten to Binary
Converting a decimal number to binary is a simple process whereby you divide the
decimal by the number 2 and record the remainder until the result is Zero. Then write
the remainder from the last to the first.
Here are some examples:
1. 22
2210=101102
2. 56
5610=1110002
3. 87

8710=10101112
Exercise:
Convert the following Decimals to Binary:
1. 2310
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2. 3510
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
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……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
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3. 10410
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12110
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23510
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Converting Binary to Decimal
To convert a binary to decimal, multiply each bit by its place value, starting from the
bit on the left to the bit on the right.
Example #1
01102 → Decimal
23 22 21 20
This row shows the value of each digit
8 4 2 1
above in its place value position.
Each digit is then multiplied by its
0 1 1 0
place value.
0 4 2 0 Sum the totals.
4+2=6
01102 = 610
Example #2
Convert 10010102 → decimal
26 25 24 23 22 21 20
64 32 16 8 4 2 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 0
64 0 0 8 0 2 0

64 + 8 + 2 = 74
Therefore 10010102 = 7410
Exercise:
Convert the following binary to Decimal:
01012
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10012
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0101012
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1010112
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01101012
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Adding Binary Numbers
From the sums above it can be concluded that 12+12=102 NOT 1+1=2. Since Binary
only consist of 0 and 1, you convert 2 to binary giving you 10 2. So we can safely say
12+12=102 in binary. Likewise, we do the same when adding 12+12+12.
Steps in adding binary numbers:
Example 1
Find the sum of 102 and 012
Step one: Set the binary numbers one above the other measuring the bits with the
same value.

Step two: Starting from the right-most column, add the digits 0+1=1
Step three: add the digits in the other column, 1+0=1
102
+ 012
112
Therefore 012+102=11.
Example 2
Add together 0112 and 1012
Step one: Place the values in their correct position one under the other.
Step Two: Add the right most bit, which gives a result of 2. Since 2 is not a symbol of
the base two system, you convert two to binary giving you 102. Just like ordinary, you
write the 0 in the same column and carry the 1 to the next column.
Step Three: pertaining to this problem, you repeat step number two. Note: not all
problems will require you to repeat this step.

Step Four: add the digits in the third column and place the remainder in the fourth
column.
Therefore, the result of 0112 and 1012 is 10002
Exercise: solve for the following:
1. 0112+1102
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2. 1010+1011
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3. 00010+01110
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4. 010101+001100
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5. 1011001+111011
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Subtraction of Binary Numbers (Method 1)
When subtracting binary numbers there are a few rules you should remember.
02–02=02
12–02=12
12–12=02
However, when subtracting 02-12, just like ordinary subtraction, you take a group of
two from the column on the left.
For Example:
Step One: Place the values in their correct position one under the other
Step Two: Just like normal subtraction, since 1 is bigger than 0, you take a group of
two from the next column.

Step three: Take 02–02=02
Step four: Take 12–12 and 02–02
Octal Base Number System
This base system consists of eight numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.
Converting Base Ten to Eight
Using the same rules when converting from Base ten to Base Two, we can convert
from Base ten to Base Eight. However, in this case we divide by 8 and not 2.
Example 1
3610=428
Example 2

25610=4008
Exercise:
Convert the following base 8 numbers to
1. 648
2. 5738
3. 7438
4. 6348
5. 6258
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Converting from Base Eight to Base Ten
To convert an Octal number to decimal, we multiply each bit by its place value,
starting from the bit on the left to the bit on the right.
Example 1:
Convert 42728  decimal

83 82 81 80
512 64 8 1
4 2 7 2
2048 128 56 2
2048 28 + 56 + 2 = 2234
Exercise: Convert the following Base 8 numbers to Decimal.
1. 2078
2. 758
3. 3458
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Hexadecimal (base 16)
This number system consists of 16 characters: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E,

F. Since 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 and 15, are two characters each, it would not be advisable
to use these, it‟s much easier to use one character. Therefore, the first 6 letters of the
English alphabet. Where A=10, B=11, C=12, D=13, E=14 and F=15.
Converting Base 10  Hexadecimal
Converting a decimal number to hexadecimal is a simple process whereby you divide

the decimal by the number 16 and record the remainder until the result is Zero. Then
write the remainder from the last to the first.
Example 1: Convert 34610  Hexadecimal
34610 = 15A16
Example 2: Convert 703710  Hexadecimal
703710 = B2D16
Exercise
Convert the following decimal number to Hexadecimal
1. 4210
2. 24210

3. 71710
4. 133410
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Converting from Base 16  Base 10
To convert a Hexadecimal number to decimal, we multiply each bit by its place value,
starting from the bit on the left to the bit on the right
Example 1

2A16  Decimal
Example 2
F216  Decimal
Exercise:
Convert:
1. 2C16  Decimal
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2. 2CD16  Decimal
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3. B1616  decimal
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4. F2C16  Decimal
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5. FAA16
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Data Representation of Integers
Positive and negative integers can be represented in many ways, some of these are:
Sign and Magnitude

As we all learnt, in decimal or base ten number system we place a minus sign in front
of the number for it to be a negative, however in the binary number system we use
sign and magnitude. Where the leftmost bit is used to represent the sign (negative or
positive) and the remaining bits to represent the magnitude.
Using the four-bit binary representation, positive numbers begins with a 0 while
negative number have a 1 in front.
For example:
00012 is equivalent to (+1) while 1001 is equivalent to (-1).
Using the four bits, we can have 16 different combinations:
We can also represent binary numbers in Sign and Magnitude using Eight-Bit binary
representation.
For example:
Give the eight-bit representation of -23 using sign and magnitude.
Step 1: we find the binary representation of 35
this gives us: 1000112, but since the answer is only in six bits, to make it eight we add
two more zeros to the left giving us: 001000112. Note by doing this, we did not change
the value of the number.

+35 = 001000112 – the zero in front of number shows us that it is a positive number.
Step 2: in order for us to make it negative, we flip the left most bit to a 1
Therefore -35 = 101000112
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
In electronic devices such as microwaves and calculators where numeric values are to
be displayed, BCD is used.
In BCD each digit of a number is represented by its four-bit binary equivalent along
with the binary equivalent to the positive and negative signs. In BCD we represent
positive (+) as 1010 and 1011 for negative (-). The four- bits codes for the numbers 0-9
are as follows:
For example:
Store the decimal number 335 using BCD.
Meaning we find the four-bit binary equivalent of 3,3, and 5.
Therefore +33510=1010001100110101. Do note, not always the binary equivalent is

always necessary to be placed in front of the number. You can also write it without the
positive sign.
So the BCD equivalent to -335 would be:
One’s Complement

In one‟s complement notation, positive are represented as usual in unsigned binary.
However, negative numbers are represented simply by flipping the bits of all the digits
meaning 0s are flip to 1s and 1s are flipped to 0s.
For example:
To find the one‟s complement of 11001101, we:
Step 1: Set the values down: 11001101
Step 2: Flip all 1s to 0s and 0s to 1s= 00110010.
Example 2
Using four-bits find its one complement representation of –6.
Step 1: Convert 6 to binary giving us 1102
Step 2: add a zero to the left most bit to make it a four bit binary = 01102
Step 3: flip the bits = 10012
Hence the four bit one‟s complement of –6 is equal to 10012.
Two’s Complement
This is the most commonly used methods of representing signed (positive and
negative) integers.
To find the two‟s complement of a binary number, we first find the one‟s complement
and then add 1 to it.
Example 1
Find the two‟s complement of the eight-bit binary number 100111002.
Step 1: find the one‟s complement
Binary number: 10011100
One‟s complement: 01100011
Step 2: add 1 to the one‟s complement
Therefore, the two‟s complement of 10011100 is 01100100.
N.B

The two‟s complement of 00000000 is 00000000. That is because Zero is
neither positive nor negative so it maintains its original value.
When finding the two‟s complement of a negative decimal number. Convert the
positive of the number to binary then find the two‟s complement.
Subtraction of Binary Numbers (Method 2)
Binary numbers can also be subtracted using two‟s complement.
Example 1: 11102 – 01102
This should be written as 11102 + (–01102)
Step 1: find the two‟s complement of 0110 (NOT –0110).
0110  1001 + 1 = 1010
Step 2: add the two values that is the two‟s complement and the other number.
The answer obtained is in Five-bits, however the answer we want should be in four-
bits, so therefore we discard the leftmost bit giving us an answer of 1000.
Hence we can say 1110 – 0110 = 1000.
Example 2
Find the Value of 910 – 610 using four-bits two’s complement binary
Step One: convert 9 to binary. This gives us: 10012.
Step Two: Find the two‟s complement of -6.
Since the answer is only three-bits we add a zero in front giving us 01102.

One‟s complement: 1001  Two‟s complement: 10102
Step three: add the two values
Now our answer has five bits, so we discard the extra bit giving us an answer of 00112.
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)
All characters that are stored and processed by a computer are called the character
set of a computer. One of the most common use codes is the ASCII. This set uses
Seven-bits to represent each character and an extra bit to ensure data integrity.
 ASCII codes defines 128 character codes (from 0-127)
 The first 32 are called control codes that helps computer to carry out a
command such as „skip a line‟.
 The remaining 96 characters are representable (printable) characters.
 ASCII is mostly used by mini and PC computers.
Char ASCII Code Char ASCII Code Char ASCII Code

A 100 0001 a 110 0001 0 011 0000
B 100 0010 b 110 0010 1 011 0001
C 100 0011 c 110 0011 2 011 0010
D 100 0100 d 110 0100 3 011 0011
E 100 0101 e 110 0101 4 011 0100
F 100 0110 f 110 0110 5 011 0101
G 100 0111 g 110 0111 6 011 0111
H 100 1000 h 110 1000 7 011 1000
I 100 1001 i 110 1001 8 011 1001
J 100 1010 j 110 1010 9 011 1010
K 100 1011 k 110 1011 Blank 010 0000
L 100 1100 l 110 1100 . 010 1110
M 100 1101 m 110 1101 ( 010 1000
N 100 1110 n 110 1110 + 010 1011
O 100 1111 o 110 1111 $ 010 0100
P 101 0000 p 111 0000 * 010 1010
Q 101 0001 q 111 0001 ) 010 1001
R 101 0010 R 111 0010 - 010 1101

S 101 0011 S 111 0011 / 010 1111
T 101 0100 T 111 0100 , 010 1100
U 101 0101 U 111 0101 = 011 1101
V 101 0110 V 111 0110 RETURN 0000 1101
W 101 0111 W 111 0111 LNFEED 000 1010
X 101 1000 X 111 1000
Y 101 1001 Y 111 1001
Z 101 1010 Z 111 1010
EXERCISE
1. Determine the BCD representation of: 6610
-2110
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2. Convert 4510 to its binary One‟s Complement.
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3. What is the two‟s complement of -4510?
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4. What is the sign and magnitude representation of -4510?
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5. Subtract the binary number 0011011 from 11110010 using two‟s complement.
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6. What is the decimal equivalent of the following BCD representations? The first four
digits are used to represent the sign (positive and negative).
a. 1011 1001 1000 0111 …………………………………………………
b. 1010 0010 0101 0110 …………………………………………………
c. 1010 0110 1010 0111 1001 …………………………………………………
7. What is the decimal number for the following two‟s complement representations?
a. 1001
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b. 1110
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c. 11100111
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d. 10010111
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PAST CSEC QUESTIONS
(a) What is the hexadecimal equivalent for the decimal 21? [Working must be
shown.] (2
marks)
(b) The ASCII representation for the letter „D‟ is 1000100. What is the ASCII
representation for the letter „G‟? [Working must be shown.] (4marks)
(c) What does the acronym BCD stand for? (3 marks)
(d) State how many bits are represented by one digit using BCD representation.
(1 mark)
++++++++++
++++++++++
++++++++++
++++++++++
++++++++
(10 marks)
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2. (a) convert the decimal 25 into the following forms:
(I) Binary (2 marks)
(II) Octal (2 marks)
(III) Hexadecimal (2 marks)
(b) Add 110112 to 1012 (2marks)
(c) subtract 1012 from 110112 (2 marks)
(Total 10 marks)
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A software is a set of instructions (a program) that a computer needs to carry out its
tasks.
Types of software
Two main categories of software are:
 System software
 Application software
System software
System software is a set of programs that are needed for the computer to perform its
functions. It controls the operation of the computer and all hardware devices. It
includes operating systems, utility programs and translation programs.
An operating system is a set of programs that controls the hardware. Operating

systems contain instruction that coordinate all activities among the hardware
resources and preform the following task:
 Device Management: They provide a way for application software to communicate

with the hardware. For example, if you click on the printer icon in your word
processing package (application software). The operating system gives an
instruction to the printer to start printing.
 Memory Management: Main memory holds current instructions and data used by
the computer. The operating system ensures that the right data is being copied into
the RAM to be use.
 File Management: They manage the transfer of data to and from peripherals
(hardware) e.g. keyboard, mouse, scanner, etc.

 Security: They manage system security. Many operating systems allocate certain
rights to users. A user can only do certain things on entering a password.
 User interface: the operating system allows the user to interact with the computer.
 Process Management: with many things to process at the same time, the OS will
organise these tasks.
 Input/output Management: basic control of any hardware devices of your computer.
Utilities
Utilities are programs in the computer that carry out one specialist function in order
for the computer to work smoothly. They carry out tasks such as automatic backup of
computer files, scanning an email for computer viruses. An example of a utility
program is antivirus software.
Translators
A system software has the feature to allow you to create your own program. A
translator may be used to support computer programmers in translating source code

to machine codes, for the computer to understand. An example of such a program is
the pascal complier.
Application software
Application software programs carry out specific task or solve particular problems. For
example, if you want to type a letter, you would need to use a word processor. To
create a highly decorative birthday card you would require some type of graphic
package. A word processor and a graphic package are example of application software.
Application software includes entertainment software or personal software such as

CD-ROM, encyclopaedia, productivity software such as word processing and
spreadsheet packages and specialist software such as desktop publishing and
graphics packages.
Application software can also be categorized as follows:
General purpose software

Integrated software
Customized software
Custom written software
Specialized software
General Purpose Software
General purpose software is software that is not written or any specific business or
organization but can be used or adapted to suit their specific needs, example a word
processing package.
General purpose software, “also called off the shelf” software, are usually well tested
and are relatively cheap.

Integrated software
An integrated software package is a set of related programs combined in a unified

package that allows data to be transferred easily between the programs. A basic
integrated package may contain word processor, spreadsheets, database,
communications and graphics presentations programs.
Advantages
The ease with which data can be transferred from one component to another
Takes up less disk space than individual applications
You can move much faster from one application to another
Easier to learn as the user interface for choosing is the same.
Usually cheaper than purchasing the packages individually.
Disadvantages
Not all the features of single applications are included

Some integrated packages do not contain all the applications needed to
complete the task
Specialized software
Specialized software is software that is written for a specific task rather than for a
broad application area. The programs provide facilities specifically for the purpose for
which they were designed. For example, a payroll program will usually only be able to
deal with all aspects of a company‟s payroll, i.e. for one specific purpose.
Customized software
This refers to general purpose software which has been modified to meet the needs of
an individual or organization better. These packages are customized through the
writing of code or macros. Macros are short programs written to automate several
steps in software in software such as databases, spreadsheets and word processors.
An instruction usually a keystroke signals the computer to perform a predefined
sequence of instructions. Macros are usually written be experienced end-users of the
program once the program is complete. The core code of the program allows for these
match macros to be added.
Custom-Written (tailor-made) software
This is software written to meet the specific needs of a company. Every company is
unique and may have unique needs, which is why a solution tailored to achieve a
company‟s goal, based on their specialized requirements, offers many advantages
when compared with general purpose pre-packaged applications. Custom-written
software may be written be programmers within the company, or it may be contracted
out to a company that specializes in writing software.

Advantages
It preformed tasks that general-purpose software can‟t preform

The software can quickly change when the needs of the organization changes
It meets all the need of the organization
Disadvantages
Cost
Lengthy development time
Increased probability of undetected error
Hardware Specifications of a Computer
The two main features of CPUs that you need to be aware of are its speed and type.
The processor speed: of most of today's PCs are measured in GHz (GigaHertz). 1 GHZ
means that it can execute approximately 1 billion instructions per section.
The CPU type: determine the type of application for which a particular type of
processor is used. The two most popular companies that currently produce CPUs are
Intel and AMD.
Main Memory
The capacity of a computer's memory determines the number of programs that it can
hold at a time, which affects the performance of a computer system. More memory
indicates that it can hold more programs at a time. Modern PCs memory capacity is
measured in GB (Gigabytes).
There are two main types of RAM - SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic RAM) and RDRAM
(Rambus Dynamic RAM). RDRAM are faster and more expensive than SDRAM and are
used mainly for high performance computers.
Word size: determines the number of bits that can be stored and processed at a time
by the CPU. Most modern PCs have a word size of either 32-bit or 64-bit.
RAM speed: determines how fast the chip updates the data that it contains. In modern
PC‟s it is measured in MHz (MegaHertz) and is usually above 400MHz.

Hard drive
Storage capacity determines how much information can be stored for later use. More
hard disk space means you can store more programs and data. In modern PC‟s it is
measured in Gigabytes (GB) but are reaching up to Terabytes (TB).
Hard disk speed is normally expressed in revolutions per minute (rpm). The rpm is
how fast the disk is spinning and varies from 5400 rpm - 15000 rpm.
Other specifications
Ports
A computer system need to send and receive information from peripheral devices. A
port is a piece of technology that is used to connect external devices to a computer.
Parallel: used mainly to connect printers but can also be used to connect certain
scanners and external hard disks.
Serial: Used to connect certain types of mouse, modem and printers.
Universal Serial Bus (USB)Used to connect around 127 devices including printers,
scanners, flash drives and digital cameras. There are USB-1 and USB-2 (this one is
faster).
Fire wire/IEEE 1394: used to transfer video images from digital devices.

Expansion Slots
Expansion slots are sockets found on the motherboard and are used to insert
additional circuit boards (cards). They can be used for adding more memory, graphics
facilities and other special devices. There are three types of expansion slots:
1) Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) - used to attach sound cards, network

cards and video cards.
2) Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) - mainly used for graphics cards
3)Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) - used for attaching modems and not
commonly seen on most modern computers
User Interfaces
There are two types of user interfaces of a computer:
Hardware
The hardware user interface makes it possible for a person to work with the
computer system. Such as items on the keyboard, the mouse and even on monitor
screen are found in almost every computer system. Items such as the touch screen
are now invented to make computers easier to use. Even, to the blind person, there
are the braille-based input and voice recognition are designed for them to use
computers.
Software
There are three types of software interface:
Command-driven interface
The command driven interface requires you to enter a command b typing in codes or
words. You have to type in the command at the prompt on the display screen.

Menu-Driven Interface
This type of interface allows you use either a mouse or cursor-movement or arrow keys
to make selection from a menu. Menus contain commands to Print, Save, Format and
so on.
Graphical User Interface (GUI)
Most computers nowadays use the GUI, which makes it easier and more user friendly.
The GUI also makes use of the keyboard and mouse. It contains:
A mouse pointer/cursor to show the movement of the mouse
Icons which are pictorial representation of a program, or file. It can be selected using
the mouse/touchpad or even your finger if using a touch screen.
Windows: a rectangular area of the screen that opens to allow access to files and
storage areas.

Menus: allows you to pick commands from a list of choices instead of typing them.
Processing
Multitasking
Multitasking is the concurrent execution of two or more related task to achieve a

common goal. Meaning that two or more tasks are being done at the same time to
receive the same end result.
Multi-programming
This term can be defined as one processor carrying out more than one task at a time.
Meaning that, a computer with one processor can carry out various tasks, with the
operating system swapping quickly between these tasks.

Multi-processing
A program being executed on more than one processor working at the same time.
Meaning that some tasks carried out by the computer are too large for one processor.
Therefore, it can be divided among several processors linked together.
Types of Modes of Processing:
Batch Processing
Batch-processing were popular in the early age of computers when computer

resources were limited and expensive. In batch processing, data and instructions were
prepared offline, perhaps as punched cards then are inputted in a batch for
processing.

Batch processing are no longer widely used, but can be used for the payroll system,
where a large number of persons would use punch card to register the time of entering
and leaving work.
Time-sharing
This type of processing was also use in the early age, where persons would share one
processor. This was done by multitasking and multiprogramming.
A human user is so much slower than a computer that each user hardly notices that
he or she is sharing the processor with others. The effect on the computer‟s response
is slight.
Online Processing
A method of using a company‟s mainframe or an interface to the Internet like an e-

commerce website for taking product orders and dealing with payments. The online
processing of orders offers considerable savings and greater overall efficiency for most
business sales operations.

Real time Processing
Robot manufacturing systems or security systems run by computers must respond

instantly to events in the real world. If a computer is being used in this way then the
processor must not be used for multiple tasks, as instant responses can be crucial.

Past CSEC QUESTIONS
Question 1
Give ONE similarity and ONE difference between EACH of the following terms:
(A) RAM and ROM (2marks)

(B) ROM and EPROM (2marks)
(C) Hard disk and floppy disk (2marks)
(D) Primary storage and secondary storage (2marks)
(E) System software and application software (2 marks)
Total 10 marks
Question 2
(A) Convert 9910 to its binary equivalent. (2 marks)

(B) Add the binary numbers 1101012 and 110112 giving your answer in decimal form
(3 marks)
(C) Explain how an integer can be represented using BCD (2 marks)
(D) Give the BCD representation of -6510 (2 marks)
Total 9 marks
Question 3
(A) Give TWO advantages and TWO disadvantages using a customized software
(4 marks)
(B) Explain TWO differences between a plotter and a dot matrix printer (2 marks)
(C) Describe briefly the operation of a touch screen or touch terminal and explain
TWO ways it could be more advantageous than a mouse (3 marks)
(D) Give the difference between a batch processing system and an online processing
system and give one advantage that EACH type holds over the other (3 marks)
Total 15 marks
Question 4
(A) Which output device is best suited for printing an architectural drawing of the
front view of a new building, and why? (3 marks)
(B) Give ONE similarity and ONE difference between OCR and MICR operation
(2 marks)
(C) The following terms relate to memory and data storage. Give the meaning and
purpose of EACH:
(i) Backing up (2 marks)
(ii) Read/Write head (2 marks)
(iii) Address (2 marks)
(iv) Access Time (2 marks)
(D) Give the MOST important advantage of disk storage over tape storage (1 mark)
Total 15 marks

Module 2
Problem-Solving and Program Design
In this module, students will be able to understand the fundamental principles and
practises of problem-solving using a computer. In doing so, they will be able to:
 Outline the steps in problem-solving

 Decompose a simple problem into its significant parts
 Distinguish between variables and constants
 Explain the concept of algorithms
 Identify ways of representing algorithms
 Develop algorithms to solve simple problems

Module 2
Program Solving and Program Design
All computers are design to solve problems speedily and accurately. Most problems
that are solve by humans can also be solved by computers. However, computers must
be told what to do and in a correct sequence.
Exercise:
Write down in a number of steps of how to fry an egg.
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Steps in solving a problem
1. Define the problem

2. Analyse the problem
3. Find a solution to the problem
4. Evaluate alternate solutions
5. Represent the most efficient solution as an algorithm
6. Test the algorithm for corrections.

The Defining Diagram (IPO Chart)
The IPO (input processing and Output) chart is a guide to help you define a problem
and analyse what you need to solve this problem.
For example:
You are asked to find the Average of 3 numbers.
First step: is to understand what is the problem asking for, which is, in this case
„average of three numbers‟
Second Step: Analysing a problem comes with what do you need to solve the problem,
in this case, we need three numbers.
Third step: Finding a solution. In mathematics, we normally add the numbers and
divide the sum by dividing the amount of numbers to find the average. Hence, this will
be our solution to this problem.
Therefore, we can say:
I P O
Num1, Num2, Num3 Sum = Num1+Num2+Num3 Output: Average
Average = Sum/3
Exercise:
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Now that we know to analyse a problem, we can move on to the various ways in
solving a problem using a computer.
Algorithm
An algorithm is a systemic procedure that produces a solution to a problem following a

number of steps.
OR
An algorithm is a sequence of instructions, if followed produces a solution to a given

problem.
Characteristics of an Algorithm
 Must be unambiguous
 Must be finite, that is they can be terminated after a number of steps
 Instructions must be in a logical sense.
Algorithms can be represented in two ways:
1. Pseudocode
2. Flowchart
Pseudocode
A pseudocode is an algorithm that models or resembles the real programming

language of a computer. It cannot be executed by the computer.
Algorithm, pseudocode and computer programs are written using the specific rules
and statements of a computer language much like English language. These rules for
writing a particular language is called Syntax.
Variables
In the memory of a computer are storage cells (or bytes), each has a unique address
called memory location. This helps the computer to find relevant data easily when it is
referred to a name.
A variable is a symbolic name assigned to a memory location that stores a particular

value. The word variable is derived from the word vary. Meaning that the value stored
in a particular location can change from time to time, however, the name of the
variable remains the same. That is new values are placed into previously assigned
memory locations replacing the old values stored.
Computations are performed by the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) which is a
component of the CPU. The results are temporally stored registers within the CPU.
Any value that we may need to access later on in a program is stored in variables.

Choosing Variable Names
Whenever we choose a variable name, we choose a name that reflects the kind of data
being stored. For example, a variable can be named „Name-of-Student‟, this tells us
that a person name should be stored here and not numbers. This helps the
programmer as well as the user to understand the solution better.
Note: Variable names must always begin with a Letter character and must be of a
certain length.
Example:
*Sum* = Wrong
Sum = Correct
Sum12 = Correct
Constants
A constant is a storage area whose

3.14, vat in Guyana = 16%.
Algorithmic Structure
Every algorithm should have the following sections:
Header : Name or Title of the Algorithm
Declaration : A brief description of the algorithm

Body : Sequence of Steps
Terminator : An End Statement
Control structures
A structure is a basic unit of programming logic. A structure can be a sequence, a

selection or a loop (that is a repetition). The body of the algorithm consists of various
structures such as:
Sequential Structures
1. Input statements:
 Get
 Read
 Accept
2. Output statements:
 Print
 Display
 Output
3. Processing statements that involves calculations:

 Sum
 Average
 Product
4. Initialised variables
 Count = 0
 Minimum = 0
Arithmetic signs in Pseudocode
Add: + More than: >
Subtract: - Less than: <
Multiply: * More than or equal to: >=
Divide: / Less than or equal to: <=
Equal:  Not Equal to: <>

Now that we learn the basics of writing a simple algorithm, let‟s move on to writing a
pseudocode.

Problem 1: Calculate the average of three numbers.
Problem 2: Read the Perimeter of a square.
Start
Prompt „Please enter length of square‟
Read Length
Perimeter  Length*4
Print „The perimeter of a square is‟ Perimeter
Stop.
Exercise:
1. Write an algorithm to display „My name is Carlos‟
2. Calculate the area of a right-angle triangle
3. Input the price of a textbook. Calculate and print the total cost of the book after
VAT 15% is added.
4. Enter the length and width of a pool and calculate and print the length of the
rope needed to cord off the pool.
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Problem 3: Each play station III has a tax of 10% added to its cost. Calculate its final
price.
Start
Prompt „Please enter Cost of Play station‟
Read Cost
Final_Price  0.10*Cost
Print „The final price of the play station is‟ Final_Price
Stop.
If you noticed in the problem above, one of the storage location was supposedly named
final price. However, when assessing a name to a variable and it consist of more than
one words in the name, then you could use a Hyphen, underscore, or no space to
connect the words. Note there must not be any space between the variable name.
Example: FinalPrice OR Final-price OR final_price. Note capital letters are not always
necessary.
Exercise:
1. Write the instructions to find the new price of a bicycle after 5% discount has been
made.
2. A carpenter is paid a contract Fee of $4000.00 for 3 days of work. He hires 2

workers who work for the 3 days at $180.00 each day. Calculate and print the
amount of money paid to each worker, the total amount paid to all workers and the
amount the carpenter is left with.
3. John Mathews is paid $14.00 an hour during a fortnight, plus he also worked ten
hours overnight at the rate of time and a half. Design an algorithm to display the
employee‟s name and his basic wage.
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Comparison/Selections/Decision Statements
Sometimes when processing data, you may need to compare a value of one variable
with that of another variable/constant.
The following Relational operators are used to make such comparisons:
A condition is an expression evaluated to make such comparisons resulting in either

TRUE or FALSE. Such an expression is called a Boolean expression.
The IF-THEN Construct
The IF-THEN construct contains a condition which is tested before an action is to be

taken. If the condition is true, then the action is taken. Otherwise, the instructions
statements between IF-THEN and ENDIF are ignored.
Syntax:
IF <condition> THEN
<Action to be taken if condition is

true>
Example #1
A company gives out rewards based on the number of cars each employee sold. If 5
cars or more cars are sold, then the employee is rewarded 5% of the total cost of the 5
cars. Read and print the amount of reward would that employee receive.
Start
Prompt „Please enter number of cars sold‟
Accept No_of_Cars
IF No_of_Cars >= 5 THEN
Reward = Total_Cost*0.05
Print „The amount of reward received is‟ Reward
ENDIF
Stop.
In example 1, it was asked to read and print the amount of reward the employee would
receive. In the pseudocode for example one, the amount of reward will only be printed
if 5 cars were sold. Let us look at another example.

A company gives out rewards based on the number of cars each employee sold. If 5
cars or more cars are sold, then the employee is rewarded 5% of the total cost of the 5
cars. Read and print the reward.
Start
Prompt „Please enter number of cars sold‟
Accept No_of_Cars
IF No_of_Cars >= 5 THEN
Reward = Total_Cost*0.05
ENDIF
Print „The amount of reward received is‟ Reward
Stop.
In the second example, because the print statement is outside of the IF-THEN
construct, the reward will be printed whether the person is qualified or not. But we
want the reward to only be printed if the person is qualified, therefore example #2 is
incorrect.
IF-THEN-ELSE Construct
The IF-THEN-ELSE construct contains two parts: the THEN part and the ELSE part.
When the condition is tested, if holds true, the THEN part will be executed. If the
condition tested holds false, the ELSE part would be executed.
Syntax:
IF <condition> THEN
<Action to be taken if condition is TRUE>
ELSE
<Action to be taken if condition is FALSE>
ENDIF
For example:
A carpenter‟s fee is calculated as a percentage of the cost of a building. The fee is

made up as follows: 8% of the first $7000 of the cost of the building and 3% on the
remainder if the remainder is less than or equal to 80,000 OR 2.5% on the remainder,
if the remainder is more than 80,000. Design an algorithm to read the cost of the
building and calculate the carpenter‟s fee.

Start
Prompt „Please enter the cost of the building‟
Accept Cost_of_Building
Part_One  0.08*7000
Remainder  Cost_of_Building-7000
IF Remainder <= 80000 THEN
Part_Two = 0.03*Remainder
ELSE
IF Remainder >= 80000 THEN
Part_Two = 0.25*Remainder
ENDIF
Carpenter_Fee  Part_One + Part_Two
Print „The carpenter fee is‟ Carpenter_Fee
Stop.
Stop.
Boolean Operators
When a selection is based upon more than one decision/expression being TRUE or
FALSE. You may find the need to combine the expression using the Boolean
Operators: „AND‟ or „OR‟.
The AND Operator is used when BOTH the conditions must be met
For example:
Read the day and weather and output „Game on‟ if the weather is Sunny and the day
is Sunday.
Start
Prompt „Please enter the Day and The Weather‟
Accept Day, Weather
IF Day = Sunday AND Weather = Sunny THEN
Print „Game On‟
Stop.

The OR Operator is used when one of the two conditions must be met.
For example:
Read weather and output „Game on‟ if the weather is sunny, or „Play suspended‟ if the
weather is Cloudy or Rainy.
Start
Prompt „Please enter The Weather‟
Accept Weather
IF Weather = Sunny THEN
Print „Game On‟
ELSE
IF Weather = Cloudy OR Rainy THEN
Print „Play Suspended‟
Stop.
Nested Selections
If statements embedded one within another, they are said to be nested. For every IF-
then statement, there must be an ENDIF.
Syntax:
Syntax:
IF <condition 1> THEN
<Action to be taken if condition 1 is met>
ELSE
ELSE
ELSE
<Action to be taken if conditions 1 to 3 are not met>
ENDIF
ENDIF
ENDIF
Example:
A company gives bonuses based on the amount of income generation by their sales
representatives per month. Once the income is greater than $15,000.00 then a bonus
of 10% is given. If the income is greater than 8,000 but less than or equal to 10,000,
then a bonus of 8% is given. If the income generated is greater than 5,000 but less
than 8,000 then a bonus of 5% is given. If the income generated is less than or equal
to 5,000 then a bonus of 2.5% is given. Read the income generated and print the
bonus.
Start
Prompt „Please enter the income generated‟
Read Income_Generated
IF (Income_Generated > 15,000) THEN
Bonus = Income_Generated * 0.10
ELSE
IF (Income_Generated > 8,000) AND (Income_Generated <= 10,000) THEN
ELSE
IF (Income_Generated > 5,000) AND (Income_Generated <= 8,000) THEN
ELSE
If Income_Generated <= 5,000) THEN
ENDIF
ENDIF
ENDIF
Print „The bonus given is‟ Bonus
Stop.
Exercise:
1. A video club rents videos for three days. Design an algorithm to read the present
date and the date borrowed. Calculate the number of days borrowed. If the number
of days borrowed exceeds three days, compute and display the number of days
overdue and the overdue charge which is calculated at a rate of $1.50 for every day
overdue.
2. Read N, if N is greater than 100 then subtract 50 from N, otherwise multiply N by 3.
3. Design an algorithm to read the name of the student and the value of the student‟s
mark. Print the name of the student and the value of the student mark. Print the
name of the student and an appropriate grade based on the following grading
scheme: 80 or more = A, Less than 80 but more than or equal to 65 = B, Less than
or equal to 65 but more than or equal to 50 = C, Less than or equal to 50 but more
than or equal to 35 =D, Less than 35 = F.

4. Write an algorithm to read the number of days a person has been using a demo and
display the message “Time Up” if the number of days exceeds 12.
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Working with Constants
Create an algorithm that would input your old monthly salary and print your new
yearly salary if there is an increase by 5%. If your yearly salary is less than or equal to
60,000 then tax rate is equal to zero otherwise calculate the tax for 2016 if the tax rate
is 20% on your taxable income. Print the tax for 2016.
Start
Tax-rate=0.2
Prompt „Please enter old monthly salary‟
Read Old-Monthly-Salary
New-Yearly-Salary  (Old-Monthly-Salary*1.05) *12
Print „New yearly salary is‟ New-Yearly-Salary
If (New-Yearly-Salary <= 60000) then
Tax2016=0
Else
Tax2016= ((New-Yearly-Salary - 60000) * Tax-rate
ENDIF
Print „Tax for 2016 is‟ Tax2016
Stop.

Repeat Statements/Looping/Counting/Iterations
It is often necessary to repeat certain parts of a program a number of times. We can do

this be using Looping Structures.
But before we can look at the various loops, we must look at the Counting.
Counting
In counting, we basically initialise the variable by assigning a value to the Variable. It

is usually set at 0, which is often but not always. The name of the Counter Variable
will reflect what is being counted. For example:
Looping Structures
When a group of statements or instructions being repeated, it is called a loop. There

are two types of Loops:
Finite loop
Finite loop is a loop where the number of time groups of instructions/statements to be

repeated is known.
The FOR Loop

The FOR loop is a finite loop. In this construct the loop is controlled by a counter
which increases each time the set of instructions is executed. This construct is used
when the number of times a set of instructions to be repeated is KNOWN.
Syntax:
FOR <variable> = <Beginning value> TO <Ending value>
DO
<Action to be repeated>
Example:
A car rental rents 5 cars in one day. Read the number of days for the rental of each
car and calculate the total rent paid to the firm if a car is rented for $350.00. Print the
total rent paid to the rental firm.
Start
Total_Rent = 0
FOR Count = 1 TO 5 DO
Prompt „Please enter the number of days for rent‟
Read Num_of_days
Rent  Num_of_days*350
Total_Rent  Total_Rent + Rent
ENDFOR
Print „Total rent paid for the rental firm‟ Total_Rent
Stop.
Indefinite Loop
Indefinite Loop is a loop in which the number of time groups of

instructions/statements to be repeated is UNKNOWN.
Iteration means to repeat a set of instructions over and over. However, it can only be
end with a sentinel value. A value of such must not be one of the values in the list that
must be processed. If the user inputs such a value, then and only then the loop will be
terminated.
Example: Using a Sentinel value:

While Students_Age <>986 Do
Num_of_students  Num_of_students+1
Prompt „Please enter Students Age‟
Read Students_Age
End While
In the pseudocode, above it could be seen that a sentinel value is 986, as no student
could be of that age.
The While Loop
The program fragment above shows an example of how the while loop is structured.
In the WHILE construct the computer executes a number of instructions repeatedly for
as long as the given statements to be repeated is proven true.
The statements BEFORE the WHILE loop are carried out only ONCE. The while loop is
executed until the condition becomes false, which forces the loop to stop. The
statements AFTER the ENDWHILE are carried out ONLY once.
If the statements within WHILE and ENDWHILE is tested and is false, then the
computer will only run the statement before While and continues with the statements
after ENDWHILE, skipping those within WHILE and ENDWHILE.
Syntax:
While <Condition is true>Do
<Action to be Taken>
End While
Truth Tables
Taken from May/June 2011 paper 2.
The following are some rules for passing a course:
- Passed both tests: Award Grade P

- Passed any one test only: Award Grade R
- Failed both Tests: Award Grade F
a) Copy and complete the following tale in your answer booklet:

Passed Test 1? Pasted Test 2? Result
Y Y
Y N
N Y
N N
(4
marks)
b) State the two Boolean Values that are used to rest the rules in part (a).
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(1
mark)
c) Write pseudocode to represent the rule that states if both test are passed then
award grade P. (5
marks)
Flow charts
This is another type of algorithm that uses geometrical symbols to designate the basic
steps of a program which are: input, output, processing.
Start/stop input/output Processing decision
Below are some examples of how the various control structures are depicted in
flowcharts.
Sequence
Selection/Decision

Loop/Repetition
Below is a simple flow chart outline of the average problem.

Problem 2
Design an algorithm that would accept two values, the hourly rate and the number of
hours worked by an employee. If the number of hours exceeds 40, then the excess
hours should be paid at an overtime rate of twice the hourly rate. Calculate the wages
(including overtime if any) due to the employee.

Module 3
Program Implementation
In this chapter, student should have an understanding of how to convert algorithms to

programs using structured programming techniques. They must be able to:
 Distinguish between low-level and high- level programming languages

 Distinguish among the different generations of programming languages
 List the sequence of steps associated with implementing a program
 Declare elementary data types
 Declare variables and constants
 Reading from and writing to variables, arithmetic operations.
 Use control structures;
 Manipulate data in a list
 Perform checks and tests on programs to verify correctness;
 Write documented programs

So far we have only done pseudocode, which resembles the programming language,
but is not the real programming language. Now, we are going to use pseudocodes as
out guide and translate it into pascal.
First let us look at the structure of a pascal program
A pascal program has three distinct parts:
 The program heading

 The program block
 The program terminator (a period „.‟)
The Program Heading
This is a single statement beginning with the word program. The heading assigns a
name to the program and lists the inputs and output statements in parenthesis.
Example: Program Average (input/output);
The Program Block
This is the body of the program. It consists of the pascal statement for executing the
program. It is made up of two parts:
1. The Variable Declaration section: this is where all the variables and data
structures used by the program are defined.
2. The Statement Section: this is where the action statements of the program are
specified. these are found between the words „BEGIN‟ and „END‟.
Keywords are reserved words with a special meaning attached to it in Pascal and are
used in predefined contexts, meaning they cannot be used as variables. Some
keywords in Pascal, that one should always use are:
Program, type, VAR, CONST, Begin, End, Writeln, Readln.
Declaring Variables in Pascal
Variables must always be declared in the variable declaration section prior to their use
in the program. Variables are declared in Pascal by specifying the keyword VAR,
followed by a list of variables, a colon, data type and semi-colon.
For example:
Var
Num1: integer;
AVG: real;

Data Types
Data Type Keyword Values stored
Positive and Negative Whole numbers

Integer integer
and 0
Real real Decimals, whole numbers
*Non-standard
Character char A single letter or character
String string* Words
Boolean boolean TRUE, FALSE, YES, NO
Pascal is referred to as a strongly types language because it requires that a variable

can only store values of one type. Meaning that a variable must only be declared with
a single data type. That is only values of that data type can be stored.
Now that we went through the basics, let us now translate pseudocode into pascal.
Example #1
In Pseudocode:
Algorithm Area_of_Square
{This algorithm will calculate the area of a square}
Start
Prompt ‘Please enter Length of Square’
Accept Length
Area  length*length
Print ‘The area of a square is’ Area
Stop.
In Pascal:

Program Area_of_Square (Input/output);
{This program will calculate the area of a square}
Var
Length, Area: real;
Begin
Writeln (‘Please enter Length of Square’);
Readln (Length);
Area:=(length*length);
Writeln (‘The area of a square is’);
Writeln (Area);
End.
Example #2
Algorithm Average (Input/output);

{This algorithm will calculate the average of three numbers}
Start
Prompt ‘Please enter Num1, Num2, Num3
Sum  Num1+Num2+Num3
Avg  Sum/3
Print ‘The average of three numbers is' Avg
Stop.

So basically, the steps in implementing a program are:
1. Create source code
2. Compile
3. Linking
4. Executing
5. Maintain program
Exercise:
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Translating programs when using:
IF-THEN structure
Refer to question 1, pg. 84

The IF-THEN-ELSE Structure

The FOR loop:

The WHILE loop:
The Repeat Loop
Unlike for and while loops, which test the loop condition at the top of the loop, the
repeat…until loop in Pascal checks its condition at the bottom of the loop.
A repeat ... until loop is similar to a while loop, except that a repeat ... until loop is
guaranteed to execute at least one time.
Syntax:
Repeat
(statements…)
until condition = (proven to be true)
The conditional expression appears at the end of the loop, so the statement(s) in the
loop execute once before the condition is tested.
If the condition is false, the flow of control jumps back up to repeat, and the
statement(s) in the loop execute again. This process repeats until the given condition
becomes true.

Example:
Exercise:
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Manipulate Data in A List using Arrays
Pascal programming language provides a data structure called the array, which can
store a fixed-size sequential collection of elements of the same data type.
An array is used to store a collection of data, but it is often more useful to think of an
array as a collection of variables of the same type.
An array, once declared, the size that is specified by the programmer will remain the
same throughout the whole program and cannot be changed.
Structure of an Array:
An array data structure defines the size of the array and the data type that it will use
for storing data. It can be from 1 to 50, or even from 1 to 1000, This size depends on
your program requirements.
Past CSEC questions

(A) State the name of the program. (1 mark)
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(B) State the name of the array (1 mark)
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(C) State the size of the array (1 mark)
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(D) State the purpose of the array (2 marks)
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Question #2
(A) State the name of the program. (1 mark)
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(B) State the name of the array (1 mark)
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(C) State the size of the array (1 mark)
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(D) State the output when the program is executed (2 marks)
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Question #3
An array named OMEGA is used to store values of three integers. Write pascal code for
EACH of the following:
(A) Declare the array name OMEGA (4 marks)
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(B) Assign the values 5 and 10 to the first and the second locations of the array
respectively. (Use two pascal statements). (4 marks)
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(C) Add the values in the first and the second locations of the array and store the sum
in the third location of the array. (2 marks)
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Searching an Array
Variable declaration
Looking at the description of the program tells you that you will need need several
variables:
 An array {this can be of any data type}

 A search term {this must be of the same data type as the array}
 A yes/no result {will use a char variable to store the letters „Y‟ and „N‟}
 The counter variable {i, so that there can be a counter-controlled loop in the
program}

Example:
Search the array
This is the section of the program that searches the array:
Code Purpose
In this line, the search result variable is initialised.
The initial value is „N‟. This is to show that the search
term has not yet been found in the array.
A for loop is used to go through each element in the
array. The number of iterations is the same as the
number of elements in the array. The next two lines
are within the FOR loop.
A conditional IF statement is used to test whether
each element in the array matches the search term.
If the element matches the search term, then the
value Y is assigned to the variable ,
meaning the term has been found.
Past CSEC question
CONTENTS B A C T
INDEX 1 2 3 4
(A) State the size of the array (1 mark)

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(B) Write the order of the index numbers that would output the letters CAT (3 marks)
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(C) Write the fragment of code to search the array for the letter C and return the index
location (5 marks)
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(D) Write a fragment of code to write the letter Z into Each cell of the array (4 marks)
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Testing and Debugging
Testing for errors using the trace table:
Checking the algorithm to see if it works is a very important step in the problem-
solving process. This must always be done before the program is translated into a
programming language.
Steps in tracing the algorithm
1. Choose a simple input test cases which are valid. Two or three tests cases are
usually sufficient.
2. Establish what the expected result should be before for each test case. That is
do a manual solution beforehand.
3. Create a table for all the variable used in the algorithm.
4. Walk the first test case through the algorithm, keeping a step by step record of
the content of each variable in the table as the data passes through the logic
until the algorithm reaches its logical end.
5. Check that the expected result established in step 2 matches that actual result
developed in step 4.
6. Repeat the process using a different set of variables.
Example:
Runs 46, 18, 50, 9, 0, 1
1 Total-runs = 0
2 Count = 0
3 While Count <= 6 Do
a Read runs
b Total-runs  Total-runs+1
c Count Count+1
4 ENDWHILE
5 Average-runs  Total-runs/runs
6 Print Average-runs
7 Stop.

Instruction
In Count runs Total-runs Average-runs Output
Execution
1
2
3a
3b
3c
3a
3b
3c
3a
3b
3c
3a
3b
3c
3a
3b
3c
3a
3b
3c
5
6

Complete manual solution here
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Debugging and Errors
When you write a program you always begin with a description (the declaration
statement) of what you want the program to do. This is called program specification.
Anything that prevents the program from working to the specification is an error.
Types of errors
Syntax Errors
This is the name for the rules of a computer programming language. Rules include the
spelling and usage of key words, the use of punctuation such as semi-colons etc.
The complier can only work if your program obeys the syntax of pascal. If you make a
mistake in the syntax, then the program will not compile. Some compliers will give you
helpful message as to where the error is.
Run-time Errors
Even if the program complies successfully, it could still have errors in it, which you
can only spot once you run the program. Example: Forgetting to end a loop, or
dividing by Zero.
Logical Errors
Some programs may compile and run successfully, but it could still have errors, giving
you the wrong result. Example using the less than instead of more than or vice versa,
or using addition instead of subtraction. The program will still compile and run but it
would give you the wrong result.
Testing will help you to find these errors easily as they are usually difficult to find.
Debugging

The process of locating and correcting errors is called debugging.
Testing
This is a rigorous process which is used to discover any hidden problem in the code
for the problem.
Dry run test: this is the basic use of the trace table, when testing for errors in an
algorithm.
Testing and Debugging Techniques
Using test data is a good technique in testing for errors in a program. Test data is
basically pretend data rather than real data.
The first basic testing is to make sure that the program works using normal or
realistic data. Data that is similar to that of the real data.
The second testing is to use extreme data, example very small numbers or very large
numbers. At this point of testing, you will discover whether or not your program goes
wrong when unusual data are entered.
And lastly the use of mistaken data: for example, if a user mistakes and enter the
letter „O‟ instead of the number Zero „0‟ or accidently type in a negative number, then
what will happen. Testing will help you to find out!
Internal and External Documentation
Since pascal compliers only reads the word and punctuation of the program you have
written and doesn‟t pay attention to the layout and use of capital letters, it is
important that one must a program with the proper layout and other features, since it
may benefit:
You, as you can check your own work and be able to locate errors more quickly
Other people, so they can understand what you have done.
In later days, you will remember how the program works
You can use:
 Identifiers: for example, in a variable payrate, you can use capital letters to
show the beginning of a new word: PayRate.
 Comments: these can be in enclose curly brackets like that of your declaration
statement. The pascal complier usually ignored the statements within these
brackets.

 Indentation: a program will still work without indentation, however, it is
conventional that any instructions within a loop or conditional structures are to
be indented, as it will help you to read the program better.
 Spacing: the use of spaces makes your program much clearer and will help you
avoid errors. Spaces between different words is a good practise. If your output
line includes quote words, then a good idea is to include a space before and
after words. For example,
External documentation
Along with internal documentation, there is external documentation whereby the

programming team will create documents such as a manual to help the user
understand the program better. Types of external documentation:
1. A technical manual: deals with the way the program works, the structure, and
the programming methods, they ae mainly design for other programmers to
help maintain them.
2. A user manual: mainly for the user and it explains how the program works, the
ways in which the program can benefit you, menu choices, etc.
Five Generations of Programming Languages
First generation
The machine code: instructions stored in some computers use a binary code system
(0‟s and 1‟s), while other may use hexadecimal. This machine code is what the earliest
programmers used to program and carrying out specific tasks on a computer.
Example for the Intel 64 architecture:
89 F8 A9 01 00 00 00 75 06 6B C0
03 FF C0 C3 C1 E0 02 83 E8 03 C3
Second generation
Assembly language: is a low-level programming language for a computer or other

programmable device specific to a particular computer architecture in contrast to
most high-level programming languages, which are generally portable across
multiple systems. Assembly language is converted into executable machine code
by a utility program referred to as an assembler
Example:

Third Generation:
A third-generation programming language (3GL) is a generational way to categorize

high-level computer programming languages. It makes use of constants and variables
and can be adapted for a wide range of purposes. Example of such a language is
Pascal, C, Lisp, and Cobol.
Fourth Generation
SQL (pronounced "ss-que-el") stands for Structured Query Language:
SQL is the standard language for relational database management systems. SQL
statements are used to perform tasks such as update data on a database, or retrieve
data from a database. Some common relational database management systems that
use SQL are: Oracle, Sybase, Microsoft SQL Server, Access, Ingres, etc. SPSS
(Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) for doing statistical maths.
Fifth Generation:
Object-oriented: based around handling data objects that correspond to actual object
in the real world, example a payroll program. Simula was the first object-oriented
programming language. Java, Python, C++, Visual Basic .NET and Ruby are the most
popular Object Orientated Programming languages today. The Java programming
language is designed especially for use in distributed applications on corporate
networks and the Internet.

The diagram above shows an object-oriented language: Python
Module 4
Applications and Implications of Information and Communications Technology
On completion of this Section, students should develop an awareness of:
1. The use of the computer and the implications of that use;
2. Trends in Internet and Communications Technology;
3. Careers in the field of Information Technology.

Internet and Communications Technology
Data communication
Data communication can be broadly described as the transmission of data from one
location to another for direct use or further processing.
Data communication systems may be set up to transfer data from one location to
another, it may be in a small environment, regionally or globally.
Factors that would determine data communication:
Transmission modes
This is the direction in which data flows. Data flow can be classified into three
categories:
1. Simplex: data is flowed in one direction only. For example: a television can
receive programs but cannot send messages.
2. Half-duplex: data is flowed in both direction but one at a time. Example,

Bluetooth or a walkie-talkie.

3. Duplex: data is flowed in both directions. Example: your computer connected to
the internet, can send and receive messages.
Transmission media
This can either be cable or wire-less.
Coaxial Cable: this type of cable is made of an inner conducting cable, surrounded by
insulation. It is more expensive than twisted pair, but provides better insulation
against electrical interference.
Twisted-Pair: this type of cable is made up of pairs of wires. In each pair, the wires are
twisted around each other. This type of cabling has been used for many years. It is
relatively inexpensive and reliable.
Fibre-Optic: this cable sends signals in the form of light pulses. It provides a reliable
modern alternative to copper cables.

Wireless media
1. Satellite: a communication satellite accepts data signals beamed to it from a

point on the earth and then reflects the signal to another point. For example: a
satellite can be used to capture a live event from one location of the earth and
reflect it back to the TV station.
2. Wireless Network Technology: (Bluetooth, Wi-Fi): Bluetooth is a global wireless

communication standard that connects devices together over a certain distance.
Think headset and phone, speaker and PC, smartphone to smartphone and
more. It is built into billions of products on the market today and connects the
Internet of Things. WIFI a facility allowing computers, smartphones, or other
devices to connect to the Internet or communicate with one another wirelessly
within a particular area.
3. Microwave Links: these signals are high frequency radio signals that can be
transmitted through space.
4. Infra-red: IR wireless is used for short and medium-range communications and

control. Some systems operate in line-of-sight mode; this means that there
must be a visually unobstructed straight line through space between the
transmitter (source) and receiver (destination). An example is a television
remote.
5. Hotspot: is a physical location where people may obtain Internet access,

typically using Wi-Fi technology, via a wireless local area network (WLAN) using
a router connected to an internet service provider. Public hotspots may be

found in a number of businesses for use of customers in many developed urban
areas throughout the world, such as coffee shops. Many hotels offer WIFI
access to guests, either in guest rooms or in the lobby.
6. Modem: a standard telephone line can only transmit analogue data, whereas
data emitted from a computer is in digital form. A modem (short for Modulator
Demodulator) is a device used to convert the digital data to analogue and
analogue back to digital.
7. Bandwidth
8. Point-to-point: In telecommunications, a point-to-point connection refers to a

communications connection between two nodes. An example is a telephone call,
in which one telephone is connected with one other, and what is said by one
caller can only be heard by the other.
9. Broadcasting: is the distribution of audio and/or video content or other

messages to a dispersed audience via any electronic mass communications
medium, but typically one using the electromagnetic spectrum (radio waves), in
a one-to-many model
Transmission channels
Data communication can also be determined by the channels of communication or

Bandwidth. Bandwidth is the amount of data that can be sent via a connection. There
are three channels of communication:

Narrowband Channel: which has now become obsolete, for example the telegraph
system. This channel transfer data is slow speed of between 10 t0 30 cps (characters
per second).
Voiceband Channel: transfer data at a faster speed at the rate of about 1000 to 8000
cps. A telephone line is one of such.
Broadband Channel: can transfer larger volumes of data at speeds of over 100, 000
cps. Transmission media such as cables, microwave links, satellites are commonly
used to provide these channels. It is mainly used to transfer text, voice, pictures and
videos.
Transmission Speed
It is the rate at which data can be transferred over the Measured in bits per second
(bps).
Network
What is a network?
A computer network is any system that allows computers to send signals to other
computers in electronic form. The signals are sent in a variety of different ways, and a
range different technologies are used.
Types of Networks:
Local Area Network (LAN): connects computer within the same building, or at most
within buildings that are close together (for example, a school) to share peripherals,
files and programs.
Each computer in the network can function as an independent PC, running its own
software or as a workstation on the network accessing information from the network
server.
The Network Server runs the networking software that allow computers to share
resources with other computers on the network.
Before a PC can become part of a network, especially a LAN, it must be fitted with a
Network Interface Card (NIC). This card fits into an expansion slot in the motherboard
of the computer and enables the computers on a network to send and receive
messages. The card has an external outlet into which one end of the network is
plugged. The other end of the cable plugs into a connected based on the configuration
of a network.
Advantages of LAN

 Hardware such as the printer can be shared.
 Storage facilities can be shared
 Software and data files can be shared by many users
 Usually cheaper to buy one copy of a software and pay the license fee for several
machines than to buy individual packages for each computer
 Users can work together on a single document
 Users can communicate via email
Disadvantages of LAN
 The initial set-up cost is expensive

 There is an increased risk with the corruption of data
 Networks can be difficult to maintain and may requires a network manager
 There is a greater risk for virus
LAN Topologies
A network topology is the pattern in which nodes (i.e. computers, printers, routers or
other devices) are connected to a local area network (LAN) via various transmission
media. Computers in LAN can be connected in a Star, Bus/Line, or Ring and Mesh.
Star Topology
This is the most popular network topology in businesses today. It consists of nodes
connected to a central switch or hub. A hub is a hardware device to which a number
of computers can be connected.
This means that each computer has its own connection to the network and that if
there is a break in the cable, other computers will not be affected, however if the HUB
breaks down then the entire network is affected and will not work. If you have a home
network, you are probably using the star topology.
The Star Network although more expensive to install than the other types, is much
quicker and easier to use.

Advantages of Star Topology
Adding a new device is easy

If a node stop working, then the network is not affected
If one piece of cable is damaged, then only one computer would be affected
Disadvantages of Star Topology
It requires more cabling

If the HUB malfunctions, then the entire network is affected and will not work
Only one computer can send data at a particular time
The Line/Bus Topology
Bus topology is a specific kind of network topology in which each computer and
network device are connected to a single cable or backbone.
In this way, a single cable wire is utilized in connecting all the computers than
individual cable wired for all the computers. This makes the topology cost effective as
well. But when there is an error in one of the functioning devices due to the presence
of a single mother cable, it is difficult to find out which computer is malfunctioning.
The following sections contain both the advantages and disadvantages of using a bus
topology with your devices.
Advantages of Bus Topology
It works well when you have a small network.

Easiest network topology for connecting computers or peripherals in a linear
fashion.
Requires less cable length than a star topology.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology

Difficult to identify the problems if the whole network goes down.
It can be hard to troubleshoot individual device issues.
Not great for large networks.
Terminators are required for both ends of the main cable.
Additional devices slow the network down.
If a main cable is damaged, the network fails or splits into two.
Ring Topology
A ring network is a network topology or is a computer network configuration where

the devices are connected to each other in a circular shape. Data travels from node to
node in packets. Each packet of data is sent around the ring until it reaches its final
destination. Ring topologies are used in both local area network (LAN) and wide area
network (WAN) setups. It is alternatively referred to as a ring network,
In the past, the ring topology was most commonly used in schools, offices, and smaller
buildings where networks were smaller. However, today, the ring topology is seldom
used, having been switched to another type of network topology for improved
performance, stability, or support.
Advantages of ring topology
All data flows in one direction, reducing the chance of packet collisions.
A network server is not needed to control network connectivity between each

workstation.
Data can transfer between workstations at high speeds.

Additional workstations can be added without impacting performance of the
network.
Disadvantages of ring topology
All data being transferred over the network must pass through each
workstation on the network, which can make it slower than a star topology.

The entire network will be impacted if one workstation shuts down.
The hardware needed to connect each workstation to the network.
Another type of LAN Network Topology is the Mesh Topology.
It is a network setup where each computer and network device is interconnected with
one another, allowing for most transmissions to be distributed, even if one of the
connections go down. This topology is not commonly used for most computer networks
as it is difficult and expensive to have redundant connection to every computer.
However, this topology is commonly used for wireless networks.
Wide Area Network (WAN)
WAN connects computers that are spread out over a large area such as an island, the
whole Caribbean, or even across the ocean.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
MAN, is slightly less common. It might connect the computers in a large city or
district.
Internet
The internet is a network or network that connects computers worldwide via a huge
set of telecommunication links. The individual networks may be owned by any
organisations or private individuals.
The internet is not owned by anyone or does not have a central authority. Yes, there
are organisations that develop technical aspects and set standards for creating
applications on it, but no one governing body or government is in control.
Advantages of the Internet
 Vast volumes of information are available virtually on any topic

 Information can be updated regularly
 Much of the information is free
 It allows people to communicate, example using email
 You can do just about anything on the internet
 It is easily accessible
Disadvantages of the internet
 Lots of incorrect information; no accuracy of documents on the internet

 It can be difficult to find exactly what you are looking for.
 Computer viruses can easily be download without the user realising.
 Undesirable websites such as pornography, racist propaganda
 Hackers
Terms and concepts relating to the internet:
Electronic mail (e-mail): messages distributed by electronic means from one

computer user to one or more recipients via a network. It is faster than original
mail as it reaches the receiver within seconds and for you to be able to send an
email, an e-mail address is required.
Newsgroups: A newsgroup is an Internet-based discussion about a particular

topic. Users post messages to a news server which then sends them to a bunch
of other participating servers. Then other users can access the newsgroup and
read the postings. The groups can be either "moderated," where a person or
group decides which postings will become part of the discussion, or
"unmoderated," where everything posted is included in the discussion. To
participate in a newsgroup, you must subscribe to it.
Internet Relay Chat (IRC): enables people connected anywhere on the Internet to
join in live discussions. Unlike older chat systems, IRC is not limited to just two
participants.
To join an IRC discussion, you need an IRC client and Internet access. The IRC
client is a program that runs on your computer and sends and receives
messages to and from an IRC server. The IRC server, in turn, is responsible for
making sure that all messages are broadcast to everyone participating in a
discussion. There can be many discussions going on at once; each one is
assigned a unique channel.
Telnet: a network protocol that allows a user on one computer to log into
another computer that is part of the same network. It is a user command and
an underlying protocol for accessing remote computers. Through Telnet, an
administrator or another user can access someone else's computer remotely.
On the Web, HTTPs and FTPs allow you to request specific files from remote
computers, but not to actually be logged on as a user of that computer. With
Telnet, you log on as a regular user with whatever privileges you may have been
granted to the specific application and data on that computer.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP): is the protocol used to allow computers to upload
and download files.
Upload: transfer of data from one computer to another, typically to one that is
larger, for example from your computer to the internet.

Download: copy of data from one computer system to another, typically over the
Internet.
World Wide Web (WWW): The World Wide Web, or simply Web, is a way of
accessing information over the medium of the Internet. It is an information-
sharing model that is built on top of the Internet.
Web browser:
HTTP
Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML/XHTML):
Web Page
Website
Blogging
Webserver
URL
E-Commerce
E-Learning
HTTP: is the protocol used to allow computers to share web pages, it controls
the communications between computers.
Pod-casting
Bulletin board:
VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol): is a protocol that allows you, to send phone
messages over the internet instead of phone lines.
Intranet
Extranet
Measures to secure data and maintain data integrity
Software Restrictions:
Passwords
Encryption
Virus protection (Antivirus software)
Firewall

Physical access restrictions:
Biometric Systems
Guards
Locks
Fire/Water Proof Cabinets
Archiving
Backup and Recovery Procedures
Propriety Data and Software
Applications and Implications

With computer communications, we are able to share all sorts of information with our
friends and people around the world. This is an advantage to us but it also brings
risks to our privacy and the security of our information.
Ways in which information can be misused
The Internet is not only used by innocent members of the public, but also by
fraudulent traders, software pirates, hackers and con-artists, to name but a few.
Here are a few ways in which information can be misused:
1. Violation of privacy – Users have passwords to keep their data private and secure
it from being stolen or modified. Computer Hackers use software to decipher
codes and passwords to gain unauthorised access to computer systems for their
own illegal purposes.
This violation of privacy resulted in the creation of the Computer Misuse Act of
1990, where users if found guilty were punishable by fines or imprisonment.

There are three levels of hacking:
 Viewing another user's information without

permission - this includes accessing someone's
files or email or accessing their personal
information without their knowledge or permission.
 Using accessed information for illegal purposes the information that the
user has, is accessed by the hacker and used as blackmail or for unfair
advantage
 Altering accessed information for fraudulent purposes the hacker alters the
accessed information, such as changing figures on bank accounts or
deleting files
2. Propaganda – The use of computer systems to distribute information has

inevitably resulted in their use for spreading both beneficial and harmful
material. For example, an organisation can put out a biased viewpoint on purpose
to persuade people of a point of view.
3. Software piracy – This is a form of illegal copying. Some people make copies of
expensive computer software, and sell it illegally.
4. Computer fraud – Developments in computerised systems have contributed to a

growth in electronic transaction processing. This has led to a rise in computer-
based fraud. Computers can be used to commit fraud and swindle money from
people. This is a criminal activity where someone uses a computer to defraud an
individual or organisation of money or goods. Computer fraud can be difficult to
detect because the user committing the crime is very skilled and difficult to locate
since they are accessing the computer through the Internet from another user's
computer.
5. Electronic eavesdropping – this is the use of electronic devices to monitor

electronic communications between two or more groups without the permission of
any of the communicating parties.
6. Industrial espionage – This is spying on businesses. Information can be leaked

from various persons, such as, politicians, the military etc. The internet makes it
easy to share this information with people are over the world.
7. Surveillance – This is where users‟ activities on the computer is monitored and

observed secretly to detect any illegal activity they get involved in. That is, a user
can be illegally monitored to see when they perform an illegal activity. In other
words, computer surveillance involves the use of technology to gather information
from the user and from the computer, often without the user‟s knowledge.

Many times, this is authorized by governments, huge corporations, or influential
individuals. These surveillance programs are used widely and almost anything on
the Internet could potentially be monitored for proof of illegal activity.
8. Storage of inaccurate information – Even though the internet is a wonderful

resource of information, anyone can put up a website, displaying any type of
information on it. Just because something appears on a web page does not mean
that it is true or fair.
Incorrect information can be stored electronically; small mistakes can become

quite serious.
9. Identify theft – This is where a criminal pretends to be another person. By

stealing someone‟s identity the criminal might be able to take money from their
bank account.
It is advised to keep passwords and personal information a secret in order to

prevent identity theft.
10. Credit card fraud - In this form of identity theft, the criminal uses another
person‟s credit card to buy goods or borrow cash.
Appropriate hardware and software to meet particular need of a given application
In most cases hardware goes together with software – if you need a special piece of
hardware, you also need the software to run it.
 Business
The first applications of ICT within banking were the use of mainframes, and
later minicomputers, to process data such as customer accounts, bank
inventories, personnel records, and accounting packages.
Hardware: Computer, or an Automatic Teller Machine (ATM), Debit or Credit

Card
Machine; (Electronic Funds Transfer at the Point of Sale) system.
Software: Payment for goods or services by debit and credit cards through the
EFTPOS
 Industry

Many industries depend on computers to control processes. For example, a
furnace or a cold store will have to be kept at the right temperature.
Computerised systems can be used to monitor environments and industrial
systems.
More complex activities such as assembly and welding of parts can be carried
out by robots. In the past, people imagined that robots would be metal men. In
real life, they are simply moving machines that can carry out repetitive tasks
very quickly and precisely, without getting tired.
 Science
Scientists also makes use of computer monitoring. In experiments, it is often

important to keep track of conditions.
Accurate readings have to be taken regularly, over long periods of time. Rather
than a laboratory assistant taking readings, conditions can be monitored
directly by computerised sensors.
Some scientific study depends on exploration of dangerous or extreme places.

An example might be the lava field of a volcano, or an asteroid in space. Robot
monitors can go to places where it would be too dangerous or expensive to send
persons.
 Medicine
Most specialist systems are used in hospital. Here are some examples:
 CT scan – this is short for X-ray Computed Tomography. It uses computer
power to generate a three-dimensional image of the inside of the body by
merging multiple x-ray images.
 MRI scan – this is short for Magnetic Resonance Imaging. This uses
magnetism to produce a detailed image of body tissues that cannot be picked
up in X-rays.
 Expert systems – these are complex software models that use stored
information to provide answers to problems. In medicine this software is
sometimes used to help with diagnosis of illness.
 Law enforcement

Police force makes use of specialist input devices to record faces, fingerprints
and DNA. The software will then match these with electronic records, stored on
the computer system.
Electronic communications help police forces in different countries to share

information and co-ordinate their activities.
The police also make use of technology to monitor traffic. Scanning devices can
be used to read number plates automatically, and to measure the speed of cars.
 Music
Music editing systems allows users to record audio tracks and store them in the
computer‟s memory as digital audio. Then they can manipulate the music in
many different ways, such as
 edit the start time and duration of any sound
 fade into and out of a track
 manipulate tracks
 apply sound effects or filters
 normalise voices to ensure the right notes
 Gaming
Games makes use of specialist peripherals to give the player a more realistic
experience of the action of the game. Many recent games have hand-held
remote devices that detect movements in three dimensions [up-and-down, side-
to-side, forward-and-backward]. By holding this device, you can stimulate
action sports such as tennis.
4.7 Current and emerging technologies

 Expert systems: An expert system is a complex type of software used to answer
questions; a system that can process information into knowledge.
Typical expert systems are used for diagnostics. “Diagnostics” means finding
the cause of a problem.
The purpose of an expert system is to use a system of 'artificial intelligence' to
replace one or more people with the expertise of knowledge in a particular
area.

For example, patients would use a touch screen to answer questions on
symptoms. Based on responses, the system could use the database of diseases
and symptoms, and the list of rules on the various symptoms and responses to
produce one or more possible diagnoses for the doctor to consider.
Expert systems are also used to diagnose problems in car servicing and
computer maintenance.
 Robots: A robot is a mechanical but virtual intelligent machine that can

repeatedly perform tasks automatically or by remote control.
Robots are used in factories where repetitive tasks must be carried out. Robots
work quickly and accurately. They use sensors to measure their environment
and computer-controlled motors to make actions.
 CADD: Computer-Aided Design and Drafting: This is the use of special

computer software to design products including jewellery, vehicles, ships,
parts, architectural designs and prosthetics. CADD is also used to produce
computer animation for special effects in movies.
 CAE: Computer-Aided Engineering: This is the use of computer software to

simulate performance in order to improve product designs or assist in the
resolution of engineering problems for a wide range of industries.
It is much cheaper to test out designs on computer rather than real life. For
example, a new bridge design will be planned and thoroughly tested on the
computer system before the design is approved to build a real bridge.
 CAM: Acronym for computer-aided manufacturing. The use of computers to

control the machines and tools in the manufacturing process. Often CADD and
CAM go together, so you can design an object on the screen of the computer,

and then send the instructions to a machine that will cut the object from a
piece of metal.
 CAL: Computer-Aided Learning: CAL focuses on teaching at a distance in an

anywhere anytime environment. CAL is also used to provide simulations of
training for real or dangerous situations. Examples of CAL include virtual
classrooms and Flight Simulator for the space program or to fly an airline.
 Telemarketing: The employment of telephone lines and computers to market

products and manage accounts.
 Teleconferencing: This is a way of holding a meeting amongst people who are in

different locations, they might even be in different countries. The people speak
over a joint phone link.
Teleconferences can save a lot of time and money because people do not have
to travel much.
 Cloud computing: In the simplest terms, cloud computing means storing and
accessing data and programs over the Internet instead of your computer's hard
drive. The cloud is just a metaphor for the Internet.
An example of a cloud computing software application in Google Docs.

 Wearable technology: Wearable technology is clothing that has computer
systems built into it. It could be used for serious purpose – for example to
monitor the blood pressure of an ill person, or to track the speed of an athlete.
It can also be used for fun – for example, to create a T-shit with a moving light
show on it.
 Smart objects: This is any object that can send out wireless signals that can be
picked up by local computer systems. Smart objects also have their own
processors inside them. At present this technology is mainly used to help you
find and track objects.

4.8 Impact of Information Technology on job skills and careers
Most jobs today require that employees use or have access to some sort of
technology. It seems to be the norm that employees have email addresses of the
company in order to send and receive messages among customers and colleagues
alike.
Reports can now be distributed via softcopy with graphs and tables. They can even
be password protected.
Meetings can be conducted online using video, audio, and chat features, including
the option to share documents
1) Office employees: Most office employees spent time typing correspondence

using a typewriter. Any mistakes when typing were difficult to correct and most
likely the page had to be retyped.
Now, with IT, many documents can be kept

in softcopy and edited easily. This saves time,
and reduces wastage of paper. Office
employees may now have different tasks
such as arranging meetings and
appointments, making travel arrangements
and so on.
2) Teachers in the Classroom: Typically, teachers use word processors to prepare

tests and class notes, presentation software (e.g. PowerPoint) to show notes and
illustrations, spreadsheets (such as Excel) to record and calculate marks, as
well as use the Internet to search for material to support the teaching activities.
Interactive whiteboards are used in many classrooms. These whiteboards can

connect to a computer, where students can interact with the board by using a
special pen or their hands. Some teachers have access to a digital projector
which helps students to see the presentation and what the teacher is explaining
on the teacher's computer.
3) Medical personnel: Doctors and medical personnel use equipment in wards,

laboratories, pharmacies and offices. Skilled personnel are needed to be able to
enter, store, and access patient record systems, as well as interpret data and
diagnose results from monitoring of vital signs, CAT scans (Computer Aided
Tomography), MRI scanners (Magnetic resonance Imaging), ultrasounds, and X-
rays.

4) Law enforcement personnel: Law enforcement Criminals make use of the very
latest technology, and so law enforcement also uses technology to maintain law
and order. Technology is used in analysing fingerprints taken from objects at
the scene of a crime once they are scanned into a
computer.
Technology is also used to analyse DNA found at a

crime scene. These results can stored in a computer
and are used to identify criminals. CCTV cameras
(closed circuit television) are also placed in locations
in and around cities, towns and main roads to
monitor traffic flows and those breaking the law by
speeding.
5) Movie industry: Until recently, the only way films were distributed to cinemas
all around the world was by physically transporting large film reels to each and
every cinema. Now an alternative is appearing where the films are distributed
as a digital file.
Loss of job: The introduction of Information Technology has influenced the

automation of many tasks. Because of this, many people are concerned that jobs will
disappear. For example, a car factory might have employed hundreds of workers, but
now employs far fewer people because much of the work is done by robots.
Retraining: Technology drives much of business these days and so most companies
want workers with the basic skills to use it - typing for example or having the ability to
use email. The use of these basic skills in the workplace is as important as reading
and writing.
Many people have found that their job has been changed because of the introduction
of computers.
Sometimes employees can perform the same tasks but by using a computer. Training
has become a major money earner based on the many people who need to keep up to
date with technology to maintain their jobs.
There are online courses that can help people to develop computer skills. Other people
will learn on the job, adapting to new ways of working that involve technology.
Telecommuting: Telecommuting is a method of working from home.

Telecommuting also provides a way of working when there are disasters or bad
weather that stop people from being able to travel.
Benefits and Challenges of Telecommuting for the Employee
Benefits for employee Challenges for employee
 Ability to schedule you own  Work place can contact you at any
working hours time
 Save traveling time and costs  It may be difficult to separate
 Environmental benefits such as work from home life
saving on gas and air conditioning  Employees may work even longer
at work hours
 Collaboration is better with an  May miss the camaraderie and
Internet connection team spirit at work.
Benefits and Challenges of Telecommuting for the Employer
Benefits for employer Challenges for employer
 Less office space  Data security and confidentiality

 Can employee skilled workers issues may arise
from anywhere in the world  The business culture may be lost.
 Keep employees who relocate but
want to remain with the business
4.9 Roles of Various Personnel in computer-related professionals

Functions of individuals in computer-related fields
 Programmers – Write, test, and maintain programs. Must be good at problem

solving and work with a team to develop systems solutions
 System analyst and designers – Identifies and specifies software requirements

and specifications as well as manages the program design and development. A
systems analyst may supervise a team of programmers in the development of a
system solution.
 IT managers – Since technology tends to evolve rather quickly, the IT manager

should periodically review and evaluate how current systems and applications
are meeting the needs of the company or organization.
 System programmers – Installs, customizes, and maintains the operating

system as well as installs or upgrades applications that run on the operating
system.
 Database administrators – Designs, implements, maintains and repairs an

organisation‟s database. It can also include monitoring and improving database
performance and capacity as well as securing the database from intruders
 Network administrators – Responsible for support and management of

computer networks (intranets and extranets, and aspects of the Internet) to
ensure they run efficiently.
 File librarians – Keeps track of the tapes, CDs, disks and other storage devices
that are stored and logged out for use
 Computer technicians - Provides on-site support for clients, or internal support

for computer maintenance. Can also install and update various software
packages.
 Computer engineers – Responsible for designing, developing, implementing and

testing computer-based hardware and software. This includes configuring the
computers and determine what cables are needed.
 Software engineers – The software engineer is responsible for the complete life
cycle of a new or modified software package, from research and design to
implementation, training and support.
 Software testers – Run tests, using various customer scenarios, stress testing,
and performance testing. The ultimate goal is to iron out any bugs and improve
the quality of the finished product.

 Webmaster – Responsible for maintaining one or more websites; may include
ensuring that the web servers, as well as the computer hardware and software
are operating correctly, designing websites, generating and revising web pages
 Web-developer – Specializes in the development of applications for the Internet,

or distributed network applications that use HTTP from a web server to be
displayed on a web browser.
 Software trainer – A specialist who teaches persons how to use computer

applications such as spreadsheets, word processors, desktop publishing
programs, or computer network systems software. Requires expert knowledge of
computer software programs and strong communication skills.
 Multi-media artists – Uses a wide range of media such as visual art involving
sound, moving images and other media to create an art piece or product.

MODULE FIVE (5)
INFORMATION PROCESSING
51. Distinguish between data and information

Data is raw facts and figures; Data means „facts‟. Data are facts that have not yet been
organised or processed.
Information is processed data; information is what you get when data are organised in
a useful way.
When data are processed, they are more useful and helpful.
Data processing – This is the action of turning disorganised data into organised and
useful information.
Examples of data processing:
(A) A shop might note down all the sales during the week, but if the records were
properly organised the shop keeper could tell what goods he needed to re-order,
and how much profit he had made that week.
(B) A collection of cards noting the meaning of words would be data. But if the
words were organised into a single document, in alphabetical order, this makes
a useful dictionary.
Computers make data processing much easier and quicker.

Each part of the computer system is needed for data processing. All computers include
input, processing and output devices.
 Input devices are needed to enter the data into the computer system.
 Data are stored in files.
 The processor organises the data, and carries out calculations to create
information. This is done electronically.
 Output devices are used to produce the results that are usable.
52. Characteristics and functions of information processing
Advantages of information processing
 Tasks can be completed faster because data and information can be processed
at amazing speeds.
 Computers can process large amounts of data and generate error free results,
provided that data is entered correctly.

 Computing storage devices can store enormous amounts of data and
information for future use.
 Efficiency and productivity can be raised
 Running cost becomes lower in long term
 Automation can be introduced. That is, tasks can be completed with little
human intervention.
 Customer services can be improved because operations are managed efficiently.
 Data and information can be shared with others.
Disadvantages of information processing
 It may need a high initial investment in equipment and training.

 More money may be needed to employ specialised staff to operate and design
the information processing system.
 Some jobs may be lost as a result of computerisation, which may lower the
morale of staff members.
 Some staff must be trained or retrained.
 Face-to-face interaction between staff may be reduced.
Forms of information processing
 Control systems
They are two main types of control systems:
1. Automation systems
2. Process control systems
1. Automation Systems
These systems perform repetitive simple tasks, such as the cycle on a washing
machine, and a microwave warming a meal. This is done repeatedly with
minimal or no human involvement. These automation systems follow a set of
predetermined actions.
Automation can also be used in factories to operate machinery. Modern

automations means that machines can work without human operator.
Of course, people are still needed, even in automated factories. For example:
 To plan, program and build automated system

 To make sure that the machines are working safely
 To deal with unexpected or extreme circumstances that the automated
systems have not been programmed to deal with

2. Process control systems
These systems rely on feedback from sensors to respond to actions, and are
therefore suitable for more complex operations.
They constantly check for changes so as to make quick adjustments such as

changes in temperature, humidity, light, sound, movement and pressure.
In order to control a process in this way the computer system must have the
following features.
 Sensor input – the system must constantly monitor the process that is
being controlled. It cannot reply on human input. Electronic sensors take
measurements and them to the processor.
An example might be a temperature sensor, or a motion detector.
 Fast processing – the processing must be very fast. The computer must
react in real time. For example, if a computerised autopilot is flying a
plane, it must make instant adjustments to the controls. There can be no
delay.
 Output to control devices – the output from the processor will control
devices or machines. For example, the computer might move a robot arm
or regulate the flow of chemicals into a mixture.
 Commercial data processing
This involves the use of computer systems in a business environment to

perform time-consuming repetitive tasks, such as calculating monthly wages,
and yearly income tax.
 Industrial data processing
This type of data processing is ideal for manufacturing businesses that use
computers to design products (CAD), or using special software to develop and
test products (CAE or CAM), or even controlling the processes used when
manufacturing products.
 Scientific data processing
This data processing is used in research and development where lots of data is
captured during various tests and experiments.

Computers are used in many ways to support scientific research:
a) To regulate experiments and maintain the experimental process

b) To take measurements, with precision, over long periods of time, or in
extreme conditions
c) To process results, for example by performing calculations
d) To store data and help search for answers
e) To present results, for example, in graphs, scientific papers and
presentations
f) To keep records and share results with other scientist.
 Information retrieval – This is another common use of computer processing.

Information retrieval is useful for searching a computer system for relevant
information.
For example, when you use an ATM sometimes called a „cash point‟ the computer
will find your bank records, and check how much money is in your account. To do
this it must find your account instantly in the records of all the people with
accounts at the bank.
 Information management – Information management is responsible for the

accurate input, storage, retrieval, and output of information.

53. Sources of data
Source document
A source document is the original form or paper from

which data was taken.
This is a structured form that you fill in.
Examples of source documents are medical record

form that your doctor fills in, or a laboratory report
that a scientist fills in during an experiment.
Data from the source document is typically typed `

into the computer.

Human readable document
A Human Readable Document refers to a document

such as a letter, form, application, sign and so on,
that a human can fully read and understand.
It can be most useful to have a document that can

be read by people and by machines. This means that
the human computer operator can check the data by
eye, and if the automated entry goes wrong, the data
can be typed in by hand. You might have seen this at
the supermarket, when the bar code does not work.
Machine readable document
A Machine Readable Document is one that that the

computer understands. For example information
read from a storage device.
It is one on which the data can be „read‟ by an input

device such as a scanner or mark reader. E.g. code
on most passports, barcodes on labels of products
sold in shops.
This is particularly useful if there is a lot of data to

enter very quickly.
Turnaround document
A turnaround document is a document that is

returned for processing a second time.
This document is printed out by the computer, and

then is used to collect data.
For example, Multiple choice sheets are printed with

the candidates' information or has areas in specific
locations for writing the candidate's ID and respond
to the multiple choice questions.
OCR and OMR are used together in a turnaround

document
They allow cheap, fast input of information into a

computer system.

5.4 Methods of Validation and Verification &
5.5 Appropriate Verification and Validation checks
Why data are checks important?

The entire computer system will go wrong if it has the wrong input. Typically
data input is carried out by human operators, perhaps using a keyboard.
Human beings can easily make mistakes. For this reason checks are often
carried out to make sure there are not errors.
Types of error
The user might type the wrong character on the keyboard. This is called a
typographical error.
Some of the most common errors are:
 Spelling mistakes because you are not sure how a word should be
spelled
 Typing the key next to the one you meant to press (such as typing “amd”
instead of typing “and”)
 Transposition errors, typing two characters in the wrong order (such as
typing “the” instead of “the”)
 Pressing the shift key or forgetting to press it (for examples, typing %
instead of 5)
 Mixing up numbers and similar looking letters, such as 1 and I, or O and
0.
Verification
To verify means to double check that something is true. For verification check
the data input is carried out twice – for example, a password typed twice. The
computer checks that two versions are exactly the same.
Verification is the process of determining whether the data was entered

correctly of not. It prevents the wrong data from being processed.
Verification is most useful:

1) If the characters (letters or numbers) to be entered is quite short, so that
it does not take too long to ether it a second time.
2) If it is very important that there is not the smallest error or change in
what is entered, for example if you are entering a bank account number.

You would not use verification to check a whole essay. You might use
verification to check a password or a code number.
Three methods are:
 Visual checks of proofreading - Visual checks or proof reading, involves

having a human visually check the data that has been entered into the
computer to ensure that it matches the data on the original form. This
can be done either using a printout of the data or viewing on the
computer screen. However, this method is not efficient for large
amounts of data.
 Double Data entry - Double entry involves entering the data twice,
either by the same user entering the data on two separate occasions or
by having two different operators enter the data from the form. The two
entries are then compared against each other and a printout or
softcopy lists those items that do not match. The user then checks
whether the error was made in the first entry or the second, confirm
which is correct from the original paper form and make the change. It
can be expensive and time-consuming to use this method, but it does
ensure very accurate data capture.
Examples: Correcting typographical errors; correcting transposition

errors.
 Check digits - Check digits are used to uniquely identify products and
is applied to a sequence of numbers only.
For example the 10 digit ISBN number uniquely identifies a product

such as a book or box of chocolates.
The last number of the ISBN is actually the check digit for the previous
nine numbers, for example - the ISBN 0348267124
A check digit is calculated from the numbers entered and is added as

the last digit. The numbers can then be checked at any stage by re-
calculating the check digit from the other numbers and seeing if it
matches the one entered.

Validation
Validation is the process of determining if the data is correct. It ensures that the
data entered meets all requirements. Note that it only checks that the data is
VALID. It does NOT mean that the data is actually correct.
In other words it is a check that data are valid. Valid means that data are of the
right general type or value. Validation is useful when you do not know exactly
what data are to be entered, but you know of the sort of data expected.
Method Explanation Example
Range check Used on numeric fields to ensure For example, if someone enters
that numbers entered fall within a 9 days in a week, it will not be
specific range; The computer calculated.
checks that data are within a
certain range of numbers. Or if a school pupil enters their
age, you can be sure that the
answer will not a less than 3 or
more than 20.
Reasonableness check Ensures that the data is realistic. If you are entering the weight of
children, this check with ensure
that a child's weight is not say
over 400 pounds.
Or an age cannot be a negative

number.
Data type check/ Character The computer checks that data For example, if you are entering
check are of the right type. your surname it would not have
numbers in it. If you are
entering your age it would not
have letters in it.
Consistency check/ Ensures that the two fields Compares a person‟s year of
Inconsistency check correspond with each other; The birth and their age in separate
computer might check the data fields. If the current age is not
against other records. equal to the (current year - year
of birth), then an error message
is given.

Or if you have entered your
name before, the computer
might check that you enter the
same name.
Field length In some cases the number of An example is a code number
characters to expect is known in such as a bank account
advance. number. The computer checks
that you have not entered too
many or too few characters.
56. Various methods of file organization and access
 Sequential File Ordering
This is describes a file that is sorted using the data

in one of the fields so that all the records are
sorted in order. This field is known as the sort key.
Sequential files are searched using sequential

access.
That means that if you want to find a record in a

sequential file you have to start at the beginning
and work your way through until you find it.
 Random File Ordering
This uses a special formula to find the position of a record on a direct access
medium such as a hard disk.
It is the most efficient way of storing extremely

large files.
Each position will have its own specific address

on the disk. The formula will be used to locate
the address of a position of the record on the
disk.
To search for a record, once again the formula

will work out where it is.

 Indexed Sequential File Ordering
Uses an index file to speed up

searches on a large sequential files.
It is used with direct access media

such as hard disks.
An index to the main sequential file containing all the records could be stored
on a hard disk.
The index file holds the address of a position of the records on the disk.
The two main methods of access are:
(a) Sequential Access File – In this type of access the computer needs to look
through every record in the database.
An example is a payroll program. The payroll database will contain a records

for each employee in the company. When calculating pay, the database
software will process every records, in order.
(b) Direct Access File – In this case the computer quickly finds one record in a
large database.
An example is a supermarket point-of-sale terminal. The shop database will

contain a records for each product in the store. When a bar code is scanned
the computer must immediately find the price of that product in the
database.

5.7 File organization for particular applications
PAYROLL
A payroll comprises a list of all the employees in a company,

together with their pay details and deductions.
Every month a payroll application will calculate how much each

person should be paid.
The application will print payslips and the department organizes

so that some employees have their wages sent directly to their
personal bank accounts.
The payroll file would contain details of each employee's

information sorted sequentially by an EMPLOYEE NUMBER.
At the end of each month each employee‟s record is accessed one

at a time, so a sequential file is needed
Most payroll files are organized sequentially with sequential

access.

SUPERMARKET
Many supermarkets have updated from stock cards to

computerised stock systems.
Stock records hold details of the items for sale in the store and
also holds the price of the item and the number in stock.
Each item is identified by a bar code.
As a customer buys an item, the cashier scans the barcode.
The stock system then finds the record for the item and sends the
price to the Point of Sale terminal for the casher.
It also updates the stock record to show that the number in stock
has decreased.
Since there are thousands of records of items in the stock file,

each item has to be retrieved quickly.
The most appropriate method to organise the file would be as a

random access file.
LIBRARY
A library has a computer-based catalogue of all its books. Each

book has a barcode containing the ISBN number placed on the
back of the book.
The catalogue is sorted by ISBN.
When a book is borrowed, the ISBN barcode is scanned to show

the details of the book on computer monitor.
Index-sequential file organisation will give fairly quick access to

the details of any book.

MODULE SIX (6)
WORDPROCESSING, PRESENTATION & WEB PAGE DESIGN
(A) Word-processing
6.1 Appropriate editing features in the preparation of a document
Editing and Formatting:

 Editing text means making changes to the text content, such as adding or
deleting words and characters.
 Formatting text means changing the appearance of the text, such as
making it larger.
The following are the key operations that we can perform in MS Word:
1. Create a document
2. Save a document
3. Edit a document
4. Format a document
5. Print a document
Creating a Document:
We can create a document by performing the following steps:
You start your word processor, namely Microsoft Word. With your blank document
opened, type a sentence such as "I will master Information Technology".

By typing sentences, you are actually creating a document!
Save a Document
You can save your document by using the keyboard combination CTRL+S, or by
pressing the Office Button and selecting Save or Save As.
You should save your document every few minutes while you are typing and
formatting your document.
Editing the Document:
You can use a word processor (such as Microsoft Word, WordPerfect, or WordPad) to
type many documents such as a text book, a novel, an article, an assignment or a
report. However, you need to be able to use certain keys and options to effectively
create your document.
These documents are created from:
Words This
Lines This is an example of a line of text
Sentences This is an example of a sentence, which can be more than one line
Paragraphs This is an example of a paragraph. It is made up of more than one
sentence and can take more than one line. Usually, paragraphs are
three or more sentences.
Editing a document involves selecting the text, moving and copying the text and
deleting either the selected text or the entire text in the document window.
Inserting and Deleting Text
Allows easy insertion of letters, spaces, lines, paragraphs, or

pages anywhere in a document.
You can also erase those letters, spaces, lines, paragraphs, or pages using specific
keys or icons.
The Delete key is used to delete text to the right of the cursor.
The Backspace key is used to delete text to the left of the cursor
If you type characters on the keyboard they will appear where the cursor is.

 Normally the characters will be inserted between any words that are already
there. This is called insert mode.
 In Overtype mode the characters you type will write over whatever is there
already, deleting it.
Moving the Cursor
Move the cursor by using the arrow buttons on the keyboard or positioning the
mouse and clicking the left button. The keyboard shortcuts listed below are also
helpful when moving through the text of a document:
Move Action Keystroke

Beginning of the line HOME
End of the line END
Top of the document CTRL+HOME
End of the document CTRL+END
Selecting Text
Before you can move or edit your text, most of the time you need to highlight it first.
You select text by dragging the mouse over the desired text while holding down the left
mouse button, or hold down the SHIFT key on the keyboard while using the arrow
buttons to highlight the text. The following table contains shortcuts for selecting a
portion of the text:
Selection Explanation
Whole word double-click within the word
Whole paragraph triple-click within the paragraph
Several words or lines drag the mouse over the words, or hold down
SHIFT while using the arrow keys
Entire document
press CTRL+A
To remove highlighted text, you can click anywhere outside of the selection of
highlighted text or press an arrow key on the keyboard.
Working with blocks of text – As well as deleting single characters at the cursor, you
can select a block of text, and delete it in one go.
 To select a word you double click with the mouse (you must click fairly quickly).
To select a paragraph you click three times.
 To select any other clock of text, move the text pointer to start, hold down the
mouse button and drag the pointer to the end of the block of text.

The selected text is highlighted typically with a shaded block. The highlighted text can
be deleted, formatted or moved around in the document.
Move or copy text

If you have typed some words that can be placed in another
location on your page, then a word processor gives you the ability
to copy, or 'cut' (delete) the text, and paste (insert) it elsewhere.
Pasting text allows you place the text in several places if you wish.
Moving the text around your document can be achieved by selecting and then cutting
(CTRL+X) the selected text from its original location; then pasting it (CTRL+V) at some
new location in the document window. Another option is to drag the selected text to
the new location in the document.
To cut the selected text, you can:
 Select the Cut option (or CTRL+X) from the menu,
 Select the Cut option from the option box when you right-click on the selected
text.
 Select the Edit Cut icon on the menu.
 To delete text, you can select your text by highlighting it using your left mouse
button, and press the Delete key.
6.9 Search and replace function

Search and Replace
You can find words or phrases and replace or change them all at once.
Find: A useful feature of most word-
processing software is the „Find‟ tool.
This will search through the document
for any word, you can also search for
characters, longer pieces of text etc.
„Find‟ is useful when you need to find
the right information in a long
document.
Replace:
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
Formatting the Document:

Formatting a document usually means changing the layout and the design of the text
in the document to make it presentable, easily readable or according to requirements
(e.g. for publication).
Some of the options available to format a document include:
 Various Font styles and Font sizes
 Paragraph
 Bullets and Numbering
 Tables and Columns
Printing the Document:

During or after creating, editing, formatting and saving a document, we can print a
copy of the document.
Sometimes, before printing a document, you may want to view your document using a
feature called Print Preview, which gives you an idea of exactly how the document will
appear after printing. This feature also gives you an opportunity to make any updates
and changes before actually printing the document.
6.2 Commonly available features

 Page Numbering
In Microsoft Word you can add page numbers to any document.

1. Select the Insert Tab.
2. Click Page Number
3. Select the appropriate option to choose the page number format you want
4. Select the appropriate number style and see the numbering placed in your
docu
ment.
Choos
e the
Page
Numb
ering

Choose the options
Page Breaks
A page break is a point where you wish your separate your text on one page and push
the rest of text to the next page. When you create a page break, nothing else can be
typed on that page. You can create a page break after one word or line of text, or even
five lines or 50 lines of text. Page breaks are useful if you only want certain amount of
text, like a heading or statement on that page by itself. You do not want other text
getting on that page.
A. Click on the location in your document where you want to create a page break
B. Go to the Insert Tab in the ribbon.
C. Under the Pages options group, locate and click the Page Break button.
Text Alignment

There are some times that you need to place some of your text to the left, centre, right
or spaced between the left and right margins. This is called aligning text. You can
align a word, sentence, paragraph or page of text.
1. Select the paragraph or paragraphs you would like to align.
2. From the Home ribbon click on the justify tab
from the Paragraph tab.
3. Word will automatically justify your selection so
that it is close to the left margin, centred
between the margins, close to the right margin, or
fully aligned between the left and right margin.
Word-wrap
Word wrap is a useful feature in your word processor that allows text to flow to
the next line as you type a paragraph. This is different from typing a heading
with one or two words where you would press the ENTER key to separate the
heading from the rest of the text on the document.
NB: Word-wrap allows words to automatically move to the next line if the
previous line is full.
 Margin
This is the space between the text and the edge of the page. There are four
margins on a page: left, right, top and bottom.
Microsoft Word 2007 makes it easy to set your margins all at once:
1. Click the Page Layout tab.

2. Click the Margins tool in the Page Setup group
3. You can select the margin of choice
OR
1. Click Custom Margins.

2. Change your right and left margins to one inch.
3. Click the Default button.
4. Click Yes.

 Tabs
If you want text to neatly line up at some other place on the page, not at the
margins, then you can use tabs. Tabs are points in the document where text can be
positioned.

 Page length: this is the dimension of the page.
 Default setting
Default settings are a standard set of features whenever you open a word document.
For example, every time you open a new Word document, the default setting would
be, font Calibri, font size 11, Align left, letter size, etc.
 Font Type and Size

Fonts can be used to place emphasize or draw attention to your text in a document.
Titles and headings can use a larger font to get attention while footnotes are usually in
a smaller font.
Text in your document may typically be in Times New Roman with size 12.
Other font types are:
Comic Sans
Courier
Ariel
6.3 Formatting features

A. Paragraph Formatting
 Margin
 Tab stop
 Line space: The lines of text can be close together or there can be a lot of
space between them. This is called line spacing. You can set line spacing
for the whole document, or for a block of text.
 Page break
 Page number
 Alignment
Align Left Places the text to the left margin
Centre Centres the text within the left and right margins
Align Right Places the text to the right margin
Justify Aligns the text to fit the left and right margin
6.8 Character formatting features
B. Character formatting
 Make text UPPERCASE or lowercase

 Text size can be larger or smaller
 Select a font style (the style of text) that suits the purpose of
your document
 Add emphasis with underlining, bold or italic
 Add small characters above or below the main words using subscript and
superscript
To format a block of text, highlight it, and then choose a format option from
the toolbar of your software. Alternatively, you can choose a suitable format
before you being to type.
The default character format is the size and style of text which you begin
with, before you make any changes.
6.4 Headers and Footers, Endnotes and Footnotes
Headers and footers:
Text at the top of the page is called a

header.
Text at the bottom of the page is called a
footer.
Many newspaper, documents and books

have text that appears at the top and/or
bottom of every page. This can include
the name of the book, the page number.
The software will add this text

automatically to every page of the
document. If you include a page number
the software will work out the number for each page and show that.
Endnotes and footnotes:
Footnotes and Endnotes are used in the documents to provide references to the
source documents for the document text, to provide more detailed explanations
and definitions that might otherwise distract the reader if left in the main body
of the document.
NB: A footnote appear at the bottom, of a page and an endnote appear at the
end of the whole document.
6.5 Combine documents

There are many ways in which you can combine two or more documents, but we shall
explain two of them here:
Method 1
1. You can select the text in one document

2. Copy the text (CTRL and C, or use the COPY icon)
3. Go to the other document and select PASTE (or CTRL and V)
Method 2
To add multiple documents:
1. Start Word so that you have a blank document

2. Select the "Insert" tab at the top of the word screen
3. Select the "Object" arrow, so that a list of options scroll down.
4. Select the "Text from File" option.
5. Select the files that you want to combine. You can hold down the CTRL key and
click on the various word files that you need.
6. Click on Insert at the bottom
7. You word documents are now added one below the other in one document
You can view the sequence below:

6.6 Block operations
This is the moving, coping and deleting operation that can be done to enhance its
appearance.
Typing and inserting Text

To enter text in a document, just start typing using the keyboard. The text will appear
where the blinking cursor is located.
Inserting Additional Text

Text can be inserted in a document at any point using any of the following methods:

 Type Text: Move the cursor to the location where you want to enter the text and
start to type it there
 Copy and Paste Text: Highlight the text you wish to copy and right click and
click Copy, put your cursor where you want the text in the document and right
click and click Paste.
 Cut and Paste Text: Highlight the text you wish to copy and right click and
click Cut, put your cursor where you want the text in the document and right
click and click Paste.
 Drag Text: Highlight the text you wish to move, click on it and drag it to the
place where you want the text in the document.
You will notice that you can also use the Clipboard group on
the Ribbon.
Rearranging Blocks of Text
To rearrange text within a document, you can:
 Move text: Cut and Paste or Drag as shown above

 Copy Text: Copy and Paste as above or use the
Clipboard group on the Ribbon
 Paste Text: Ctrl + V (hold down the CTRL and the “V” key at the same time) or
use the Clipboard group to Paste
Deleting Blocks of Text
With the block of data selected, you can use the BACKSPACE and DELETE keys on
the keyboard to delete the text.
Note the difference between Backspace and Delete:
 Backspace will delete text to the left of the cursor

 Delete will erase text to the right. To delete a large selection of text, highlight it
using any of the methods outlined above and press the DELETE key.
Undo Changes
To undo changes:
 Click the Undo Button on the Quick Access Toolbar

6.7 Columns and tables
Columns
COLUMNS are usually used for easy reading in magazines or newspapers. The
information flows from the first column on the left side of the page down to the bottom
of the page and continues at the top of the next column to the right and down
that column. Sometimes, there are three, four or more columns on a page
To insert columns in a word document:
1. IF you have text in your document that you would like to place in column, first
select that text.
2. Go to the "Page Layout" tab on the
toolbar ribbon.
3. In the 'Page Setup' group, select the
'Columns' option.
4. Choose the number of columns you
wish to have
5. Your selected text will be placed in
columns, or the text you type will be
kept in the column format
Tables
Sometimes you want to arrange your data in a
different way from the usual paragraph.
Creating a Table

 First place the cursor on the location where you want the table to be located
 Click the Insert Tab of the Ribbon
 Click the Table Button on the Tables Group. You can create a table one of four
ways:
o Drag the squares to select the number

of row and columns that you want for your table
o Select Insert Table and enter the number of rows
and columns
o Select the Draw Table, and again enter the rows
and columns
o Select Quick Tables and choose a suitable table
Enter Data in a Table
You can type data in each cell by selecting the cell and then
typing your information.
Modify the Table Structure
To modify the structure of a table:
 Click the table and notice that you have two new tabs on the Ribbon: Design
and Layout. These pertain to the table design and layout.
 On the Design Tab, you can choose various borders or different styles for your
table.
Format (Layout) a Table
 To format a table, click the table and then click the Layout Tab on the
Ribbon. This tab allows you to do much more than the Design tab.
 Here you can insert or delete rows and/or columns, merge cells into one cell,
and even split a cell into more than one row or column.

6.10 Mail merge
The concept of mail merge is to allow you to send a personalised document such as a
letter or invitation or even payslip to different people with their unique information.
The main or primary document contains the general information while
the secondary document or data source contains the specific information of the
people that will make each letter unique for that person. So, just as you would write in
the name of the person you would like to invite to a party on the invitation, the mail
merge feature would insert each person's name on each invitation i the location you
specify.
In other words, the Mail merge facility produces many different copies of the same
letter, each one is addressed to a different person from the data file.
Steps to perform mail merge:
1. Select the Mailings tab at the top of Word ribbon

2. Select the Start Mail Merge option
3. Select Step-by-Step-Mail Merge Wizard
4. Select the document type
5. Select “Next: Starting document”
6. Select your starting document (Letter)
7. Then select “Next: Select recipients”
8. Choose a way of getting your recipients
information: Select either
a) Use an existing list
b) Select from Outlook contacts
c) Type a new list
9. Select “Next: Write your letter”
10. Then click on “More items” and insert your merge fields”
11. Select “Next: Preview letters”
12. Click on “Next: Complete merge”
13. And finally you can
a) Print the letters
b) Edit individual letters

Performing the mail merge
The Mail merge is carried out by merging the data file and the primary file.
 The structure of the letter is take from the primary file
 The letter is created for each record in the data file. The name, address and
other details for each letter are taken from the data file and used wherever there
is a field name in the primary file.
Advantages of mail merge

Mail merge can save a great deal of time. For instance, one letter can be typed once,
100 copies can be made and each can be addressed to a different recipient.
6.11 Spell check

Most word processing software will mark spelling mistakes. This is a very useful
feature.
Typically, the computer will also suggest the right spelling. Click with the right mouse
button on the word, and you will see a suggested „right‟ spelling.
Spelling and Grammar

Place the cursor at the beginning of the document or the beginning of the section that
you want to check
 Select the Review Tab on the Ribbon

 Select the Spelling & Grammar icon in the Proofing Group.
 Any errors will display a dialog

box that allows you to choose a
more appropriate spelling or
phrasing.

Thesaurus
The Thesaurus allows you to view synonyms. To use the thesaurus:
 Click the Review Tab of the Ribbon

 Click the Thesaurus Button on the Proofing Group.
 The thesaurus tool will appear on the right side of the screen and you can view
word options.
You can also access the thesaurus by right-clicking any word and
choosing Synonyms on the menu.

6.12 Import documents
The figure above shows some of the items that you might be able to add to your
document.
 Picture: You can insert a picture from a file. This might be graphic you have
created yourself, or one you have found (for example, on the internet).
 Clip art: Clip art is a collection image samples provided for free use with word
processing software. Often there is a key word search so you can find the clip
you want.
 Shapes, Chart and Smart art: Features like these allow you to create graphic
images, such as simple diagrams, within the word processing system.
 Form other software: You can often import items from other software
applications, such as a spreadsheet. If the software is made by the same
company as your word processing software (for example, all Office products
made by Microsoft) then you can use „Cut and Paste‟.
When you have inserted a picture or other item into your document you must
carefully position it. Formatting features allow you to „flow‟ or „wrap‟ text around
the image, so that none of your words are covered up by the picture.
IMPORTING GRAPHICS
Your word processor usually includes a library of clip art images that you can insert
into your document if you do not have your own graphics to include in your
document. Inserting pictures is useful to illustrate what you may have written.
Inserting graphics (Clip Art or Picture) in Word 2007 or Word 2010
1. Make sure the cursor is at the location in the document where you want to
place the clip art or picture
2. Click on the INSERT tab
3. In the Pictures group, choose Clip Art or Picture
4. Make a selection

5. Size your graphic.
6. Remember to save your document
Safety features
Some of the documents you create can be very important. When you create a
document it is saved as a file. If something goes wrong and the file is lost, this can be
an issue.
For this reason many word processing applications offer „safety features‟ that make it
less likely you will lose your work.
 Auto save:
Sometimes a Microsoft Office program closes before you can save changes to a file
you are working on. Some possible causes include:
1. A power outage occurs.
2. Your system is made unstable by another program.
3. Something goes wrong with the Microsoft Office program itself.
Although you can't always prevent problems such as these from happening, you
can take steps to protect your work when an Office program closes abnormally.
If you turn on „automatic save‟ the computer will save your document periodically
(this depends on how you set it, for instance, you can set it to auto save every 5
minutes or every 10 minutes) while you are working. It saves it in the background –
you wouldn‟t even notice it happening.
 Backup:
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______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________________________
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 Password protection:

Important documents like exam papers or solutions need to be password protected.
However note that if you forget your password, you cannot ever open the
document!
Here are some steps on how to password protect a document.
METHOD 1
1. Open the document that you want to password protect

2. Click on the Office Button at the top of the page
3. Select SAVE AS
4. Near the bottom left of the dialog box, Select TOOLS
5. Scroll down and select General Options
6. Choose a password for opening the document
7. You can also optionally choose a password to modify the document

8. Remember to Save your document again so that the password is saved.

METHOD 2
You can also encrypt your document by using a password.
1. Click on the Office Button

2. Select PREPARE on the left hand side list
3. Select ENCRYPT DOCUMENT
4. Type in your password and press OK
5. Remember to Save your document again so that the password is stored.

Track Changes
Sometimes, a report is prepared by more than one user, where several persons can
make changes to that one document. All the changes can then be reviewed and
compared to the original until the final changes are approved. Here is part of a report
that was shared with some users:

To make changes that others who have access to the document can see and changes,
click on the Review tab. Select the Track Changes item: in Tracking group.
Click on Track Changes to see the following menu:
Note that you will not notice any marks on the document
until you make you first insertion, deletion or change in the
document.
The document below shows the changes that are noted in a document:

In the new panel called the Mark-up Area, (on the right or sometimes below the
document), you can see that red rounded rectangles highlight the words that have
been deleted, formatted and so on. This is showing others what changes you made.
If you can't see a Mark-up Area then click on Show Mark-up from the Tracking panel.
From the Show Mark-up menu, select Balloons then Show Revisions in Balloons:

MODULE SIX (6)
(B) Presentation
A presentation
In many different jobs people are asked to give presentation. A presentation typically
takes this structure:
 A person stands in front of a projections screen or electronic whiteboard.
 A series of slides appears on the screen.
 The person speaks on the subject of each slide.
Some speakers also prints out the slides and give them to the audience.
6.13 Use of Presentation Software
The main purpose of using presentation software is to share concepts, images, graphs
and other ideas among small groups or large audiences. They can also be used as
image/video slideshows for advertising or to provide information in waiting rooms, at
airports, or at conferences or fairs.
Presentation software such as Microsoft PowerPoint, use slides that can be projected
on walls or other flat surfaces using a projector. Usually the presentation is
projected on large screens so that those
who are not near to the presentation can
still follow the proceedings.
Some examples of the use of PowerPoint

presentations are in training sessions, for
marketing a new product, and in the
classroom.
Before your create your presentation

Usually a presentation would want to share lots of information with the audience, but
you need to remember that speaking in simple terms and not have long gaps of silence
throughout the entire presentation helps the audience to better understand what you
want to share. It is important that you do not put too much information on one slide
to overwhelm them.
Here are some short notes to help you when you create your presentation:
A. Text on your slides
• Limit your points to between 3 and 6 per slide
• Limit each bullet point to about six words
• Left-align most of your text and bullet points.
• Don't have long sentences, try to have short phrases
B. Fonts
• Times New Roman is best for major headings
• Arial provides easier reading when used in the body of the slide
• Use 24 point or larger is good for those viewing the presentation from a distance
• Try to use no more than two fonts per slide
• Use normal 'Capital and Common Letters' so that your audience can read your
information
• Use words in CAPITAL for emphasis but try not to use more than seven words
• Try not to use italics as they are hard to read
C. Keep checking for spelling and grammatical errors
D. Use of Colours in your presentation
Colours can encourage, motivate or cause some emotion or reaction from the viewer of
the presentation. Let's see what the use of colours can create:

RED – motivates action and urges to achieve results and succeed; increases
enthusiasm and can cause quick decisions
BLUE – is calming, therapeutic and increases sensitivity, used when loyalty or

security are necessary
BLACK – is a direct, forceful, powerful, strong, colour. It removes emotion.

GREEN – represents life, energy, and faith. It can be used in presentations that
require feedback or discussion.
YELLOW – is a bright, cheerful and stimulating colour that can start actions and
ideas. It should NEVER use as background colour!
GRAY – represents neutrality, and even a lack of commitment. It can be used when
the audience needs to make a decision
6.14 Wizards, Templates and Slides
Wizards
When most people think of a wizard, they think of an old man with magical
powers.
In computer terminology, a wizard is a part of a

program that guides you through certain steps.
Basically, a wizard is a step-by-step guide that helps you
create your own document.
NB: Be sure not to confuse a "wizard" with a "template."
Templates
A template is a pre-formatted document that has already been created. It can
be used over and over again.
Slides
A slide is a single page of a presentation
created with software such as PowerPoint
or OpenOffice Impress. A presentation is
composed of several slides.

6.15 Slide Layout
The slide layout determines what PowerPoint elements will be displayed on the
slide, such as graphics, text boxes, bulleted lists and charts. You can view various
slide layout by choosing Format, Slide Layout... from the menu
Slide layouts positions and formats content that appears on a slide. Again this
content includes:
 text in bulleted lists and titles,

 tables,
 charts,
 SmartArt graphics,
 movies,
 sounds,
 pictures, and
 Clip art.
PowerPoint includes a few built-in slide

layouts for you to choose such as those
in the diagram below, or you can create
your own layouts for your presentation
These standard layouts are very useful. For

example, you have the option of choosing a
default layout for your title slide which is
selected in the diagram above, and also
shown below. As you add more slides to your presentation, you can select a layout
that is suitable for that content.
A title Slide

To apply a layout, select the particular slide, right click and select Layout, and then
select the layout that you want.
6.16 Apply design templates to slides
So what is a template? A template comprises one or more files that offer the option to
include different colour schemes and layouts in your presentation so that the slides
can be consistent and helps your presentation to be professional. That means that:
 A template gives the presentation slides a consistent look and feel.
 When you use a template to create new presentations, your slides will generally
have some consistent formatting as well.
 You will have access to many templates that have standard colour schemes,
backgrounds and font styles.
So templates tend to give you a starting point and hopefully will make it easier to
complete your presentation quickly. You can even modify a template's content and
design, add a logo, your own images, or delete text or other content from the template.

Once you have chosen a template, then it displays an entire presentation that you
can now modify with your content. The template below contains 18 slides that you
can use at a start for that presentation.
6.17 Formatting features to enhance presentations
If you want to change individual aspects of your slide, then the Design tab is the place
to go.
In the Design tab, there are a series of choices that allow you to change the look of
your slide
 Page setup: This allows you to adjust margins for your slides
 Orientation: You have the option of using landscape or portrait orientation for
your slides
 Themes: This gives you various design options for your slides so that they have
a uniform look and feel.
 Colours: Pre-formats the colour of different elements of the slide. You can make
your own by choosing Create New Theme Colours... at the bottom of the
dropdown box.
 Fonts: This option gives you choices of fonts, but for more features such as font
sizes and text formatting such as bod, or italics, it is best to use those features
in the Home tab / ribbon
 Background Styles: Allows you to include a background to your slides, or you
can remove Background Styles (Hide background graphics) by clicking the
checkbox
 Bullets:
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______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
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Changing Background Colours

You can change the background colour of a single slide or all slides in the
presentation. Before changing the slide background colour, consider how the
presentation will be used. Many presentations are formatted for live display. To change
the background colour, choose Design, Background... from the ribbon.
 Choose a colour from the drop-down menu provided.

 Click Apply to change the current slide.
Slide Views
Presentation software gives you several different views of the slides you have made.
 The normal view is the main screen that shows the content of one slide, with a
left-hand bar showing small images of all the other slides in the presentation.
 You can also view the Slide Master.
Home-work
Find out more about Slide Master.
 The Slide Sorter view shows all the slides in the presentation as small pictures.
You can drag the little images about on the screen, to organise them into
whatever sequence is best. You can also cut and paste the slides into new
positions.
 You can also choose the Notes Page or the Notes View. This view shows the
slide content at the top of the page, with space underneath to type notes and
reminders about what you want to say as you show each slide.
 Click Apply to All to change all slides in the presentation.
6.18 Slide headers and footers
Just as in other applications such as Word processors, or spreadsheets, headers

and/or footers are used on PowerPoint presentation slide(s) to share important
information for either the presenter or audience.

Examples of this information can be:
 the date that the presentation was created or to show the current date that the
presentation will be delivered
 inclusion of a logo or company name on each slide
 the name of the presenter on each slide
 to automatically place a slide number on each slide
The slide master allows you to insert content that will appear in every slide of your
presentation.
When you open the slide master view and type text, this text will appears on every
slide.
For instance, you might want every slide to have a header with your name, and
the topic of the presentation. You might wish to include a slide number (similar to
a page number in a document), or special messages such as confidential
information.
6.19 Speaker notes
While you are preparing your presentation, you may need to make some notes to
remind yourself on certain words or topics to mention during your presentation.
PowerPoint gives you this option to write your notes
while you create your slides. The text box below the
slide in the main window area that says "Click to
add notes" is just to area for your notes.
To create speaker notes:
1. Open the slide presentation in Normal View.

2. Below the slide itself, click the words Click to
add notes or Click to add text, depending on
your view of the presentation.
When you are making your presentation, you will

not see your notes, so you can print them.
Remember to use the Notes Pages option when
printing.

6.20 Types of animation effects
Slide Transitions
Transitions are effects that allow you to move from one slide to the next during
your presentation.
Slide Animation
This allows you to animate any of the content items on any slide. That includes
text and images. You can make items appear, disappear, or you can change the
emphasis of items.
Categories of Animation:
1) Entrance effects: These are applied to the items as they appear on the slide.
Examples: Appear, Fade in, Fly in, Zoom etc.

2) Emphasis effects: These animate items on the slide to make them stand out.
Examples: Transparency, Pulse, Colour Pulse, Object Colour etc.
3) Exit effects: These effects takes the items off the page; make them disappear.
Examples: Fly Out, Fade, Zoom, Random Bars, Shrink and Turn etc.
When you select the effect(s) you want, you need to choose how you want the
effect to start. It can start automatically or by clicking the mouse.
6.21 Graphics and moving pictures
Inserting a Picture
To insert a picture, you can use a new or current slide. In this example, we will use a
new slide.
 Click on New Slide from the Insert menu.

 Choose the Two Content option or an option that allows for adding content. So
the Title and Content, Two Content,
or Comparison options are good.
 After selecting the option for the new

slide, there are six choices to add: a
table, chart, SmartArt, picture, clip
art, or movie clip.
 Choose the Clip Art option.

 You can select a picture from the selection
 When you click on it, the picture will be copied to the slide

6.22 Multiple slides
Home-work:
Inserting slides
Deleting slides
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So you have created a presentation and now you need to review it and tidy it up.
This can be achieved by viewing your presentation in about five ways. Let's look
at each one:
Normal View
In Normal View, you can see the miniature slides on the left, the slide in the centre
and Notes on the bottom for any comments that you wish to make about the
particular slide. When you are in Normal View, you can also switch between your slide
and its outline as the tab are next to each other.
 You use the Normal view to view the slide by clicking on the actual slide.
 Also in Normal view, you can use various scroll bars, or move through slides
using the scroll bar using the Previous or Next Slide button.

Slide Sorter View
In slide sorter view, you can see your entire presentation so you can easily add, delete,
and move slides. To move to switch to slide sorter view, click the Slide Sorter View
button at the bottom right of the window or choose View, Slide Sorter from the ribbon
or menu.
You use the Slide Sorter view to:
 Organize your slides.

 Add actions between slides such as add transition add other controls to the
presentation.
 Hide one or more slides so that they will not be shown during the presentation.

In Slide Sorter view, you can click a slide to select it. If you double-click that slide
or press “Enter” on the keyboard, you will open the selected slide in Normal View,
where you can modify its content. You can also delete slides by clicking them
once to highlight them and then pressing the “Delete” key on your keyboard.
Slide Show View
Slide show view is used to display your presentation in its final form. This is where the
contents of your slide show are viewed in sequence. Note:
 Slide Show view presents your slides one at a time.
 Use it to rehearse or give the presentation.
 Click the screen to move through the slides. You can also move from one slide
to the next by the click of a mouse, pressing the spacebar, or by using the left
and right keyboard arrow keys.
 Press Enter to move through the show
 To stop the slide show press the ESC key on the keyboard.

Notes Page View
In notes page view, you can type notes to use during your presentation (left screen
shot), view or print a copy of your notes for reference (right screen shot). To switch to
notes page view, click the Notes Page View button or go to View and choose Notes Page
from the ribbon or menu.

Master View
To add such items as a company logo or formatting you want to appear on every slide,
notes page, or hand-out, make your changes on the appropriate master. To switch to
master view, choose View, Master > Slide Master from the menu.
6.23Presenting a PowerPoint slide show
After you have created your slides for presentation, you can run your slide show
using one or more of the following methods to see how your work.
Do any one of the following:
o Tap the F5 key on your keyboard

o Click the Slide Show icon in the bottom-right corner of your screen
o Choose the Slide Show tab from the ribbon, shown below. You can

choose to start the presentation from the beginning, or any slide that you
choose.
Once your slide show starts (you should see it on your screen), you can use some
of the following features to advance to the next slide, return to the previous slide
or even to exit the presentation:
To go to: Do one of the following:
Go to the next slide.  Press the Right Arrow key.

 Press the Enter key.
 Press the Page Down key.
 Left-click the slide.
Go to the previous slide.  Press the Left Arrow key.

 Press the Backspace key.
 Press the Page Up key.
End the slide show and return to PowerPoint. Press the Esc key.
Printing Your Presentation
To meet your needs, there are several different ways in which to print your
presentation.
 Slides = one slide per page

 Hand-outs= 1-9 slides per page. Printing 3 slides per page will print lines
alongside each slide for participant note-taking.
 Notes Pages = Slide and notes (as displayed in Notes page on screen)
 Outline View = Text-only outline (as displayed in outline view on screen)

MODULE SIX (6)

BUILDING BLOCKS
Web Server: This is a computer that is connected to the internet. Internet content is
stored on a web server. We say that the content is hosted on the web server.
A person who wants to share content on the internet will upload the content to a
server.
People using the internet can connect to the web server and download the content.
Upload:
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Download:
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___________________________________________________________________________________
Web browser: This is the software you use to connect to the internet.
Examples: Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox etc.
Web page: A web page is a document that appears in the browser window. It
includes text, images etc. This content is downloaded from a web server.
Every web pages has an address called a Uniform Resource Locator (URL). When
you type the URL into the address bar of the web browser, the software will:
 Connect to that URL
 Download the content from that URL
 Display it on the screen of your computer.
Website: This is a collection of web pages on the same topic.
Domain name: The URL is the address of a web page. The first part of a URL is the
letters: http://
This stands for „hypertext transfer protocol‟. This is the communications protocol for
the internet.
(C) Web Page Design

After http:// is the next part of the URL, which is the domain name.
The domain name identifies where the web page is hosted and who controls or
owns the website.
Example: University of Trinidad – http://u.tt

CXC – http://cxc.org
Web page address
The URL of a web page is the domain name, followed by a forward slash and the
name of the page.
For example: The domain name for the International Cricket Council (ICC) is:
http://icc-cricket.yahoo.net/
The address of the ICC web page about women‟s cricket is:
http://icc-cricket.yahoo.net/match_zone/women_cricket/
6.24 Plan the website

Reasons for a website: With so many websites available on the Internet, let's first
understand why there is a need for businesses, educational institutions, groups and
individuals to have a web presence.
1. Your web site is open to business 24 hours a day, 7 days a week
Since a website can be viewed by anyone in the world with different time zones,
your website will be working for you during the day and when you are sleeping
at night.
2. Cost effective way to provide information
You can have many webpages that can share information about your products
or services. You can show pictures, video, descriptions, and link to social media
in an effective way. In this way you can share much more than using the
traditional methods of brochures, newspaper advertisements, and television
commercials and so on.
3. You can update the information on your website at any time. Your website can
be updated as necessary, as you add or remove products or services, as well as
modify prices, and marketing information.
With traditional advertising, you may have brochures that you may have to
discard, whereas any updates to the website are less costly.
4. A website is a good way to get new customers or get referrals
With the click of a button, customers can forward your website information to others,
or others can send their contacts to your website. Also viewers of the website can
make contact with you when viewing the website.

Intended audience: When designing a website you must first think about who will look
at it – its audience. You should consider the following:
1. Your website could be read by people all over the world because the internet is
global. English is the most common language on the internet, but there is a
great deal of content in other languages such as Russian or Chinese.
2. Use a style of language suitable for your audience. Children might prefer simple
language; older people might prefer more formal language.
3. If your audience is familiar with the internet, you can use more complex
interactive facilities.
Pages
A website is made up of pages. All the pages have the same domain name.
When planning website you must plan how many pages it will have and what
content should go on each page.
For instance, if a school sets up a website there might be a page for each class in
the school.
Home page – The home page is the page you see when you first connect to the
website. It is the default page. If you type only the domain name then you will
connect to the home page.
The home page will typically have: Hyperlink
o Introduction to the site or a general This is a connection from one
description website to another.
o Hyperlinks to other pages on the website.
Hyperlinks are sometimes called
There might not be links to every page from the home links and are shown as highlighted
page, if there are a lot of pages on the site. text.
For example, an organization website might have When you click on the hyperlink,
links to a page for each department in the school. On the browser will connect to the
each department page there might be links to the linked web page.
pages for each pupil in the class.
Finding the right page on a site
You want your website users to be able to find the content on the site.
 Sometimes a website has a page of links to site content. This might be called
an index page or a menu page.
 Another option is for the site to have a menu bar with links to the main areas
of the site.
 Other sites have a search box. You type in the topic you are interested in, and
the site search engine will link you to the right page.

Layout of the web pages
When you are clear about the purpose and audience you can make sensible decision
about the design and layout to use.
The design of the website includes considerations such as the colours, fonts and
images that you will use.
The layout of the website includes issues such as menu bar, the use of white space
and the use of images.
6.25 Create a simple webpage
HTML
Web pages are written in a computer language called HTML. This stands for
Hypertext Mark-up Language. Hypertext is text that includes link and other
features found on web pages. Web browsers software (such as Internet Explorer)
can read HTML. The HTML tells the web browser what to display on the screen.
HTML used tags which are enclosed in angle-brackets (<>). When the HTML is
read by a web browser the tags do not appear. But they tell the web browser
what to do. HTML can be used to set text features and include images.
Choosing an appropriate design for a web page

Sometimes each page on a website had a different design and layout. HTML
commands are available which set text size and layout, and the use of tables and
other features. Web authoring software will allow you to choose these options.
However, it is more common nowadays for all the pages on a website to use a
common template or style sheet. A standard layout is chosen, together with the
deign choices such as colours and background.
The people creating each page enter the text and A web authoring package is
other content, and a web page is created which specifically designed to allow
puts the page content into the standard site layout you to create web pages and
and design. web sites.
Inserting and deleting text and graphics Examples include

All web authoring applications will allow you to Dreamweaver and Microsoft
type in the text content of a web page. In general Front Page.
the appearance and functionality is similar to a
word processing system. There is a tool bar with Web authoring software also
format choices, which you apply to the content you called HTML editor
enter. Features such as copy and paste are
available.
If you want to include an image on a web page, the file with the image must be
stored on the web server. The page will include HTML commands that instruct

the browser to locate the image file on the server, and display it on the web page.
If the file is not available, an error message will appear on the web page.
The web authoring software will allow you to specify where the image will appear
and how the text will wrap or flow around it.
An image, colour or pattern can be used as the background to a website.
Thumbnail
A link to a web page or to a photo or other image can be shown as a tiny picture,
no bigger than a thumbnail.
These „thumbnails‟ work as hyperlinks. Click on the thumbnail image to see the
full size picture, or to go to the web page.
Entering links and thumbnails: As long as you know the URL or file location that
you want to link to, web authoring software provides the facilities to create all
types of hyperlink.
6.26 Create hyperlinks
What is a hyperlink?
This is a connection from one website to another. Hyperlinks are sometimes
called links and are shown as highlighted text.
When you click on the hyperlink, the browser will connect to the linked web
page.
An important feature of a website is the use of hyperlinks.
Many types of links are available:
1. Linking to another webpage
2. Linking to a location within a webpage
3. Linking to an email address – A hyperlink to an email address will cause your

computer to start up the installed email software, with the email address
entered ready to write and send an email.
4. Linking to user-created files – You can link to images and other files, as long
as they are stored in a location that is accessible by other internet
computers.
6.27 Test the website
You should test the web page at every stage of the process, both before it is
uploaded and after it is published. Make notes about the results of your tests
and make any changes to the web page.
Your web authoring software will give you the general impression of what the
final web page will look like but it isn‟t until you have published and tested it
that you will know for certain that it looks and functions just as you want it to.
Use of a web browser: There are several different web browsers available. They
handle HTML files slightly differently. You should make sure that the page
displays correctly using all common browsers.
Verify that all the hyperlinks work correctly: Your webpage will include one or
more hyperlink. Test a link by clicking on it and making sure it connects to the
right web page. Also test any other online function such as email and video clips.
Use a test audience: When you begin planning the web page or site you chose
the audience for the site (for example, people with a particular interest,
children). This is the target audience for your site.
Ask people in your target audience to test the site. They should try it out,
looking at the content and using the functions. If they find it difficult or
confusing to use then the site needs to be made simpler.
6.28 Publish and maintain a website
Registering domain names

An organisation called the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and
Numbers (ICANN) controls the domain names used on the internet.
Domain names are divided into groups called Top Level Domains (TLDs)
according to the final letter of the domain name, such as .com or .net. The final
code tells you the country or the category of the website.
ICANN delegates responsibility for each TLD to domain registries in different

countries around the world.
A domain registry keeps a database of all domain names in that TLD group.
Registries charge and annual fee for giving a domain name to a user. People
and organisations can register a domain name directly with the registry, or via a
web hosting service or other computer company.
IP Address
Every website has an IP address (IP stands for Internet Protocol). The IP address
is a long and complex number. A domain name is much easier to remember
than an IP address. When you register a name it is linked to your IP address so
that anyone typing the domain name in their web browser will connect to your
website.
Upload content
When an individual user wishes to publish a web page the HTML files of web
pages, and any other files such as images, documents and other items, must be

transferred to a web server which is connected to the internet. This is called
„publishing‟ the web page.
Web hosting service
What is Web Hosting?

Web hosting is a service that allows organizations and individuals to post a
website or web page on to the Internet. A web host, or web hosting service
provider, is a business that provides the technologies and services needed for
the website or webpage to be viewed in the Internet. Websites are hosted, or
stored, on special computers called servers.
When Internet users want to view your website, all they need to do is type your
website address into their browser. Their computer will then connect to your
server and your webpages will be delivered to them through the browser.
Most hosting companies require that you own your domain name in order to
host with them. If you do not have a domain name, the hosting companies will
help you purchase one.
Web hosts are companies that provide space on the web server with internet
connectivity.
The most basic service will give you a simple web page to upload your content.
May Internet Service Providers (ISPs) offer this service free to their subscribers.
Personal website hosting is generally quite inexpensive. Business website
hosting can cost much more because businesses often want larger websites,
with more services.
The web hosting services might also provide help with managing the website
and other services such as email. Some hosts specialise in certain services
(such as e-commerce).
Use FTP to upload files

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is the network communications protocol that you
use to copy a file from one computer to another over a network, such as the
internet. You typically use FTP to upload files to the web server.

MODULE SEVEN (7)
SPREADSHEET
How were things done before spreadsheets?

As little as 30 years ago, people used calculators, slide rules and paper to calculate
anything mathematical. In businesses and banks all financial transactions were
recorded by hand into various accounting books. This all took a lot of time and was
prone to errors, especially where long and complex calculations were involved.
7.1
Purpose of a spreadsheet
A spreadsheet is a table consisting of cells that holds accounting or financial data and
simulates the traditional physical spreadsheet; it captures, displays and manipulates
data.
Do you know of anyone in the Accounting business?
Well years and years ago, and even still today in some businesses, accountants use a
special paper to 'balance the books'. This was to keep track of who owes the business
money and what money the business owes to others. This information was kept in
books like a ledger, shown below:
With the introduction of technology,

an electronic version was created to make
it easier to track these transactions, and so
many electronic versions were created to
make these accounting tasks more

efficient. However, just as errors can be made on a paper ledger, errors can also be
made in the electronic spreadsheet.
What is a spreadsheet?
Initially, manual spreadsheets are

really large sheets of paper with long
columns and rows that are used to
organize data transactions. In
accounting, it shows all of the costs,
income, taxes, and other related data
on a single sheet of paper for the
user to examine before making a
decision.
Now, an electronic spreadsheet

organizes the data using the same type of rows and columns. Formulas can then be
used on the data to give a total or sum or other required result. The spreadsheet
program summarizes the data to produce information in a format that can be
understood to help the manager or decision maker see the results in a bird's eye view.
What are spreadsheets used for?
Spreadsheets can help companies to create and store their financial transactions as
well as help them forecast trends. This has made spreadsheets more useful than for
only for performing calculations. Spreadsheet have therefore become an important
business tool in an organization.
Since the first popular spreadsheet program VisiCalc (compressed form of the phrase
"visible calculator") was introduced in 1981, many spreadsheet software applications
were created, including:
 Corel's Quattro Pro

 Lotus 1-2-3: made it easier to use spreadsheets and it added integrated
charting, plotting and database capabilities
 Apple work‟s Filmmaker
 Microsoft's Excel
Jobs that use Spreadsheets

Accountants - Accountants need to calculate profits and forecast the success of the
business. They need to calculate monthly wages of staff.
Teachers - Teachers use spreadsheets to store marks for homework and exams.
Engineers - Engineers need to make calculations when designing cars, bridges,

buildings, aeroplanes, or even boxes and products.
Sales people - Sales people keep track of the products and services they sell, to see
how well each item is selling
Market researchers - Market researchers collect data from shoppers about their
spending habits and their awareness of different brands. All of this data has to be
collated and analysed in order to provide the company with a detailed report of what
customers think about their products
7.2 Terminology and notions associated with spreadsheet
The best way to learn about an application is to use it - click on different areas and
menus and icons to see what they do. Play with the application. However, since this is
a syllabus, we have some terms and notions commonly used with spreadsheets.
Useful terms
The following terms typically refer to

parts of the spreadsheet:
1. A cell is where the column and

row intersect. A cell can contain data and can be used in calculations of data
within the spreadsheet.
2. Active cell: this is the current or selected cell. In the image above it is cell A1.
Notice that letter A in the column is in bold as well as the number 1 in the row.
This helps to tell you which cell is currently selected.
3. Cell reference: we stated that the active cell was A1. Well, this A1 is called
a cell address or cell reference.
4. There are vertical columns and horizontal rows.
5. An Excel spreadsheet can contain worksheets. The workbook contains a set
of worksheets.

Let's look at some more terms as we become familiar with the spreadsheet. Here is
another spreadsheet below:
1. Formula bar: the horizontal area beneath the toolbar and to the right, where
formulas are displayed when they are entered and whenever a cell containing a
formula is selected. In the example at right, cell A4 contains the formula
displayed in the formula bar.
2. A formula is an expression that you enter into a cell. This formula performs
some calculation and places the result in the cell.
3. Sheet tabs: the tab-like entities at the bottom of the workbook area, designated
by “Sheet 1”, “Sheet 2”, and so forth, as shown here. Clicking on a tab causes
the named sheet to be displayed. The active sheet tab is the one currently
selected, here Sheet 1. Note the tab scrolling buttons to the left of the tabs;
these cause the currently displayed set of sheet tabs to be rotated to the right or
left.
4. Vertical scroll bar: in the example above, the bar at the right-hand edge of the
Excel window, used for scrolling up and down the sheet; similarly
the horizontal scroll bar is used for right- and left-scrolling.
Values: These are purely numerical data that can be used in calculations. If you
type any number into a spreadsheet cell then it will be treated as a value.
Labels: These are all other types of data, entered as titles and headings. If you type
anything except a number into a spreadsheet cell then this will be treated as a
label.
Formulas
Formulas begin with equal (=) sign before a formula, so that Excel recognizes
what you are entering as a formula. First, select the cell that you want the

formula to be entered. This cell will also be where the result will be seen. The
table below shows some examples of formulas
Sign Operation Example

+ Addition =A1+B1+C1+D1
- Subtraction =A1-A2
* Multiplication =C4*C5
/ Division =C4/D4
(...) Combination =A1*(B1+C1)
Function: This is a mathematical process that changes a value or group of values. A

function can have one or several inputs, and produces an output.
Range: A range is a group of connect cells. You can select it by dragging the mouse
pointer from the top left to the bottom right of the selection. The range is identified by
the address of the top-left and the bottom-right cells in the range.
73. Basic pre-defined systems functions
Understanding Ranges
Naming Ranges
Naming a cell or a range of cells is a very useful tool. Let's explain through an
example.
Suppose we have a formula that calculates a Total Income by an Income Tax Rate, and
is shown in a cell as:
=G12*K15
Looking at this formula tells us, that it is, just that, a formula. It however does not tell
us anything about the data in cells G12 or K12 or what they mean. So, we weeks from
now, or three months when you look back at the formula, it would be worst in trying
to remember what it meant.
Now, if we named the values in these cells, it may make a bit more sense. If we named
G12 as Total_Income
and
K15 as Tax_Rate
Then the formula in the cell would be:

=Total_Income*Tax_Rate
This is much more useful and easier to understand!
Assigning a Name
1. Highlight the Excel range you wish to name. In this example it is cell E1.
2. Go to the NAME Box where you normally see the cell address such as A1. Here in
the example below, you will see E1 in the name box since that is the active cell that is
selected.
3. Type in the NAME you wish to

use for the highlighted range. In
our example, we would overwrite
the E1 with CourseWork.
From now on, you can use this

range name in any formulas. For
example, in cell E2, we
use =D2*CourseWork instead.
You can also find a range of data or a cell that has been named by clicking the drop-
down arrow a little to the right of the NAME box and selecting your range name.
Rules for Excel Names
1. Your range name must not contain any spaces. This means CourseWork or
Course_Work is correct, but Course Work will give an error.
2. Your range name must not be a cell address. This means you cannot use E1 or
D2 or H12 as a range name.
3. Names must not be longer than 253 characters. This makes sense as you would
want short meaningful names anyway!
Finding and Deleting Names
If you want to see all the defined names for an Excel 2007 workbook, you can find a
listing.

1. From the Formulas menu,
select Name Manager
A dialog appears listing the

Name and cell references for
each one. You can also delete
items from here as well.
Basic Functions - SUM and AVERAGE functions
You want to save some money to buy a gift for a family member. So you start a small
job to get some extra money. As you count the money for each day of the first week,
this is what you have saved:
Day Amount
Monday $72.56
Tuesday $120.45
Wednesday $187.43
Thursday $143.69

Friday $117.52
Saturday $87.93
Sunday $92.12
So, let's find out how much you have worked for in the first week and also how much
you worked for, on average.
The easiest way is to enter the above data in a spreadsheet.
To use the Average function, one easier option is to use

the AutoSum in the Home tab. Click the down arrow on
AutoSum to see the following:
Now click the Average option. Because the answer is going in cell B9, make sure your
select cell B9 as the active cell. AutoSum option is useful when the data is in the
same row or column. But when it's not, you have to specify the range of cells to
calculate.

So click cell B9. The range of cells B2:B8 will automatically be selected. Click the
Average icon again and the average of the seven days would be inserted in B9.
To use the SUM function is quite similar to the Average function.
The Excel Date Function
To enter a date, click on the
Formulas menu at the top of Excel. Then locate the Function
Library panel. From the Function Library panel, click on Date & Time:
As you can see, there's quite a lot of Date and Time functions! The Date from the
menu, and you'll get the following dialogue box:

You're now being asked enter a full date.
 In the Year box, enter 2013

 In the Month box, enter the number 4
 In the Day box, enter the number 15
 Click the OK button
 Excel will enter the Date in your selected cell, A2 for us
Notice the DATE Function in the Formula bar:
=DATE(2013, 4, 15)
Between the round brackets of DATE, the Year comes first, then the Month, then the
Day.
If you want to format your date as say Monday 15th of April, then you need to click on
the Home tab from the Ribbon at the top of Excel. Locate the Number panel, and
you'll see Date already displayed:
Assignment
Maximum: Finds the largest number in the range.
Example: =MAX(A3:A10)
Minimum: Finds the smallest number in the range.
Example: MIN(A14:A20)
Explore these two yourself!
Basic Functions - Count
The example below shows the

function COUNT, which counts the
number of items in the list. The
result in cell C8 shows that there are
indeed five (5) items listed,

The IF Statement
The IF function is a popular and useful function.
If you are using a spreadsheet with questions such as 'Did the student the English
test?', 'Is the cricket match today?', 'Did I Pass the test?', - or more suitably - 'Is the
mark greater than 50?', then most likely you will be using an IF statement.
Here's what an IF Function looks like:
IF(condition, value_if_true, value_if_false,)
The thing to note here is the three items between the round brackets of the word IF.
These are the parts that the IF function needs. So let us look at the example, 'Did the
student the English test?'
Here's what the different parts mean:

condition
What do you want to check for? Is the number in the cell greater than 50, for
example?
value_if_true
If the mark IS INDEED greater then 50, then the answer is YES. (So the student
passes the test, for example)
value_if_false
If the mark is NOT greater than 50, then the answer is NO. (Then the student
has failed the test)
Alright, let us make this come alive with an example. Open a new spreadsheet, and
add the following data:
 Type the following in the formula bar:

=IF(B2 > 50, "Passed", "Failed")
Press ENTER key on your keyboard and your spreadsheet
should look like the one below:
(Make sure you have all the commas and double quotes in
the correct place, otherwise Excel will give you an error
message. Remember, greater than operator (>) is known as
a Conditional Operator.)
But what we're saying in the IF function is this:
logical_test: Is the value in cell B2 greater than 50?

value_if_true: If the answer is
Yes, display the text "Passed"
value_if_false: If the answer is
NO, display the text "Failed"
So your first tell Excel what you

want to check the cell for, then
what you want to do if the
answer is YES, and finally what
you want to do if the answer is
NO. You separate each part
with a comma.
Suppose you change the number in cell B2 from 62 to 42, look to see that the function
still works to update the response.

Rank
The function rank takes two inputs: a range of cells and a single number. It tells you
what the position of the number is in the range. That is, if the number is the biggest in
the range it gives the number1, if it is the second biggest it gives the number 2, and so
on.
Here is an example of the RANK function:
=RANK(B2,B2:B6)
This function will tell you what rank the number in cell B2 has in the range B2 to B6.
VLOOKUP:
=VLOOKUP(code,range,colomn)

Code: This is the value you are searching for or enter a cell reference to a cell where you type the code.
Text strings must be enclosed in quotes. In this case our code is Arjune.
Range: Where you see range enter the range of cells that contain the data records.
Column: Enter the number of the column that you want to take the data from – for
example, you might want to extract the student‟s surname. If the surname is stored in
column 2, enter the number 2.
7.4 Advanced Arithmetic Formulae
The operators that you need to know are:
Operator Meaning
+ Addition
- Subtraction
* Multiplication
/ Division
^ Exponentiation ("To the power of")
& To join two strings together
Formulas begin with equal (=) sign before a formula, so that Excel recognizes what you
are entering as a formula. First, select the cell that you want the formula to be
entered. This cell will also be where the result will be seen. The table below shows
some examples of formulas
Sign Operation Example

+ Addition =A1+B1+C1+D1
- Subtraction =A1-A2
* Multiplication =C4*C5
/ Division =C4/D4
( ) Brackets =A1*(B1+C1)
Excel Formulas
A formula is a set of mathematical instructions that can be used in Excel to perform
calculations. Formulas are started in the formula box with an = sign.

There are many elements to an excel formula.
References: The cell or range of cells that you want to use in your calculation
Operators: Symbols (+, -, *, /, etc.) that specify the calculation to be performed
Constants: Numbers or text values that do not change
Functions: Predefined formulas in Excel (Such as SUM, MAX, MIN)
Combining Arithmetic Operators: The basic operators you've just reviewed can
be combined to make more complex calculations. For example, you can add to
cells together, and multiply by a third one. Like this:
= A1 + A2 * A3
Or this:
= A1 + A2 - A3
And even this:
=SUM(A1:A9) * B1
In the last example above, the function and formula adds the numbers in the cells A1
to A9, and then multiplies the answer by B1.
To create a formula
 Select the cell for the formula

 Type = (the equal sign) and the formula
 Click Enter

Power of: In maths you sometimes wish to calculate a number „to the power of 2‟ or „to the
power of 6‟. For example, 5×5×5 can be written as 53 or „five to the power of three‟.
In spreadsheet the symbol ^ is used to stand for „the power of‟. So to calculate for 5 3 you
would enter the formula
=5^3.
The following table shows some examples of this formula.
Calculation Meaning Spreadsheet formula Results
53 5 to the power of three =5^3 125
102 10 squared =10^2 100
26 2 to the power of six =2^6 64
Brackets: Brackets can be added to complex formulas. The calculation inside the brackets
is carried out first. This is the same principle that you have learned in Maths.
Square root: A number squared is a number multiplied by itself: 2 squared is 2×2, 5

squared is 5×5 and so on.
The square root of a number makes that number, when it is multiplied by itself.
 The square root of 4 is 2. That is because 2×2=4.
 The square root of 25 is 5. That is because 5×5=25
It can be hard to work out square roots. Spreadsheets make it easy. The function to
calculate a square root looks like this: =SQRT(input)
The function begins with an equal sign, then the label SQRT, then brackets. All
spreadsheet function looks like this. Only the label is different for each different
function.
=SQRT(25)

would give you the square root of 25 – in other words, the answer is 5. This result
would be displayed in the cell where you entered the function.
The function =SQRT(C4)
would give you the square root of whatever number was in C4. If you changed the
number in cell C4 then the result of the function would change.
To include a cell reference in a function you can either type the cell address as letters
and numbers, or click on the cell while you are typing the function.
7.5 Common features &
7.7 Replicate formula into other cells
Copy and Paste: You can use the familiar Copy, Cut and Paste tools when working
with spreadsheets. Spreadsheet software lets you Copy and Paste labels, values and
other items such as formulas and functions.
Fill: As well as Copy and Paste from one cell to another, spreadsheets allow you to
copy contents of a cell to all the cells below it, or to the right, with one simple action.
This is called „Fill down‟ or „Fill right‟.
„Fill‟ is carried out using the „Fill handle‟ at the bottom right of the selected
spreadsheet cell.
Relative Cell Reference: A cell reference that changes as it is copied is called a „relative
cell reference‟. All cell references in all the formulas and functions of a spreadsheet are
relative cell references by default.
Relative cell references are useful when you want to carry out the same calculation
many times, using different data. Adding up a student‟s test results is one example.
Using a spreadsheet you can set out the data. Typically each set of data is entered in a
different spreadsheet row.
First work out the right formula to use in the first row of the data, and then you can
copy the formula down to all the other rows. Because of relative cell references, the
formula will change in every row, to give you the results you want.
Absolute Cell Reference: If you do not want a cell reference to change when a formula
is copied, you can turn it into an absolute cell reference. To do this you put a dollar
sign $ into the cell reference, in front of the column letter or row number. Then it
would not change.

B6 Is a normal cell reference Both the column and the row could change if
the reference is copied to another row or
column
B$6 Is an absolute cell reference The row number 6 is locked, and will not
change if the formula is copied to another row.
$B$6 Is an absolute cell reference Both the column letter and the row number are
locked, and neither will change if the formula is
coped to another cell.
7.6 Row and Column title locking
So, first of all, why is row and column title locking necessary? How can it help us?
When you freeze the Excel columns, it makes scrolling across to the right to view
lots of data in other columns much easier, because you can still see that first column
at the far left.
When you freeze the Excel rows, it makes scrolling down to view lots of data in other
rows much easier, because you can still see that first row at the top.
To freeze columns and rows in Excel,
1. Click the row number just below the area you'd like to freeze. The whole row should
highlight.
2. Click the cell on that highlighted row to the right of the columns you would like to
freeze. The highlighted row will disappear, but then you now have an active cell
selected.
3. From the View menu, select Freeze

Panes
 To unfreeze, click the Freeze

Panes button
 Click Unfreeze
7.8 Manipulate data on a spreadsheet

An important feature of spreadsheet program is automatic re-calculation which
adjusts solution according to the changes made on the spreadsheet.
7.9 Manipulate rows and columns
Inserting and deleting rows or columns
Before we can manipulate rows or columns in a spreadsheet we need to first

understand how to select those rows or columns!
To select all the cells in a particular

row:
Click on the row number (1, 2, 3,

etc.) at the left edge of the
worksheet.
Hold down the mouse button and

drag across row numbers to
select multiple adjacent rows.
Hold down [CTRL] if you want to

select a set of non-adjacent rows.
Inserting a row
 Right-click on the row and select the Insert option

 The data at row 6 in our example is pushed down one row to row 7. Row 6 will
then be blank.
Deleting a row
 Right-click on the row and select the Delete option.

 The data at row 6 will be deleted
 The data at row 7 will now be at row 6, data at row 8 will now be at row 7, and
so on
Similarly, to select all the cells in column,
You should click on the column heading (A, B, C, etc) at the top edge of the worksheet.

Hold down the mouse button and drag across column headings to select multiple
adjacent columns.
Hold down [CTRL] if you want to select a set of non-adjacent columns (for example,
data in columns C and E)
Inserting a column
 Right-click on the column and select the Insert option

 The data at Column C in our example is pushed to the right to column D.
Column C will then be blank.
Deleting a column
 Right-click on the column and select the Delete option.

 The data at Column C will be deleted
 The data at Column D will now be at Column C, data at Column E will now be
moved to Column D, and so on
7.10 Format spreadsheet
What is displayed?

You can enter a label, value, cell reference, formula or function into a spreadsheet cell.
What is displayed in the cell is not always the same as what you type.
Type of data What you type into the cell What is displayed in the cell
Label Any set of characters Exactly as typed, aligned to the

left.
Value Any number, can include a decimal The value entered, aligned to the
point. right.
Cell reference Equals sign followed by the address The contents of the other cell:
of another cell (You can also type either a label or a value. If the
the equals sign and then click on a content of the cell changes then
cell to reference it). the reference changes too.
Formula Equals sign followed by a The result of the calculation

calculation. The calculations uses -A value
values or cell references and
arithmetic operands.
Functions =FUNCTION(input) The output of the function

The input can be numbers or cell -A value
references
Text Formatting
The appearance of each of these can be altered using text formatting. Text
formatting in a spreadsheet is very similar to text formatting in a word processing
package. You can change the font, colour, size and alignment of the characters.
To change the text format, select the cell or cells you want to change, and select text
formatting options from the menu bar at the top of the screen.
Number Formatting
All values in the spreadsheet can be displayed using a range of number formats.
For example, if you entered the value 0.28 it can be displayed in many different
ways.
„General‟ number format is the default, and this will be used if you do not specify a
different format.

Number format What you would see in the cell
General (this is the default format) 0.28
Increase number of decimal places 0.28000
Decrease number of decimal places 0.3
Percentage 28%
Currency $0.28
Date Formatting
The NOW function enters the current date and time into the spreadsheet. This is a
function that does not take any input values. Type this in any cell:
=NOW()
The current date and time will be shown. The date and time will update every time you
carry out a calculation on the spreadsheet. You can also enter a date by typing it in.
A range of date formats are available which change the way that the date is shown.
7.11 Sort a Spreadsheet &
7.12 Finding record matching a given criteria
Sorting and Filtering allow you to manipulate data in a worksheet based on given set
of criteria.
Basic Sorts
To execute a basic descending or ascending sort based on one column:
 Highlight the cells that will be sorted

 Click the Sort & Filter button on the Home tab
 Click the Sort Ascending (A-Z) button or Sort Descending (Z-A) button
Custom Sorts
To sort on the basis of more than one column:
 Click the Sort & Filter button on the Home tab

 Choose which column you want to sort by first
 Click Add Level
 Choose the next column you want to sort
 Click OK

Filtering
Filtering allows you to display only data that meets certain criteria. To filter:
 Click the column or columns that contain the data you wish to filter
 On the Home tab, click on Sort & Filter
 Click Filter button
 Click the Arrow at the bottom of the
first cell
 Click the Text Filter
 Click the Information you wish to
Filter
 To clear the filter click the Sort &

Filter button
 Click Clear
7.13 Charting operations
A picture is worth a thousand words!
Often it‟s much easier to understand data when it is presented graphically, and Excel
provides the perfect tools to do this!
Creating a chart
It‟s very easy to create a basic chart in Excel:
1. Select the data that you want to include in the chart

(together with column headings if you have them).
2.
Find
the Charts category on the
Insert ribbon, and select your
preferred chart type.

Charts allow you to present information contained in the worksheet in a graphic
format. Excel offers many types of charts including: Column, Line, Pie, Bar, Area,
Scatter and more. To view the charts available click the Insert Tab on the Ribbon.
Create a Chart
To create a chart:
 Select the cells that contain the data you want to use in the chart
 Click the Insert tab on the Ribbon
 Click the type of Chart you want to create
Modify a Chart
Once you have created a chart you can do several things to modify the chart.

To move the chart:
 Click the Chart and Drag it another location on the same worksheet, or
 Click the Move Chart button on the Design tab
 Choose the desired location (either a new sheet or a current sheet in the
workbook)
To change the data included in the chart:
 Click the Chart

 Click the Select Data button on the Design tab
To reverse which data are displayed in the rows and columns:
 Click the Chart

 Click the Switch Row/Column button on the Design tab
To modify the labels and titles:
 Click the Chart

 On the Layout tab, click the Chart Title or the Data Labels button
 Change the Title and click Enter
Chart Tools
The Chart Tools appear on the Ribbon when you click on the chart. The tools are
located on three tabs: Design, Layout, and Format.
Within the Design tab you can control the chart type, layout, styles, and location.
Within the Layout tab you can control inserting pictures, shapes and text boxes,
labels, axes, background, and analysis.
Within the Format tab you can modify shape styles, word styles and size of the chart.
Copy a Chart to Word
 Select the chart

 Click Copy on the Home tab
 Go to the Word document where you want the chart located
 Click Paste on the Home tab

7.14 Graphical representation of data
Most of the time, data in a spreadsheet is represented in a table format. However,

interpreting data is most often understood and easily explained when it is in presented
in some graphical form.
The need of representing data graphically:
Graphics, such as graphs are used to represent large volume of data, and are quite
useful for the following reasons
 If there is lots of data, it is difficult to interpret results or see trends quickly.

 Graphical form makes it possible to easily see trends in the data.
 Graphics make comparing results more easy.
 We remember results and the pictures of charts easier for a longer time than
remembering the data
 It is a time consuming task to explain results and to draw conclusions about
the data if it is being presented in non–graphical form.
 These makes it easy to understand the patterns of data
Graphical Representations of data should have the following :
Title: The title of the graph must be clear and easy to understand.
Legend: The legend must clearly explain what the colours, lines, or bars represent. A
legend can be placed either at the right hand side or below the chart
Axes: The x-axis and y-axis must be labelled with a word or short phase
The charts most suitable for this syllabus are:
 Line graphs
 Bar chart
 Pie charts

Line graphs are usually drawn to
represent time series data such as
temperature, rainfall, or population
growth. Line graphs also represent two
or more sets of data on the same
diagram by different lines. It helps in
comparing the data. Some examples
include the growth rate of different crops
like rice or wheat in one diagram or birth
rates, death rates and life expectancy in one diagram.
Bar charts, also called columnar diagrams, represent immediate comparison of data.
Usually when constructing a bar chart:
(a) The width of all the bars or columns is similar.
(b) All the bars are placed a equal distance from each other
(c) Bars are shaded with colours or patterns to make them distinct for comparison.
(d) It is advisable to arrange the given data set in an ascending or descending orderare
drawn using columns.

Pie Charts are drawn to represent the total value of the given attribute using a circle.
by dividing the circle into corresponding angles.
7.15 Multiple worksheet
A spreadsheet file can contain many sheets of data. Each sheet is called a „worksheet‟.
A collection of worksheets is called a „workbook‟.
At the bottom of the spreadsheet you will see tabs linking to the other worksheets that
are available.
By right clicking on any of these tabs you can:
1. Add or delete worksheets

2. Change the name of the worksheet to give it an explanatory lable.

Cell references: A big advantage of using multiple worksheets in the same workbook is
that you can include all cell references to cells in other workbooks.
A cell address that refers to a cell in another worksheet includes the name of the
worksheets plus an exclamation mark. Like this:
Sheet1!A2
This means the cell A2 on sheet1.
So a normal formula might look like this:
=A4+B4+C4
A formula using data from several worksheets might look like this:
=Sheet1!A4+Sheet2!B4+Sheet3!C4
Multiple worksheets are used when summary results need to be put together from
different collections of data. Each collection is held on a different worksheet.
7.16 Import files
Just like inserting pictures, SmartArt etc. on Microsoft Office Words, Spreadsheet allows
you to do this also.

Database
A database is an organized collection of related data. Data on any subject matter can
be stored in a database.
Database management is the process by which information is organized and stored on
a computer in such a way that there is efficient retrieval, updating and manipulating.
A database package is a piece of software used to create and manage a computerized

database.
Types of database include:
 Manual Database
 Computerized database:
- Hierarchical Database
- Networked database
- Relational database- Microsoft access

In Microsoft access there is more than one way to look at the database structure.
These different ways are called „views‟.
 Datasheet View: this lets you look at the database as a table, set out in columns
and rows like a spreadsheet
 Design View: this lets you look at a list of all fields in the table, with the data
type of each field.
The four (4) main properties of database are information:
 Can be stored
 Quickly found(retrieved)
 Modified
 Deleted
A table is a basic unit of a database and contains data on a specific topic.
 The rows of the table are database records. Each record stores all the
information about a particular item or person(called an „entity‟)
 An entity is anything you want to store information about. An item, a place or
even an event can be an entity.
 The columns of the table are database fields. Each field stores a single item of
information ( called an „attribute‟).
 An entity has attributes. These are the facts you know about the entity.
Record
A record stores all the information about a single entity.
 In a typical database table all the information is shown as single row of the
table
 Every record in the table has the same fields in the same order
 A record is sometimes called a Tuple in computer jargon whereby records may
appear more than once.
Fields
A field stores a single piece of information, also called an attribute. In a typical
database table, a field is shown as a single column of a table, the name of the field will
also appear at the top of the column and every field has its own data type.
Data types
The data type determines what kind of data can be entered as well as what operations
the database can perform with the data.
Main data types of fields:
 Numeric fields that store number values

 Text fields that store characters, which are also called alphanumeric fields
 Logical fields that store yes no values
 Date and time fields
 Currency fields that store money values.
Properties
Properties determine how a field is stored, works and is displayed. Access
automatically assigns default field properties to each field, depending on the data type.
The following are a list of properties:
 Field Size
This property specifies the number of characters you want the field to have. It is
usually applied to text or number fields.
 Format
This (optional) property determines the way the field is displayed or printed.
- Text and Memo Format
- Number Format
- Date Format
- Currency Format
Examples:
John Text
http://www.contoso.com. Hyperlink
You can use any valid Internet protocol prefix. For

example, http://, https://, and mailto: are valid
prefixes.
1 Number, Long Integer
50,000 Number, Long Integer
50,000.99 Number, Double
50000.389 Number, Double
12/67 Date/Time
The date and time formats recognized are those of

your user locale.
December 31, 2006 Date/Time
10:50:23 Date/Time
10:50 am Date/Time
17:50 Date/Time
$12.50 Currency

The currency symbol recognized is that of your
user locale.
21.75 Number, Double
123.00% Number, Double
3.46E+03 Number, Double
 Caption
This is a label other than the field name that can be used in forms and reports.
 Default Value
This value is automatically entered in a field in each record of the table.
 Validation Rule
This specifies the condition that limits the value that can be entered into the field
or the requirements that must be met. For example, „< > 0‟ the value must not be
equal to 0.
 Indexed
Creating indexes on a field allows tables to be sorted and searched faster
What are database used for?
 Standardization- every record in a database has the same structure. This

means the user knows what information is held, and in what form.
 Fast retrieval: the way the information is organized makes it easy for the
computer to find items of data in the database.
 Large size: you can store thousands of record\ in a database, and still find the
ones you want.
 Multiple views: you can produce many different useful outputs from a
database, in different orders, with different records or fields.
Database design principles
The following are principles that must be taken into account when designing a
database:
 There must always be a way to identify every record in the database, so that the
user can find information
 Data must be stored in a standard way throughout the database
 Each item of data should be stored only once.
Use of identifying keys

There must be some way to distinguish each record from all other records in the
database. Fields such as „name‟ or „Date of birth‟ are not always unique. For example,
a school might have more than one student with the same name, so for this reason it
is necessary to have a Key Field which is different for each record in the database.
There are a number of key types which include:
 The Primary key- Most database tables include a primary key field which stores
a unique value. The primary key is often a code number which identifies each
entity in the database. In a school, students might have a „student number
which appears on a card that they carry. The primary key is usually the first
field in the table.
 Alternate Key- if there are other field as well as the Primary Key field which
could be used for the same purpose, these are called alternate key fields.
 Composite Key- Sometimes database designers decide to do without a primary
Key and use a composite key instead. A composite key is made by taking values
from more than one field, to find a unique way of identifying each record.
 Candidate Keys- Together, all these keys: the Primary key, Composite Keys and
alternate keys of the database are called „Candidate Keys‟. There are always
possible ways of identifying the records I the database.
 Other types of key- Some key fields are used for other purposes in a database.
Two examples of such keys are:
 Secondary key- As well as the Candidate keys, a database designer might
define a secondary key. This is not necessarily unique for each record in the
database, but is very useful when you need to find a record. It might be used to
sort or reorder the database.
 Foreign Key- are keys that are used to link together different tables in a
relational database.
Relational Database
 Good database design
A principle of good design is that a table should hold information about any one
type of entity. All the records in one table have exactly the structure and are made
up of the same fields. Each record in the table stores information about another
different entity, but all the entities are of the same type.
Another principle of good database is that each piece of information should be
stored only once in the database. It is easy to see why entering the same piece of
information in several places is a waste of time and there is chance to make a
mistake.
If you put these two principles together then you can see that most databases will
need more than one table.
Example:

In planning a database, you must decide which types of entities you need to store
information about. An example would be of a car rental database which needs to
store information about three types of entity:
 Objects: the cars in the car rental

 People: the rentals customers
 Events: when a customer rents a car.
Each table has a Key Field: a code that uniquely references each record in the table. It
is the first field in each table for example the field „Transaction code‟.
Relations between tables
Instead of recording all the information about a customer and every time they rent a
car, the clerk only has to record the customer code and the car number. Using the
code is enough, because each code links back to a unique record which has all the
other details you might need.
NB. The customer code and the car number are foreign keys in the transaction, they
are primary keys brought into another table to make a link between the two tables.
One-to-many
Each use of a foreign key makes a link between tables. One-to-many relationship is
the most common way of linking tables together in a database. For example, each car
might be rented many times, so once again there is one to many relationships.
Queries
A query selects records from one or more tables, based on specific criteria. This
resulting set of records can be viewed and analyzed and sorted. Any changes made to
the tables will automatically be updated in these queries.
There are several types of queries:
 Select query: which extracts data from tables based on a criterion or specified
value.
- Calculated field
- Summary
 Action queries
- Update query
- Append query
- Delete query
- Make table query
Calculated fields

A calculated field is a new field where the result of an expression or formula that is
created is displayed. The expression builder can be used to build the expression/
formula.
Example:
To find the overdue amount then you will have to go on an empty field and type the
new field name- Overdue, then followed by a colon (:) and relevant operators and
expressions
Overdue: [daysoverdue]*[Overduerate]
Forms
A Form is a graphical representation of a table. It allows you to create a more
aesthetically pleasing display for data entry.
You can add, update and delete records in the table from the form. You enter the data
you are looking for into the form and any records that match this are then displayed
on the screen.
Searching
Features such as „query‟, „find‟, „extract‟ or „filter‟ are mostly used but in access to
search for specific information. The Query feature offers many different search
functions to the user.
Searching by Criteria
When searching for data you typically have to specify a search criterion.
Relational Operators
The search criterion will typically specify the name of a field and the content to be
searched for in that field. Search criteria basically make use of relational operators
such as =, <, >, < >. Example to find if a library has a copy of the book smile orange
then the query to be entered is Book Title= „Smile Orange‟
Logical operators
Search criteria can be combined using logical operators such as AND or OR. For
example, the librarian might want to know not only whether the library has a copy of
Smile orange but also whether it is currently out on loan. The search query maybe:
Book Title = „Smile Orange‟ AND On loan= „N‟

Reports
A report is a structured printed output presenting information from the database in a
useful form.
Selected fields
When creating a database report, you select which fields you want to include, rather
than just too simply print out a data table. This will help to make your report neater,
simpler and easy to read.
Filtering
When you create a database report you can filter the database, so that only some
records are shown. In many database systems the report feature is combined with the
search feature. The software searches for records that match the search criteria and
only these records are included in the report.
Sorting
To specify a sort, typically you select a field and then specify whether the sort should
be ascending or desending.

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John Gordon

Module 1: Fundamentals of Hardware and Software 2

Module 2: Program Solving and Program Design 68

Module 3: Program Implementation

Module 4: Applications and Implications of Information and

Module 5: Information Processing

Module 6: Word Processing, Presentations and Webpage-design

Information Technology Workbook on Section 1-8 Page 2

 Describe a general-purpose computer system

Information Technology Workbook on Section 1-8 Page 3

A computer is an electronic device that processes data following a set of instructions

For their data processing speed

Information Technology Workbook on Section 1-8 Page 4

All hardware components of a computer are called Peripherals.

In order for information to be produced, data must be inputted/enter into the

Components of The Central Processing Unit

Information Technology Workbook on Section 1-8 Page 5

Fetching the instruction from memory

The control unit contains a number of registers. A register is a temporary storage

The Arithmetic and Logic Unit

Some of the logic functions are comparison such as:

Storage (The Main Memory)

Information Technology Workbook on Section 1-8 Page 6

QUICK SELF QUIZ (PAST CSEC QUESTIONS)

1. Explain the term peripheral device

2. Give two examples of a Peripheral Device in a computer system

A. CU B. ALU F. Main Memory

Using the list above, answer the following questions:

Which component preforms the following functions:

1. The calculation and comparisons …………………………………………

The movement of the mouse over a flat surface is mirrored by a pointer/cursor

Information Technology Workbook on Section 1-8 Page 7

Braille Keyboard: has raised dots to aid the blind.

Information Technology Workbook on Section 1-8 Page 8

Information Technology Workbook on Section 1-8 Page 9

A barcode is a set of vertical lines of differing thickness with a string of numbers

Information Technology Workbook on Section 1-8 Page 10

Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

Documents are difficult to forge

MICR readers are difficult to forge

Optical Character recognition/Reader (OCR)

Information Technology Workbook on Section 1-8 Page 11

As the name suggest, it is shaped as a pen and is connected to a VDU/monitor. It

Information Technology Workbook on Section 1-8 Page 12

Biometrics refers to the science of identifying an individual through the body

Chemical or physical changes in humans and their environment can be converted to

Information Technology Workbook on Section 1-8 Page 13

There are two types of output:

Softcopy: output or temporary output refers to information displayed on a monitor

Information Technology Workbook on Section 1-8 Page 14

2. Flat panel display – are of two types:

 Plasma Display uses a light created by a plasma discharged from phosphors

Information Technology Workbook on Section 1-8 Page 15

A monitor‟s full capabilities depend on several factors:

 Its resolution – determines the clarity and sharpness of an image when

Information Technology Workbook on Section 1-8 Page 16

Dot Matrix Printer

 Characters are formed from a matrix of dots

Daisy Wheel Printer

 Similar print to that of a typewriter

Information Technology Workbook on Section 1-8 Page 17

 Contains characters on a drum, chain or band that rotates at a constant speed.

Information Technology Workbook on Section 1-8 Page 18

Information Technology Workbook on Section 1-8 Page 19