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An amorphous, rigid and brittle material,

typically transparent or translucent, made by


fusing sand with soda, lime, and sometimes
other ingredients; and cooling rapidly.
Glass manufacturing materials can be divided
into 5 categories

1. Glass former
2. Flux
3. Modifier
4. Coloring agents
5. Fining agents
6. Cullet (broken glass pieces)
Glass former:

one of the most important components present


in any glass

 Silica (SiO2),
 boric oxide (B2O3) and
 phosphoric oxide (P2O5) are the most
common type of glass formers present in
oxide glass
 The use of silica glass is wide but melting
temperature of silica is too high (1600-
1725ºC).

 To reduce the processing temperature of


silica, different types of flux such as Na2O
and PbO can be used
 The addition of fluxes to silica reduces the
overall cost of glass processing but results in
degradation of properties.

 Sodium carbonate and calcium carbonate are


common fluxes. Potash glass is more dense than
soda glass.

 To overcome this problem, different property


modifiers or intermediates such as boron,
sodium, magnesium, titanium, and calcium can
be used to modify the properties of glass
 Colorants are used to control the color in the
final glass.

 The amount of iron oxides (impurities)


present in the glass results in unintentional
change in color of glass.

 The other types of colorants used are gold


and silver. These types of colorants change
glass color by forming colloids in glasses
 As the raw materials melt and react inside the
furnace, carbon dioxide and water emission takes
place which causes formation of bubbles.

 Fining agents such as arsenic, antimony oxides,


potassium and sodium nitrates are added to raw
materials to remove bubbles from the melt

 The high temperature and low viscosity is maintained


to raise the gas bubbles at the upper surface of the
melt and hence removed from the melt

 Finingis important because it controls the


homogeneity of glass by eliminating bubbles.
 The manufacture of glass is in four phases:

 (1) preparation of raw material,


 (2) melting in a furnace,
 (3) forming and
 (4) finishing.
 Depending upon the applications, there are
different processes of forming the glass.

 The most common type of glass forming


process can be categorized as:

 Flat glass
 Glass fibers
 Glass tubing
Flat glass, sheet glass, or plate glass is made
by two processes.

The processes are

 float glass process and


 rolled glass process
Ribbon of glass is made by pouring molten
glass from the furnace to a bed of molten
metal such as tin, lead and low melting point
alloys under controlled atmosphere.
In the drawing or rolling process, the
continuous stream of molten glass from a
furnace passes through a pair of water cooled
rollers
Fiberglass is available in two types

 continuous glass fiber and


 short glass fiber (glass wool).

The first one is used in fabrication of


composite materials and latter one is used for
thermal insulation.
Continuous glass fiber is produced by drawing
molten glass through multiple orifices
 In glass wool process , the molten glass is
ejected from a rotating head by centrifugal
spraying process
In this process, molten glass flows around a
rotating hollow cone-shaped or cylindrical
mandrel through which air is supplied
continuously to avoid the collapsing of glass
tube while the glass is drawn out by set of
rollers.
1. Soda-lime glass
2. Fused silica glass
3. Lead glass
4. Borosilicate glass
 Main constituent of practically all commercial
glass is sand.

 Sand by itself can be fused to produce glass but


the temperature at which this can be achieved is
about 1700°C. Adding other minerals and
chemicals to sand can considerably reduce the
melting temperature.

 The addition of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3),


known as soda ash, to produce a mixture of 75%
silica (SiO2) and 25% of sodium oxide (Na2O), will
reduce the temperature of fusion to about 800°C
due to sodium silicate.
 However, a glass of this composition is water-
soluble and is known as water glass.

 To give the glass stability, other chemicals like


calcium oxide (CaO) and magnesium oxide
(MgO) are needed.

 These are obtained by adding limestone which


results in a pure inert glass.

 Soda-lime glass is a mixture of sodium silicate


and calcium silicate.
 Simplest type off glass, consists mainly of
silica
 Made by heating silica to a molten liquid,the
liquid is then cooled rapidly to form an
amorphous solid
 Commonly known as Crystal or lead crystal

 Made by using lead oxide instead of calcium oxide,


and potassium oxide instead of all or most of the
sodium oxide

 Glass containing at least 24% PbO can be described


as lead crystal. Glass containing less than 24% PbO,
is known simply as crystal glass.

 Lead glass has a high refractive index making it


sparkle brightly and a relatively soft surface
 Glass in the form of ovenware and other heat
resisting ware, better known under the trade name
Pyrex.

 Borosilicate glass (or sodium-borosilicate glass) is


made mainly of silica (70-80%) and boric oxide (7-
13%) with smaller amounts of the alkalis (sodium and
potassium oxides) and aluminium oxide.

 As it doesn't break when changing temperature


quickly.
sodium borosilicate glass is widely used across the
chemical industry, pharmaceutical sector for laboratory
apparatus
The basic flat glass product that is the first result
of the float process.

It is common glass that tends to break into large,


jagged shards.

It is used in some end products and often in


double-glazed windows.

Also the starting material used to produce more


advanced products through further processing
such as laminating, toughening, coating, etc
Glass can fracture due to stress concentration.

To avoid the fracture of glass, local high compressive stresses are


induced near the surfaces.

This is done by thermal toughening of glass.

 Heating the glass plate to 650ºC after which rapidly cooling the
outer surface by air blasts.

 Due to which thin compressive layer is created at the outer


surface and the center of the glass becomes the region of tensile
stresses. This causes the self-equilibrium.

 The glasses used in glazed door and making tabletops are made
by this process and is termed as toughened or safety glass.
Made of two or more layers of glass with one or more
"interlayers" of polymeric material bonded between the glass
layers.

 Laminated glass is produced using one of two methods:


 Poly Vinyl Butyral (PVB) laminated glass
(Ethyl Vinyl Acetate (EVA) or Polyurethane (PU) are also
used)
 Cast in Place (CIP) laminated glass is made by pouring a resin into
the space between two sheets of glass that are held parallel and
very close to each other.

 Safety and security


Rather than shattering on impact, laminated glass is held
together by the interlayer. This reduces the safety hazard
associated with shattered glass fragments

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