789 Opl

LIBRARY OF MATHEMATICS
EDITED BY WALTER LEDERMANN
The aim of this series is to provide short introductory text-books for

the topics which are normally covered in the first two years of
mathematics courses at Universities, Polytechnics, Colleges of Education
and Colleges of Technology. Each volume is made as nearly self-contained
as possible, with exercises and answers, and contains an amount of
material that can be covered in about twenty lectures. Thus each student
will be able to build up a collection of text-books which is adapted to
the syllabus he has to follow.
The exposition is kept at an elementary level with due regard to modern
standards of rigour. When it is not feasible to give a complete treatment,
because this would go beyond the scope of the book, the assumptions
are fully explained and the reader is referred to appropriate works in
the literature.
'The authors obviously understand the difficulties of undergraduates.

Their treatment is more rigorous than what students will have been
used to at school, and yet it is remarkably clear.
'All the books contain worked examples in the text and exercises at the
ends of the chapters. They will be invaluable to undergraduates. Pupils
in their last year at school, too, will find them useful and stimulating.
They will learn the university approach to work they have already done,
and will gain a foretaste of what awaits them in the future.'
- The Times E.ducational Supplement
'It will prove a valuable corpus. A great improvement on many works
published in the past with a similar objective.'
- The Times Literary Supplement
'These are all useful little books, and topics suitable for similar treatment
are doubtless under consideration by the editor of the sel
- T. A. A. Broadbent, Nature
A complete list of books in the series appears on the inside back co~
COMPLEX NUMBERS
edited by
WALTER LEDERMANN
D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S.Ed., Professor of
Mathematics, University of Sussex
Linear Equations P.M.Cohn

Sequences and Series J. A. Green
Differential Calculus P. J. Hilton
Elementary Differential Equations
and Operators G. E. H. Reuter
Partial Derivatives P. J. Hilton
Complex Numbers W. Ledermann
Principles of Dynamics M. B. Glauert
Electrical and Mechanical Oscillations D. S. Jones
Vibrating Systems R. F. Chisnell
Vibrating Strings D. R. Bland
Fourier Series I. N. Sneddon
Solutions of Laplace's Equation D. R. Bland
Solid Geometry P. M. Cohn
Numerical Approximation B. R. Morton
Integral Calculus W. Ledermann
Sets and Groups J. A. Green
Differential Geometry K. L. Wardle
Probability Theory A. M. Arthurs
Multiple Integrals W. Ledermann
Fourier and Laplace Transforms P. D. Robinson
Introduction to Abstract Algebra C. R. J. Clapham
Functions of a Complex Variable,
2 Vols D. O. Tall
Linear Programming Kathleen Trustrum
Sets and Numbers S. Swierkoswki
Calculus of Variations A. M. Arthurs
COMPLEX NUMBERS
BY
WALTER LEDERMANN
Routledge & Kegan Paul

LONDON AND HENLEY
First published I960
in Great Britain by
Routledge &J Kegan Paul Limited
39 Store Street
London WeIE TDD and
Broadway House, Newtown Road
Henley-on-Thames, Oxon RGc; IEN
© Walter Ledermann I960, I96a
Second impression (with some corrections) I96a

Reprinted I964, I96S, I967, I97I and I976
No part of this book may be reproduced in any form

without permission from the publisher, except fOT
the quotation of brief passages in criticism
ISBN 978-0-7100-4345-0 ISBN 978-94-011-6570-9 (eBook)
001 10.1007/978-94-011-6570-9
Preface
THE purpose of this book is to prescnt a straightforward

introduction to complex numbers and their properties.
Complex numbers, like other kinds of numbers, are essen-
tially objects with which to perform calculations a:cording
to certain rules, and when this principle is borne in mind,
the nature of complex numbers is no more mysterious than
that of the more familiar types of numbers. This formal
approach has recently been recommended in a Reportt
prepared for the Mathematical Association. We believe that
it has distinct advantages in teaching and that it is more in
line with modern algebraical ideas than the alternative
geometrical or kinematical definitions of v - 1 that used to
be proposed.
On the other hand, an elementary textbook is clearly not
the place to enter into a full discussion of such questions
as logical consistency, which would have to be included in
a rigorous axiomatic treatment. However, the steps that had
to be omitted (with due warning) can easily be filled in by
the methods of abstract algebra, which do not conflict with
the 'naive' attitude adopted here.
I should like to thank my friend and colleague Dr. J. A.
Green for a number of valuable suggestions, especially in
connection with the chapter on convergence, which is a
sequel to his volume Sequences and Series in this Library.
WALTER LEDERMANN
t The Teaching of Algebra in Sixth Forms, Chapter 3. (G. Bell & Son"
Ltd., London, 1957.)
v
Contents
Preface page v
1. Algebraic Theory of Complex Numbers

1. Number Systems 1
2. The Algebraic Theory 5
2. Geometrical Representations
3. Roots of Unity 33
•• Elementary Functions of a Complex Variable

1. Introduction H
2. Sequences 4+
3. Series .7
•. Power Series 49
5. The Functions ef , cos /I, sin /I 52
6. The Logarithm 56
Answers to Exercises 60
Index 62
vi
CHAPTER ONE
Algebraic Theory of Complex Numbers
1. NUMBE.R SYSTEMS
Before defining complex numbers let us briefly review

the more familiar types of numbers and let us examine why
there are different kinds of numbers.
The most primitive type of number is the set of natural
numbers 1, 2, 3, ... , which t4e child learns for counting
objects. Arithmetic, the science of numbers, is based on the
fact that numbers can be added and multiplied, subject to
certain rules, to which we shall presently return in more
detail. It is the existence of these two laws of composition
and their mutual relation that we shall regard as the typical
feature of all numbers and that will serve us as a guide
for introducing new systems of numbers for various pur-
poses.
Let us recall how in the school curriculum we proceed
from the natural numbers to more elaborate systems. The
attempt to make subtraction always possible, ~hat is to solve
the equation a+x=b for x when a and b are given, leads to
the introduction of'zero (one of the great achievements of
the human mind I) and of the negative numbers. We now
have the set of all integers (whole numbers) .•. - 3, - 2,
-1,0, 1, 2, 3, ... Next, when we wish to carry out division,
we have to solve equations of the form ax=b, where a and
b are given integers and a is non-zero. In order to make the
solution possible in all cases it is necessary to intrOJiuce the
rational numbers (fractions). These numbers are denoted by
symbols bfa, where a and b are integers and a is non-zero.
When this stage has been reached, the four rulcs of arith-
1
ALGEBRAIC THEORY OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
metic, that is addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division apply without restriction, always excepting division
by zero. These basic operations are governed by the follow-
ing general laws, which are of fundamental importance in
mathematics.
I. a+b=b+a (commutative law of addition).
II. (a+b)+c=a+(b+c) (associative law of addi-
tion).
III. a+x=b has a unique solution, written x=b- a
(law of subtraction).
IV. ab=ba (commutative law of multiplication).
V. (ab)c=a(bc) (associative law of multiplica-
tion).
VI. ax=b (a#O) has a unique solution x=bla (law
of division).
VII. (a+b)c=ac+bc (distributive law).
Most of these laws, perhaps in a different guise, are so
familiar to the reader that he might be unaware of their
existence. Thus the associative law of addition implies that
a column of figures can be added by starting either from
the top or from the bottom. Again, the distributive law is
more popularly known as the principle of multiplying out
brackets.
The rational numbers are adequate for dealing with the
more elementary questions of arithmetic, but their defici-
ency becomes apparent when we consider such problems as
extracting square ro(}ts. For example, it can be shown that
v'2 cannot be expressed in the form mIn, where m and n
are integers, i.e. there are no integers m, n (# 0) such that
m2 =2n2 • Again, when we pass from algebra to analysis,
where limits of sequences playa fundamental part, we find
that the limit of a sequence of rational numbers is not
necessarily a rational number.t The situation may be
described by using a single co-ordinate axis
t Sell J. A. Greell, Stqwnces a7ld Series, in this .erica, p. 7.
2
NUMBER SYSTEMS
~1------~I---4I--+I----~I-+I---I~·--+------+I------+I--~~
-i -2 -i -I -t 0 -f 2 3
Figure I
on which in the first place we mark all the integers in a

certain scale. Then we imagine all the rational numbers
inserted, e.g. - 7/5, -1/4, 1/2, ... But even when this has
been done, there will be many points on the line against
which no number has been entered. For instance when we
lay down a segment of length '\1'2 (the diagonal of a square
of unit sides) by placing one end at 0, the other end-point
falls on a point of the scale which has as yet no number
attached to it. On the other hand, we intuitively accept the
fact that every segment ought to have a length which is
measured by some 'number'. In other words, we postulate
that every point on the axis possesses a co-ordinate which is
a definite number, positive if the point is on the right of 0
and negative if it is on the left of 0. This number need not
be a rational number. The set of numbers which in this
way fill the whole line, is called the set of real numbers;
they comprise the familiar rational numbers, the remaining
real numbers being called irrational, such as '\1'2, e, 11, log 2,
etc. (Of course, the word irrational means that the number
is not the ratio of two integers and has nothing to do with
the idea that something irrational is beyond the realm of
reason.) Alternatively, the real numbers may be described as
the set of all decimal fractions. A terminating or a recurrent
decimal fraction corresponds to a rational number, whilst
the other fractions represent irrational numbers.
From the way in which real numbers are depicted on a
line it is clear that there exists an order relation among them,
that is any two real numbers a and h satisfy either a=h or
a <h or a >h. This is indeed an important property when
we wish to use numbers for measuring. But in the present
algebraical context we are much more concerned with the
fact that real numbers, like rational numbers, can be added
3
and multiplied and that they obey the laws I to VII listed
on p. 2. We take the view that the existence of the two
modes of composition with their laws makes numbers de-
serve their name. Numbers are essentially things to be com-
puted, and any other properties, however useful for certain
purposes, are not part of the definition of number. One of
these secondary properties is the fact that real numbers can
be classified into positive and negative numbers together
with the ~sual deductions from it, such as 'the product of
two negative numbers is positive'.
For a long time it was held that arithmetic had reached
saturation with the introduction of the complete set of real
numbers. Indeed, there was no obvious geometrical or
technical problem that called for the creation of new num-
bers. Yet, one of the simplest algebraical questions remains
in an unsatisfactory state when only real numbers are avail-
able. For we should then be forced to admit that some
quadratic equations have solutions whilst others have none.
On the other hand, it is easy to see that all quadratic equa-
tions would have solutions if only we could solve the special
equation
(1.1)
for this would assign a meaning to '1/ - 1 and hence to '1/ - a,

where a is any positive number. Indeed, we could simply
put 'I/-a='I/-l'l/a. ~ow it is obvious that (1.1) cannot
have a real solution, since if x is real, Xl is never negative
and cannot therefore be equal to - 1. So in order to make
(1.1) soluble we have to introduce a new type of number,
for which the rule 'the square of any number is positive'
certainly does not hold. But this rule, or indeed anything
else concerning positiveness and negativeness is not a
consequence of the seven fundamental laws listed on p. 2,
and it is therefore quite conceivable that these laws can be
satisfied by symbols or numbers to which the terms positive
and negative do not apply.
We now formally introduce a symbol; which we treat in
4
THE ALGEBRAIC THEORY
the same way as an indeterminate x in algebra, except that i
has the addi tional property that
i2 =-1. (1.2)
More precisely, we (tentatively) postulate that when i is
adjoined to the existing real numbers, addition and multi-
plication in the enlarged system will still obey the seven
fundamental laws despite the bizarre stipulation (1.2).
On this assumption, we deduce from (1.2) that
i3=-i, i'=l, il=i, i'=-l, ... (1.3)
Thus a polynomial in i, that is an expression of the form
aO+ai+a2i2+a3i3+a,i'+ ... +a"i", where the co-effici-
ents ao, aI' ... , a" are real, reduces to the simple form a+ib,
where a=ao- a2+a,- . .. and b=al - a3+ali - • •• are
real numbers. A symbol of the form
a=a+ib or a+bi
where a and b are real, will be called a complex number.
The algebraical and other properties of these numbers, as
we shall feel justified in calling them, will be studied in the
remainder of this book.
2. THE ALGEBRAIC THEORY

The first prerequisite for a set of objects to qualify as
numbers is that they should be capable of being added and
multiplied. The natural way to define addition is to put
(a+ib)+(c+id)=(a+c)+i(b+d), (1.4)
collecting terms with i and terms without i. For example,
(3+2,)+(5+6i)=8+8i, (- 1+4,)+(2+( - 7),)=1+( - 3)i.
As regards multiplication, we obtain by formal multiplica
tion
(a+ib)(c+id)=ac+adi+bci+bdil ,
whence by (1.2),
(a +ib)(c +id) =(ac-bd) +i(ad+bc). (1.5)
The definiti~ns (1.4) and (1.5) constitute the basis for an
5
algebraical treatment of complex numbers. Although these
definitions appear to be quite natural or even obvious, they
can be accepted only if they are compatible with the seven
fundamental laws. This is indeed the case, but the verifica-
tion of this fact is somewhat tedious and we ask the reader
to take it on trust.
A complex number a+ib is completely given when the
real numbers a and b are known. The numbers a+ib and
c+id are equal if and only if simultaneously a=c and b=d.
Thus an equation involving complex numbers is equivalent
to two equations between real numbers.
It is possible to think of a complex number as an ordered pair
of real numbers (a, b), and the formulae (1·4) and (1·5) then
correspond to rules for adding and multiplying such pairs. Thus
(a, b) +(c, d) =(a +c, b +d)
(a, b)(c, d) =(ac- bd, ad +bc).
However, we prefer to regard a complex number as a single
mathematical entity and, whenever possible we use a single
letter to denote a complex number, thus ex =a +ib.
The real numbers a and b are called the real part and the
imaginary part of 0: respectively, and we write
a={J4o:, b=Jo:.
Note that the imaginary part of 0: is in fact a real number.
When Jo:=O, the complex number 0: reduces to a+iO, and
this symbol behaves in every way like the real number a.
In this case the rules for addition and multiplication reduce
to
(a+iO) +(c+iO) =a+c+iO
(a+iO)(c+iO)=ac+iO.
We shall therefore simply write a for a+iO and we accord-
ingly regard the real numbers as special cases of complex
numbers, namely those complex numbers whose imaginary
parts are zero. Note, in particular, that the multiplication
of a complex number by a real number follows the simple
rule.
a(c+id)=(c+id)a=ac+iad.
6
The complex zero and the complex unit are the same as the
real 0 and 1. A complex number of the form ib, whose real
part is zero is called a purely imaginary number. There is
no need to comment on the contraction of notation whereby
a+( - b)i is written as a- ib. Subtraction is evidently given
by the formula
(a+ib)- (c+id)=(a- c)+i(b- d).
We defer the discussion of division until we have intro-
duced a few more useful concepts and formulae.
With every complex number a=a+ib we associate the
conjugate complex number a=a- ib. Thus (i=a means that
a is real, that is b=Oj ii= - a holds if and only if a is purely
imaginary. The passage from a to ii consists merely in re-
placing i by - i. It should be noted that every significant
algebraical statement about i is also true about - i, because
both symbols satisfy the defining relation i2 =( - ,)2= -1.
It is easy to verify the important rules
a+p=;+p (1.6)
ap -; p (1. 7)
For example, (1.7) means explicitly that in the notation of
(1.5) (ac- bd)-i(ad+bc}=(a- ib)(c- id). In particular, we
have that ot2_(Ci)2, etc. An interesting result is obtained
when we multiply a by ii, thus
aci=(a+ib)(a-ib)=a2 - (ib)2=a2 +bI,
which is real and positive, except when a=O, in which case
it is obviously zero. The non-negativet real number
lal =v'(a2 +b2 )=v'{( 8l0:)!l+( Jo:)2} (1.8)
is called the modulus (absolute value) of a, and we have that
aii=10:12. (1.9)
We remark once more that 10:1 =0 if and only if a=O and
that for all complex numbers, other than zero, lal >0. Of
course, different complex numbers may have the same
t We adopt the convention that the square root of a non-negative real
Dumber always stands for the positive square root,
7
modulus, for example, conjugate complex numbers always
have the same modulus, thus 10:1 =I£il. Again, if o:=cos 8
+i sin 9, where 8 is an arbitrary real number, then 10:1 =
v(cos2 9+sin2 8)=1. When o:=a is real, the definition (1.8)
reduces to 0:=va2, which is equal to a if a>O and is equal
to - a if a <0. This agrees with the definition of the
modulus lal of a real number a, which is therefore general-
ized by (1.8).
Let {3=c+id be another complex number. We want to
consider the modulus of the product 0:{3. Using (1.7) and
(1.9) we find that
10:{312=(o:{3)(o:{3)=o:po:{3=O:ci{3P= 100111.erl • (1.10)
Since the moduli are never negative the extraction of the
square roots introduces no ambiguity, and we arrive at the
very simple result that
10:{31 =10:11{31. (1.11)
When we wish to translate this result into a statement about
real numbers, we work out lo:{31 by substituting in (loS) the
values for [jl(0:{3) and J(o:{3) from (1.5), thus
10:{312=(ac- bd)2+(ad+bc)2.
Hence (1.10) is equivalent to the interesting identity
(ac- bd)2+(ad+bc)2=(a2+b2)(c2+tF),
which of course could be readily verified by direct calcula-
tion. In particular, when 0:={3, the multiplication formula
(lo11) becomes \0:21 =10:1 2, and by repeating this argument
we find that 10:" =10:1", where n is any positive integer.
Examples.
li(1+')'1=4.
l =l-i l =l, 1- 51=5. 11+il=v(lI+12)=v2.
Itan 8+il=v{(tan 8)2+12}=lsec 81'
We can now describe a simple solution to the prob em of
division. Let o:=a+ib and {3=c+id be given complex
numbers and suppose that O::F O. It is required to find a
number e=x+,y such that
""=/J (cx~O) (1.12)
8
Let us assume for a moment that there exists sut..h a num-
e.
ber Then on multiplying (1.12) by ex we find that exiif=
a.p, that is
(al +b2)(x+iy) =(a- ib)(e+id) =(ae+bd) +i(ad- be).
On comparing real and imaginary parts on both sides we
see that
ae+bd ad- be
X= a2+b2' y= a2 +b2'
Thus if there is a solution at all, it must be given by
ae+bd .ad- be 1
f= a2+b2 +, a2+b2 = Iex I2ciP· (1.13)
Conversely, it is easy to see that (1.13) does in fact satisfy
(1.12). Indeed, exl~liiiP=I:12P=P. The unique solution,
exhibited in (1.13), will be written P/ex or Pex- l , or ex- l p.
There is no need to memorize the explicit formula for P/ex.
The argument which shows that there is such a complex
number is equivalent to the familiar 'rationalization of
denominators' in working with surds. Indeed, it should be
borne in mind that, after all, i=v -lis a surd. To simplify
a complex fraction we multiply numerator and denomina-
tor by the conjugate complex of the denominator, dius
e+id (e+id) (a- ib) (ae+bd)+i(ad- be) (1.14)
a+ib (a+ib)(a- ib) a2 +b2
which is equivalent to (1.13). In particular, we note that if
ex rF 0,
(1.15)
Summarizing, we can say that complex numbers are mathe-

matical objects for which addition, multiplication, subtrac-
tion and division are defined in such a way that the seven
fundamental laws are satisfied. The real numbers may be
regarded as particular cases of complex numbers, so that
any general property of complex numbers also holds for real
9
numbers. However, the converse of this statement is not
true. For example, there is no simple order relation between
complex numbers and the symbol ex <fJ is not defined, nor
is there any sense in referring to a complex number as being
positive or negative. These are attributes of real numbers
which cannot be transferred to complex numbers.
The simplest type of problem consists in reducing an
expression involving complex numbers to its standard form,
that is to the form x+iy, where x and yare real. This will
be illustrated in the following examples.
Example 1.
(1+2i)·
1-;
Example 1.
_1_· +_1_ 1- i + 1+21
1+; 1- 2i (1+,)(1-,) (1- 2,)(1+2,)
1- i 1+2i 7 1.
=2+-5-=10-10'·
Example 3.
1- ," 1- (;')1
1+;+,"1+;'+;'+;I+;'+i'=--. 1-, = 1-,. o.
Let f(x)=a~+alx"-l+ ... +all_1x+a,. be a poly-
nominal with real coefficients a o, all az, ... , all. If we sub-
stitute for x a complex number ex, we obtain the number
f(ex) =aoexll +a1cxll - 1+aacx,.-I +... +all_1ex+a.. (1.16)
We now wish to findf(Ci). Bya repeated application of (1.6)
and (1.7) we may do this by placing a bar across each term
on the right-hand side of (1.16) and across all the factors
of this term. But since the coefficients are real Qo=ao,
10
a1=a1, • Hence f(a)=ao(Ci)"+al(ii),,-l+ . • . +a". Or,
briefly,
f(a) f(ii). (1.17)
Suppose now that f(a) =0. Then also f(a)=O and (1.17)
implies that f(a) =0. Thus we have proved the important
result that if f(x) =0 is an equation with real coefficients, its
roots are either real numbers or occur in pairs of conjugat,
complex numbers a, ii.
We have so far confined ourselves to the four rules of
arithmetic for complex numbers. A systematic study of
more complicated functions will be deferred until geo-
metrical and analytical ideas have been introduced into the
subject. However, the extraction of square roots is an ele-
mentary process which can be discussed already at this
stage.
Let a=a+ib be a given complex number. It is required
to find a number ~=x+iy such that ~=a, that is
(x+iy)2=a+ib.
On splitting this equation into real and imaginary com-
ponents, we have that
r- y2=a, 2xy=b. (1.18)
Suppose first that such a number ~ exists. By taking
moduli, we deduce that lal = I~I = Iell, whence on squar-
ing <I eI2)2=laI2, that is
(r+y2)2=a 2 +b2. (1.19)
Combining this with (1.18) we find that
r=!(a+v'(a2 +b2) ), y2=!( - a+v'(as+b2) ).
The expressions on the right-hand sides of these equations
are never negative, so that the extraction of the square roots
yield real values for x and y, as it should. But when choosing
the alternative signs for x and y it must be remembered
that xy=!b. Thus when b is positive, x and y have the
same sign, and when b is negative, they have the opposite
sign. There are therefore exactly two, and not four solu-
tions of the equation ~=a «X:;l: 0), as one would expect: if
11
ALGEBRAIC THEORY OF COMPLEX NUMBrlRS
'1 =X1 +iYl is one solution, then the other solution is
'.= - '1= - Xl- ,yl' In a numerical problem it is usually
best to find the value of one of the unknowns, say :Je, and
then to obtain the other from the equation XY=ib.
Example. Evaluate v(5- 12,). Let v(5-12,)=x+iy.

Then xI- y=5, 2xy= -12. By (1.19), xI+y=
v(51 +( -12)1), xI+y=v169=13, with no ambiguity of
sign, since xI+Y>O. It now follows that 2x"'=5+13=18,
X= ±3, Y= - 6/x==f 2. Thus v(5-12t)= ±(3- 21).
The reader will recall that the number i was originally
introduced in order to ensure the solubility of certain quad-
ratic equations with real coefficients. At first sight it might
be suspected that the solution of quadratic equations with
complex coefficients might require still more general num-
bers. However, this is not so. In fact, the roots of
exe'+,8,+y=O,
where ex( ::f: 0), ,8, yare complex numbers, are still given
by the formula
(1/2ex){ - ,8 ±v(/P- 4exy)}. (1.20)
It is true, the expression under the square root is now in
general a complex number, but we know that the square
root of a complex number is again a complex number and
not a number of a higher type.
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER ONE

1. Express in the form x+iy, where x and yare real,
(i) (1 + 2i)(3 +4i), (ii) _+10' (iii) (2 + i)', (iv) ( + ~r( ~,
3 21 4 21,2-3 ' ,
3+4i ° I-i
(v) -+
1 210' (VI) -+
1 I0'
2. Solve for E:
(i) Cj+i)E+i=3.
( '0) s-- r 2
11 t- i= 3'
3. Find the sum to n terms
H(a+31)+(4+SI)+(6+71)+ ••• + {2n- 2+(2n- r).}.
12
4. Find the modulus of (i) "+3i, (ii) (a- i)'; (iii) _+1.,
S la,
(iv) 1+ r
J+ait-t'
(t real).
I
IXI I(XI •
S· Show that /J =TPi' Fmd the modulus of (l-a1) ' .
(I +2i)1.
6. Evaluate (i) vi, (ii) Cj,,+ZJ)t. (i~) (3+4i)J-.

? Solve the equation _-<3+i),+4+3;=«;).
8. Find a quadratic with real coefficients which has a+i as one of its
roots. What is the other root?
9. Prove that 100+III'+IIX- Jll1=alcxl'+aIJlII •
:.10. Solve a4- 2.1'+4=0.
13
CHAPTER TWO
Geometrical Representations
We have already remarked that the complex: number

~+t) may be thought of as an ordered pair (~,y) of reaL
numbers. As the reader knows from co-ordinate geometry,.
such a pair of real numbers may be regarded as the co-
ordinates of a point in a plane. We are thus led to the follow-
ing geometrical interpretation of complex: numbers: choose
a plane and furnish it with Cartesian rectangular axes Ox,
Oy. Let the number ~+Jy be represented by the point
P-(~, y). In this way we can plot complex numbers as
points of a plane (see Fig. 2). This plane (or more correctly
x-3+2i. 2i.
t x 2,+i.
-3 -2 -t 2.
x -t
-i- L
-·2L
Fiaure.z
14
GEOMETRICAL REPRESENTATIONS
such a plane) is often called the Argand plane or Argand
diagram or simply the complex plane. Any algebraical pro-
position between complex numbers can be translated into a
geometrical relation between the corresponding points of the
Argand plane, and conversely, any relation between points
of It plane can, in principle, be regarded as a relation be-
tween complex numbers. The reader should, however, keep
the logical situation clearly in mind: we have defined com-
plex numbers as algebraical objects obeying certain laws of
composition. The points of the Argand plane afford a
pictorial representation, which is helpful for many theoreti-
cal and practical purposes. But the representation must not
be confused with the object itself. By way of analogy, tem-
perature is often represented by the height of a column of
mercury, and this is a very useful device. But nobody would
suggest that temperature is a column of mercury. Besides
there are other ways of representing complex numbers (and
temperature).
From now on we shall frequently use the traditional nota-
tion for a complex number by means of a single Latin letter,
thus :r=x+iy or w=u+iv, where x, y, u and v are real.
For the sake of brevity, we often speak of 'the point :r',
when we should say 'the point representing :r'. Since the
x-axis consists of all the real points, it is called the real axis.
Similarly, the y-axis contains all the purely imaginary points.
It is, somewhat misleadingly, called the imaginary axis. (It
is, of course, no more imaginary than the real axis.) The
origin 0 corresponds to the number zero.
A different, but related interpretation of complex num-
bers is obtained, if we associate with the complex number
--+-
x+iy the vector OP, where P=(x, y), or more generally, by
• --+-
the duected segment P1Pz, where PI = (Xl> YI), P 2 =(XZ' YII)
and x a- Xl =x, yz- YI y. Again, if no misunderstanding
can arise, we speak of the vector :r instead of the vector
representing :r, and we shall even commit the convenient
--+-
abuse of language by writing z=OP.
15
GBOMBTRICAL REPRESENTATIONS
Let us translate the formula for the sum of z and w into
vector language, where z=x+iy and w=u+ifJ. We repre-
---+ -+ .
sent z and w by the vectors OP and OQ respectively (see
Fig. 3).
o x
Fiaure 3
Then z+w=(x+u)+i(y+fJ) corresponds to the vector

OR, where R=(x+u, Y+fJ). Evidently R is the fourth
vertex of the parallelogram, the other three vertices of
which are Q, 0 and P. Thus we have verified that the
addition of complex numbers obeys the parallelogram law.
-+
Note that z and w may equally well be represented by QR
-+ .
and PR respectively. We then have the relations
-+ -+ -+ -+ -+ -+
OR=OP+PR and OR=OQ+QR,
16
either of which may be described as the triangle law of
addition. The geometrical relation
~-+ -+ -+ -+
. OP+PR=OQ+QR (=OR)
means that .8,+ru=ro+:t, confirming the commutative law
of addition. In order to represent the sum fO=Zl+:t.+
•• .+z" of several complex numbers we fit the vectors that
correspond to z,., z., •••, z" into a broken line starting from
o (see Fig. 4).
z
••
•
{t•
••
••
••
:
o L---~w:-:---
Figure 4
PI, P,. P•• ••. are the points at the ends of In. %., :t•• •••
The vector that joins 0 to the end point of the vector .....
then corresponds to fOe In particular, the relation .8'1 +Zll+
••. +Z,,=O means that the broken line OP1P2 ••• p. is
a closed polygon (O=P,.). .
The difference between two complex numbers can also
be simply represented by the vector diagram. If and oP
oQ correspond to:t and ro respectively, then 'W- .8' is repre-
........
sented by PQ, that is by the vector that joins the end point
of z to the end point of ru.
If :t is represented by the vector oPt
where P=(x,y).
then the length of this vector is given by
l:tl =y'(~+r)·
17
--+-
More generally, if z is represented by P 1PI , then Izl =
--+-
P1P., the length of the segment P1P•. For let OP1=tor1 =
--+-
Xl +;Y1' OP.=X.+;Ya, Z=%I- %1' Then 1%11=(xa- XJ2+
(y.- Y1)I, that is 1%1 =P1P., the length of the segment.
If ,\ is real, the vector ,\z is parallel to the vector z and
its length is ,\ times that of %. If '\>0, the vectolS % and M
have the same direction, whilst if ,\ <0, their directions are
opposite to each other (see Fig. 5, where ,\>1). In particu-
lar, note that 1- zl=I%I. If %:;'0, the vector I!I% is a unit
vector (that is a vector of unit length) and has the same
direction as %.
Figure 5
Consider again the triangle OPR (Fig. 3) which illustrates

the formula z+w=w+z. Using the Euclidean proposition
that the sum of two sides in a triangle cannot be less than •
third, we arrive at the important 'triangle inequality!
I.+wl ~ Izl+lwl. (2.1)
18
The reader will understand that this is an inequality be-
tween the moduli of complex numbers and not between the
complex numbers themselves (as we know there is no such
thing). The equality sign in (2.1) holds if and only if the
triangle OPR collapses, that is if W= ~z, where ~ is a posi-
tive (real) number.
By a repeated application of (2.1) we obtain the more
general inequality
1%1+%2+" .+z,,1 ~ IZ11+lz21+·· ·+1%,,1·
It must not be supposed that there is an analogous inequality
for Iz- wi with the inequality going the other way. Indeed,
since 1- wi = Iwi, we can assert only that
1%- wi =1%+( - w)1 ~ Izl +Iwl·
A more useful deduction from (2.1) is as follows: put %=%"
and W=%I- Z2' so that %+W=ZI' Then (2.1) becomes
1%11 ~ 1%.1 +I Z1- z21,
or
I
Z 1- z 21 ~ IZII-IZ21. (2.2)
Now it is clear that by a suitable choice of z and w we can
make ZI and Z2 equal to any two preassigned complex
numbers. In particular, (2.2) holds for the pair (z., %1) in
which %1 and Z2 are interchanged. Thus we also have that
IZ 2- zll ~ IZ21-l zll·
On the other hand, IZ2- zll =1- (ZI- z2)1 =Izl- z21, so
that, as a companion result to (2.2),
IZ 1- z21 ~ IZ21-lzll· (2.3)
One of the inequalities (2.2) or (2.3) is trivial since its right-
hand side is negative or zero. Choosing whichever gives a
significant result we can write
IZ 1- z21 ~ /1.8'11-IZ21 1, (2.4)

which is valid in all cases.
A variable complex number z (or a complex variable, as
we shall henceforth say) which is subject to one or more
19
conditions traces out a part of the complex plane. Very often
such conditions involve the modulus of complex numbers.
Example 1. The equation 1%- al =,
where, is positive,t
describes the circle with radius r and centre at a. The
interior of the circle is represented by 1"'- al <, and the
exterior by 1%- al >r.
Example 2. The relation BI% > A (,\ real) states that '" lies
in the half-plane to the right of the vertical line x=,\.
Example 3. Suppose % is restricted by the condition
1%-11=1%+11. (2.5)
Since, generally, 1%- al gives the distance between % and a,
equation (2.5) corresponds to the locus of points equi-
distant from 1 and -1, which clearly is the imaginary axis
(y-axis), that is BI%=O (see Fig. 6).
Figure 6
Alternatively, we can obtain the result by calculation.

t We make the convention that the terms positive and negative shaD
imply that the number in question is real.
20
Thus on squaring (2.5) we find that
1.8'-11 8 =1.8'+11 2,
(.8'- l)(z-l)=(.8'+l)(z+l),
whence on expanding and simplifying, 2(.8'+i)=O, that is
fJb=O.
Example 4. A line which does not pass through the origin,

may be represented by an equation of the form
fJl(a.8') =1 (2.6)
where a is a suitable complex number. Indeed, let a=l- im.
Then (2.6) is readily found to be equivalent to lx+my=l,
the familiar equation of a straight line which does not pass
through the origin.
In order to discuss the geometrical interpretation of the
product of complex numbers it is convenient to use polar
co-ordinates (r, 8) rather than Cartesian co-ordinates (x, y).
The reader is no doubt familiar with the equations
:JC=rcos 8
y=r sin (J, (2.7)
which express the relations between these two systems of
co-ordinates (Fig. 7).
y
Z=X+ly
o x
Figure 7
21
Note that
(2.8)
which immediately gives us a geometrical interpretation of
the modulus: 103'1 is the distance of the point 03' from the
origin. The angle 8 will always be measured in radians,
unless the contrary is stated. Its value is, however, not com-
pletely determined by the equations (2.7), since arbitrary
whole multiples of 211 can evidently be added or subtracted
from it. In order to obviate this ambiguity, we impose the
further condition that
(2.9)
For a given non-zero number 03' there exists one and only
one value of 8 which satisfies (2.7) and (2.9). This value is
called the argument of 03', and we write
8=arg o3'. (2.10)
We do not define arg O. The relation tan 8 ylx, which is an
immediate consequence of (2.7), does not determine 8
uniquely, if, as is customary the function tan-It is defined
in such a way that, for all t,
- t11 ~ tan-It ~ 111.
Generally, the value of tan-I(Ylx) is equal either to 8 or to
8+11 or to 8- 11, and it is only after examining the signs of
both x and y and observing the condition (2.9) that we can
decide which of these three values is the correct one.
ElI'amples.
(i) arg 3=0, (ii) arg (- 3)=11, (iii) arg (1+t)=1114,
(iv) arg (- 1- i)=- 11/4. (Note that in both (iii) and (iv)
tan- I (y/x)=11/4.), (v) arg 2i=t11, (vi) arg (- t)= - t11.
In virtue of (2.7) the complex number z=x+iy can now
be written in what we shall call the polar form, that is
o3'=r(cos 8+i sin 8) (2.11)
where r=lzl and 8=arg z. Conversely, if 03' has been ex-
pressed in the form (2.11), where rand 8 are real and satisfy
22
the inequalities r ~ 0, and - 7T<8 ~ 7T, then this is the polar
form of z, that is we may infer that r=lzl and 8=arg z.
Next, consider two complex numbers in polar form,
ZI =rt(cos 81+i sin 81), z2=r 2(cos 82 +i sin 8s).
We then have zlz2=r1rS(cos 81+isin 81)(cos 82 +isin 8s)
=r1r2{(cos 81 cos "2- sin "I sin 82)+i(sin 81 cos 82 +
cos 81 sin 82)} so that
zlzS=r1r2{cos (8 1 +82 )+i sin (81+82)). (2.12)
From this equation we immediately deduce the fact, already
known to us, that
IZ l z 21 =r1r 2 =l z lll z 21·
On the other hand, it would not be correct to say that
arg Z1Z2 is equal to 81 +8 2, because this number might fall
outside the range (2.9). All we can assert is that
(2.13)
where k=O or 1 or -I, and it is only on examining condition
(2.9) that we can decide which is the correct value of k.
If z has the polar form (2.11), then
z=r(cos 8- i sin 8)=r{cos (- 8)+i sin (- 8)}.
When z¥- 0, we can use (1.15), that is z-1=r- 2z. Hence
!=!(cos
% ,
8-isin 8). (2.14)
It follows that
_ 1
arg z=arg z= - arg %,
unless z is a real negative number. When this is the case,

say when X=- p, where p is positive, then arg (- p)=
arg (-~) =7T. By combining (2.14) with (2.12) we can
easily obtain a formula for the quotient of two complex
numbers. Using the same notation as before and assuming
that zs'" 0, we find that
~l=Zl: =~(cos 81 +i sin ( 1)(cos (- 82 )+i sin (-8.) }.
"'2 "'2'2
23
Thus
~t=~ {cos (01 - B2)+isin (01 - B2)}
""2 r2
is the polar form of Zl/Z2' We may therefore infer that
(i) IZl/z2t=r1/r2 and (ii) arg (Zt/z2)=arg zt-arg z2+2kl7,
where k=O or 1 or - 1. If we are interested only in the lines
along which the vectors Zt and Z2 lie and not in the sense of
their direction, then it may be stated that arg (Zt/Z2) deter-
mines the angle between these lines.
Let us apply the product formula to the special case in
which one of the factors is i. Since Iii =1 and arg i=}l7,
the polar form of i is i=cos -1l7+i sin -117. Hence
zi=r{cos (O+!1T)+i sin (8+-11T)}.
Thus the vector zi is obtained from the vector z by a rota-
tion through -117. On repeating this operation we shall have
rotated z through 17, that is into the vector - z, or in sym-
bols, «z)t)i= - z. This affords a geometrical illustration
ofthe factthat i 2= - 1.
x
-z
Figure 8
24
More generally, if a is a fixed non-zero complex number
and s is a complex variahle, we may interpret the product
as (or sa) as an operation to be performed on s, that is the
vector s is carried into the vector@. If a=p (cos o:+i sin 0:)
the operation s-+@ amounts to multiplying the length of
the vector s by p and rotating its direction through an
angle 0:.
Example 1. Prooe that the diagonals of a rhombus intersect

at right angles. We may represent the vertices of the rhom-
bus by the numbers 0, a and b, subject to the conditions
o a
Figure 9
that lal =Ibl:# 0 and a:# ±b (see Fig. 9). The diagonals are
then represented by a- band a+b respectively. Our geo-
metrical proposition amounts to the assertion that arg
(a- b)/(a+b) = ± 'IT/2, or, in other words, that q=
(a- b)/{a+b) is a purely imaginary number. The necessary
and sufficient condition for this is that q+q=O. Indeed we
readily find that _
a- b ii- b 2aa- 2M
+
q+q=a+b a+6={a+b){a+6) 0,
because lal =Ibl.
Example 2. The distinct points .1' %. and s, are collinear

if and only if
25
Zl-Za=~
Za- Z•
is real, and then Za divides the segment represented by
Zl - z. in the ratio ~, with the understanding that ~ >0, if
Za in an internal point and that ~ <0 if Za is an external
point of subdivision. The condition is equivalent to the
statement that the vector Zl- Za is a real multiple of the
vector Za- z:a so that both lie in the same line.
Note that if Za is the mid-point of Zl and z., then ~=1
and therefore za=!(Zl+Z.),
Example 3. Let a and b be fixed complex numbers and

let Z be a variable, representing the points A, Band Z
respectively. Then the equation
z-b
arg--=~
z- a '
wher.e ~ is a real constant satisfying - 7T < ~ ~ 7T, represents
the circular arc that has AB as a chord subtending an
Figure 10
26
angle ~ at a point Z of the circumference. The comple-
mentary arc AZ' B is described by the equation
z'-b
arg - - = -
z'- a 1T+ ~
(see Fig. 10).
We now return to the multiplication formula (2.12).
which we generalize as follows. Let Zl. ZB • •.. , z" be a set
of complex numbers, each presented in polar form, say
zt=rt(cos Ot+i sin Ot) (k=1, 2, .... , n).
By a repeated application of (2.12) we find that the product
of these numbers is given by
ZlZ., .. Ztt=
T 1r•... rn{COS (0 1 +b.+ . • . +On) +isin (0 1 +0.+ .. . + Ott)}.
In particular, when Zl =z.= . . . =Zn=Z, we deduce that
ztt=rtt(cos nO+i sin nO). (2.15)
Specializing still further let us take a number Z for which
r=1, thus z=cos O+i sin O. Equation (2.15) then becomes
(cos O+i sin O)n=cos nO+i sin nO (2.16)
This remarkable formula is known as de Moivre's Theorem.
We have so far proved it only when n is a positive integer.
The formula is evidently true when n=O, if as is usual we
equate ,.0 to 1. Next, let n be a negative integer, say n= - q,
where q>O. Then
(cos 8+i sin 0)"= [(cos O+isin 0) q]-l=[COS qO+isinqO]-l
=cos( - qO)+i sine - qO) by (2.14)
=cos nO+i sin nO,
which establishes the validity of (2.16) for negative ".
Summarizing we can say that the "Ih power of the func-
tion cos O+i sin 0 may be obtained simply by multiplying
the argument 0 by n. The reader will know this phenomenon
from the general exponential function. For let !(:c)=a'Y.,
where a and 'Yare constants and a is positive. Then.
evidently, [f(x)]" f(nx). We shall now demonstrate that
cos 8+i sin 8 is in fact an exponential function of a special
kind, and it is only with this knowledge that we can gain •
27
real understanding of de Moivre's striking but seemingly
mysterious discovery.
At this point we have to anticipate some results that will
be systematically treated in Chapter Four (p. 43). When
11 is • complex number, the function e' (or exp z, as it is
more conveniently, but more clumsily printed) is defined
by the infinite series
z zll;r3 11"
e'=exp z=1+11+21+31+"'+ nl+···· (2.17)
When 1I=X is real, this series reduces to the well-known
formulat for es. We will not stop here to give an exact
explanation of what is meant by an infinite series with com-
plex terms, and we ask the reader to take it on trust that the
function defined by (2.17) has the properties expected of it.
In particular,
exp(z1 +z.+ . .. +zm) =exp 111 exp z•... exp 11m
whence exp(mz)=(exp z)m. Let us now put 1I=i8, where
8 is real. We then obtain that
,8 i 8 (i8)'iI (i8)S (i8)4 (i8)fI
e =l+n+2T+3T+4T+" '+111+' ..
=( 1- ~+ ~- :;+...) +i(O- ~+:;- ;j+ •• .).

the rearrangement of terms being easily justified by an
appeal to general results in the theory of convergence (see
p. 52). If we now use the familiar seriest
(p 84 • OS 8'
cos 8=1- 21+ 41-" ., S10 8=8- 31+51-'"
for real 8, we find that
e,9=cos 8+isin 8. (2.18)
From the general property of the exponential function it is
now clear that (exp iO)m=exp im8, that is (cos 8+i sin 8)m
=cos m8+i sin mO, and we have not only proved de
Moivre's theorem once more but have at the same time
placed it into the right setting.
t P. J. Hilton, DVl"..,.tiGl CakulUl, p ••7.
28
*
l6itl., p ....
The result (2.18) is known as Euler'sformula. It is one of
the most surprising discoveries in mathematics. By extend-
ing our number system to include the complex numbers we
find that the trigonometric functions cos 8 and sin 8 are
intimately related to the exponential function. This fact
alone would surely justify the introduction of complex
numbers. Let us consider a few special cases:
e/'ll"t=cosi+i sin;=(1+,)/v2.
e/'ll'/I=cos !'II'+i sin !'II'=i, e-/'II'/I= - i,
e/'ll' =cos 'II'+i sin 1T= - 1, e-I'II' = -1, and finally,
el /'II' = 1. (2.19)
This last result has far-reaching consequences. For if tl is
any complex number, it follows that
exp(tl+2m)=exp tl exp 2m=exp tl. (2.20)
Thus the value of the exponential function remains un-
altered when the variable % is augmented by 2m. More
generally, (2.19) can be replaced by exp(2mi1T)=1 and
(2.20) by
exp(tl+2mm)=exp %(m=O, ±1, ±2, .••) (2.21)
We shall later see (p. 53) that if exp (%+p)=exp tl for
all %, then p=2krri, where k is an integer. The equation
(2.20) is related to, and indeed a consequence of, the
familiar fact that cos 8 and sin 8 are periodic functions with
period 21T, that is cos (8+21T)=COS 8 and sin (8+21T)=
sin 8 for all 8. By analogy we shall now say that e' , too, is
a periodic function, whose period is 2m, a purely imaginary
number. The periodicity of the exponential function re-
mains hidden, if we restrict the variable to real values. It is
important to observe that when complex numbers are in-
volved, the equation exp %1 =exp tll does not necessarily
imply that tll =%., but only that tll =tl.+2mk, where k is
an integer.
29
The polar form of a complex number may now be writ-
ten more concisely as
z=r e".
Equation (2.18) tells us that in certain cases the exponential
function can be expressed in terms of the trigonometric
functions. We shall now show that, conversely, the trigono-
metric functions can be reduced to simple combinations of
exponential functions. For since the value of (J in (2.18)
was quite arbitrary, we may replace (J by - (J. Thus to-
gether with (2.18) we have that
e-IS=cos (J- i sin (J.
Solving these two equations with respect to sin (J and cos (J
we obtain that
(2.22)
We have derived these equations only for real (J. But we shall
later see that they are in fact valid for complex values of the
variable (p. 54).
As a further illustration we discuss the use of complex
numbers in the summation of certain trigonometric series.
Example 1. Find a simple formula for the sum

C=cos (ex+(J)+cos (ex+2(J)+ •.• +cos (ex+n(J),
(2.23)
where ex and 8 are arbitrary real numbers, except that
8".21Tk (k an integer). Along with (2.23) consider the sum
S=sin (ex+(J)+sin (ex+2(J)+ ..• +sin (ex+n(J).
By Euler's formula (2.18), cos (ex tr(J)+i sin (ex+r(J)=
e {a+ rs>, so that
"
C+i S= LeHa+rS)=e,exLe'r.,
"
r-l r-l
The last sum is a finite geometric progression with ratio
e'S. Thus
30
C+ •. S =e ,ex,'~
.. ''''-1 ,ex+-'"+1-8 e,,,·/I- e-,,,'/I
e e"- 1 =e I e"/I- e-f'/I ,
whence by (2.22),
C . s- ,ex+"+l,O sin n8/2
+, -e I sin 8/2 •
Finally, on separating real and imaginary parts we find that
C n+10) sin nO/2
=cos ( ac+-2- sin 8/2
and
. ( n+10) sin n8/2
S =SID ac+-- 2 sin 0/2 •
Example 2. Show that, if n is a positive integer,

n(n- 1) n(n- l)(n- 2)
- sin 0+ 21 sin 28+
T-n 31 sin 30
+... +sin n8=(2 cos iO)" sin inO.
n(n- 1)
Proof: (1+ef')"=1+ne f '+ 21 el f '+ ...
+e'"', so
that
T= J{(1 +e fl)"} = J{eH ,,'(e!fI +e-H '),,}
=J(eH1I' 2"cos"i8)=sin inO (2 cos i8)".
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER TWO

I. The points A.B are represented by the complex numbers II = 1- 3'
b - - 3 + 4i respectively. Find a point X on the positive real axis such
that A..XB i. a right-anlled triangle with the right angle at X.
a. Verify that the points 3+i, 3+ai, 3+3i, I+::&i are the vertica of a
square.
3. Find the region in the .-'plane described by the inequality
1.-11+\... -;1 ~4·
4. Prove that the points .1' ••, •• are collinear, if and only if there exist
real numbers Xl' ..\a, ~,not all zero, such that "I.I+¥.+A.z.=o
and "1+..\a+A.;=0.
5. Show that the equation Ei.+a..+a+,,-o, where E and" are real
and II is complex, represents a circle if E#:O and 1al·>I)', and that
it reprelents a .trsilht lino if E - 0 and a :F o.
31
6. The quadrilateral .1' ••••a••, can be inscribed in a circle if and only
if the cross ratio
.,i ••.•,}
{.1' =(.1- ••)(.a- .')/(.1- .,)(•• - ••) is real.
7. The vertices of a parallelogram ABVU are represented by the com-
plex nwnbers a. b, v, u respectively. The angle UAB is equal to
at and IUAI=AIABI. Prove that u=(J-q)a+qb and v=
-qa+(J+q)b, where q=Ae lat •
8. Show that if A¥: o. I, the equation 1(.- a)/(.- b)1 =A represents a
circle which contains a or b in its interior according as A< J or A> I.
9. Prove that if cos 8=c, cos 68=3:1c6-48c'+18c1-1 and sin 68/sin 8
=3:1C5 - 3:1c3+ 6c.
10. Express{l+itan 4m4 !11T}" in the form a+ib, where II and bare
real, when nand m are integers.
II. Prove that
I + sin f)+i cos 8 . 8+' 8
I +sin f)- i cos f) =SID I cos
and deduce that
(I +sin~+i cos~) 5+i( 1+8in~- i C08~r -0.
32
CHAPTER THREE
Roots of Unity
A complex number of unit modulus (r=1) is of the form

exp i8 or cos 8+i sin 8, where 8 is real. In the z-plane these
Figure II
points are represented by the points on the circumference

of the unit circle x2+y2=1. Note that the condition 02'%=1
is equivalent to i=o2'-1, so that complex numbers of unit
modulus are characterized by the fact that the conjugate
complex coincides with the reciprocal.
We now turn to the study of a particular kind of complex
numbers of unit modulus. Consider the equation
ztJ=l, (3.1)
where n is a positive integer. A solution of this equation is
called an nIh root of unity. Evidently, 02'=1 is a solution,
whatever the value of n, and this is clearly the only real
33
ROOTS OF UNITY
positive solution. When n is even, Z= - 1 also satisfies the
equation, but no real number other than ±1 can possibly
occur amongst the roots of unity for any n. However, the
situation is quite different, when we admit complex num-
bers as solutions. Suppose now that the complex number z
is a solution of (3.1). Then by taking moduli in (3.1), we
find that z1I=lzl"=1. Thus Izl is a positive solution of
(3.1) and hence Izi =1. Therefore, a root of unity is neces-
sarily a number of unit modulus, and we may put z=exp i8.
Our equation now becomes
exp in8=cos n8+i sin n8=1.
Comparing real parts we obtain that cos n8 = 1 and so
n8=2",k, where k is an integer. In other words, if z is a
solution of (3.1), it must be of the form exp (2mk/n). On
the other hand, every number of this form is in fact a solu-
tion, for
{exp (2mk/n)}"=exp (2",1u)=1 (k=O, ±1, ±2, ••. ).
It would seem at first sight that we have found infinitely
many solutions, one for each integer k. However, these
solutions are not all distinct. Indeed, if kl and k., differ by
a whole multiple of n, say k.,=k1 +sn ($ an integer), then
exp (2",k.j/n)=exp (2",k 1i/n) exp (2",SJ)=exp (2",k 1i/n),
in virtue of (2.19). We may therefore confine ourselves to
those solutions that correspond to k=O, I, 2, ..•, n- 1 (or
to any set of n integers no two of which differ by a multiple
of n). These n special solutions, namely,
.,) 2",. . 2",
Eo=I, El=exp (2"" n =cos-+, SID-'
n n
.,) 4",. . 4",
E.,=exp (4 m n =cos - + . SID - .
n n
.,) 6",. . 6",
•• =exp (6 m PI =cos -+. 8ID - .
.. n
a _ •• •
.,).
..
2k",. . 2k",
.....up (2k m .. -cos-+'8.n-.
..
34
ROOTS OF UNITY
'/) 2(n- 1)'17' •• 2(n- 1)'17'
En-1 =exp( 2(n- 1) ."., n =cos
n
+um n
.
are in fact distinct. For any equality between them, say
. 2'ITi(k-l)
Ek=E, (k>l) would lead to the equation exp 1
n
and on comparing real parts we should find that cos 2'IT(k-l)
n
=1. Moreover, every solution of (3.1) is included in this
list. For we have seen that any solution is of the form
exp (2'1Tik/n) where k is an integer which may clearly be
taken to lie in the range 0 ~ k ~ n-1. Notice that if E is an
n C" root of 1, so are all its powers
1, E, E2, ... , EII - 1. (3.3)
However, in general, these numbers are not distinct. An
nth root of unity for which the powers (3.3) are distinct, is
called a primitive nt" root of unity. It follows that if E is a
primitive n'" root of unity, the powers (3.03) constitute a
complete set of solutions. Whatever the value of n, the
number
(3.4)
is a primitive n C" root of unity, because its successive powers
are identical with the solutions listed in (3.2). In fact, Ek=
exp (2k'lTi/n)=(exp (2'1Ti/n»k=Et(k=O, 1, ... , n- 1). When
the nt" roots of unity are plotted in the complex plane, they
form the vertices of a regular n-gon inscribed in the unit
circle, one vertex being at the point 1 on the real axis. The
case n=6 is illustrated in Fig. 12.
Example 1. The fourth roots of unity are 1, i, - 1, - i.
Example 2. The fifth roots of unity are

2'17' •• 2'17' 3 .
Eo=l, E1=COS S+asmS =' 090+,'95111,
sm 5= -'8 9 +. 7 I.
E.=COS
4'17' ••
T+' 4'17' 0 0 58 8 .
35
ROOTS OF UNITY
Ea=COS 6; +i sin 6S1r = - ·8090- '5878 i.
E,=COS 8S1r+i sin 8s1r =·3090-·9511 i.
-I 1
Figure Ia
Example 3. If E is a primitive neb root of unity,

1+e8+e2,+ .•• +e(n-l)8
is equal to 0 if s is not a multiple of n and is equal to n if s
is a multiple of n.
For if s=nq, e B =1 and each of the n terms of the sum is
equal to unity. On the other hand, if s::/:nq, we can write
s=nq+r, where O<r<1. Then e B =e'::/:l, and the sum
may be treated as a geometric progression with ratio E'.
Thus it is equal to (e nB _ l)/(e'-l)=O.
The cube roots of unity are of especial interest in certain
electrical problems. They are the roots of the equation
z8- 1 =0. (3.5)
Of course, this equation can be solved from first principles,
and there is no need to invoke the general theory. Indeed,
since z3-1=(z- 1)(Z2+Z+1), the equation (3.5) is satis-
36
ROOTS OF UNITY
fled either if z=l or if z2+z+1=0 and so z=!(-1±iv'3).
In the traditional notation, the three cube roots of unity are
1, w= - !+i 1v'3, w= -!- i !v'3. (3.6)
This agrees with the general theory, according to which the
two complex cube roots of unity are
( 2'77'. • 2'77' S 4'77'. • 4'77'
€=) w=cos T+ t sm 3 , w =cos 3+' sm T.
We observe that W=W2, a fact that can easily be proved
directly. For, since Iwl =1, we have that w=1/w=w3 /w=
w2• Finally, we record the relation
w2 +w+l=O, (3.7)
obtained when we established (3.6).
Example 1. Prove the identity

xII+y+z3- 3xyz=(x+y+z)(x+wy+w2Z)(X+W2y+wz),
where x, y and z are indeterminates.
The reader will have no difficulty in verifying the result
I
by multiplying out the brackets on the right, preferably
starting with the last two brackets. A neater way, which
uses simple properties of d~er~in;ntsl is as follows: let
A= y x z
z y x
By expanding the determinant in the usual way we find that
A=xII+y+z3- 3xyz. On the other hand, by adding the
second and the third rows to the first row, we see that
x+y+z is a factor of A. Next we modify the first row by
adding to it w times the second and w2 times the third row.
The first row now reads
x+wy+w2z, z+wx+w2y, y+wz+w2x
that is
x+wy+wsz, w(x+wy+w2z), w2(X+wy+w2z).
This makes it plain that x+wy+w2z is a factor of LI.
Similarly on repiacing w by w 2( =w) we find that x+
c.I;'+wz is a factor of A. Since A is of degree 3 in each inde-
37
ROOTS OF UNITY
terminate, there can be no further factors except a constant.
By examining the coefficient of xl we find that the constant
factor is in fact unity. This establishes the result.
Example 2. The complex numbers ~u ~2' ~a are of unit

modulus and satisfy £1 +£2+£a=0.
Prove that
(::r=(::r =(::r=1.
When interpreted geometrically, the conditions are equiva-
lent to the statement that the vectors £1' £2' ea form the sides
of an equilateral triangle. Therefore arg (e2/e1)= ±21T/3,
the sign depending on the orientation of the triangle. Hence
£2=CU£1 £2=W£1'
or and in both cases (e2/£1)3=1. The
other relations are proved by similar arguments.
Having now learned how to extract the nITa root of unity,
we shall have no difficulty in finding the n determinations
of al / n, where a is any given complex number. (We may
clearly assume that a #= 0.) Let a p exp;rx be the polar
form of a and assume that %=T exp ;0 is a solution of the
equation
z"=a. (3.8)
Then,.,. exp (iOn) p exp ;rx, whence T="P, by which we
mean the unique positive value of the root and On=rx+21Tk
(k=O, ±1, ±2, ...), so that 0=(rx+21Tk)/n. We may there-
fore assert that al/n=';;p exp «rx+21Tk)i/n), because the
nITa power of the number on the right is equal to p exp ;rx=a,
whatever the value of the integer k. Confining attention to
distinct determinations of alln , we may write
a1/,,="vp eXPC:)£ik=O, I, 2, ••. , n-I), (3.9)
n runs through all the ntTa roots of unity.
where ~k=exp ( 21Tki)
Note the following rule: if b is a particular root of (3.8),
the complete set of roots can be expressed in the form
b, be, be2, ••• , ben-I, where 4: is a primitive nITa root of
unity. If a p exp irx, we may put b='{;p exp {ia:/n}.
38
ROOTS OF UNITY
Example 3. Evaluate (2- 2111'•. In this case p=/a/=v'8
and ex=arg a= - 'I't/4. Hence we may take b=
\l8(cos ~-isin ~). The four values of (2- 211* are
therefore b, bi, - band - bi.
Example 4. Obtain the three cube roots of 8i. Here we

have a=8i=8 exp (i'l't/2), /a/=8, {J='I't/2. Hence we may
put b=2 exp (i'l't/6)=2(cos ('I't/6)+i sin ('I't/6) )=v'3+i.The
other two roots are bw=2 exp (i: + 2~'I't) =2 exp e~'I't)
=-v'3+iandbwl =2ex p (i: + 4~'I't)=2 exp e~'I't)= -2i.
In the elementary theory of algebraic equation it is shown
that if the roots of the polynomial equation
j(z}=aOzta+alzta-l+azZn-z+ . . . +an_Iz+an=O
are exl, exll' ... , ex'h then the polynomial can be resolved into
n linear factors, thus
j(z}=ao(z- exl)(Z- ex2}(Z- exa) ... (.11'- cx,.).
The validity of this result is not affected if we admit com-
plex numbers for the coefficients and for the roots of the
equation.
Applying these remarks to the polynomial zn- 1, we
obtain the identity
.11'''-1=(.11'- 1}(.c- e)(z- ES} •.• (.11'- e,,-l), (3.10)
where E is a primitive n'h root of unity (see (3.4) ). Combin-
ing (3.10) with the well-known formula
zta- 1=(.11'- 1)(zta- 1 +Zn- 2 + . . . +z+1}
we deduce that
~"-I+zn-I+ • . . +~+l=(z- e)(z- el } .•. (.11'- ell-I).
(3.11)
Example 5. Show that, if e is a primitive nth reot of unity,

(1- E)(1- E2) ••• (1- E,,-I)=n.
39
ROOTS OF UNITY
This follows at once by putting z=1 in (3.11).
The factors on the right of (3.10) are linear, that is of the
first degree in z, but they involve the number E, which is
complex when n >2. If we admit quadratic factors, the
splitting can be accomplished with real factors only. This
is based on the observation that if y is any complex number,
(z- y)(z- 9)=Z2- (y+9)z+yy
is a quadratic with real coefficients, since both y+y< =2&ly)
and yy( =lyI2) are real. Now we know (p. 11) that the com-
plex roots of the equation (3.1) occur in conjugate complex
pairs. A typical root can b,e written E', and Er=(e)'=(E-1),
=1E-'=E nE-,=£n-,. Thus the pairs of conjugate com-
plex roots are as follows
(3.12)
where s=!(n-1), when n is odd and s=!(n- 2), when n is
even. Notice that when n is even, Etn= - 1 is a 'self-
conjugate', that is a real n'h root of unity. Let us now take
the special primitive root (3.4). Then
(z- E')(Z- En-,)=(z- E')(Z- E-')=Z2- (E'+E-')z+1
211T
=z2- 2 cos -z+1
n
in virtue of (2.22). Thus the final factorization is
t<,,-I) 2
zn-1=(z-1) '~1 (Z2_ 2 cos ;TZ+1), when n is odd
i<,,-2)
zn-1=(z-1)(z+1) n (Z2_ 2 COS2n1TTZ+1), when

,=1 even
n is
(3.13)
A similar procedure leads to the factorization of zft_ a,
where a is a given complex number. In fact,
Zft-a=(z-b)(Z-Eb)(Z-E 2b) ... (Z-Eft-1b),
where b is any number such that bft =a.
40
ROOTS OF UNITY
The algebraical identities which we have just established,
can be used to derive numerous trigonometrical relations.
Example 6. Show that

z'+z8+1= (Z2_2zcos2; +1)(z8-2zcos49'TT +1)
( z2 -~
,,_ 8'TT+1)
cos- (3.14)
9
and deduce that
2 cos 38+1=8 (cos 8- cos29'TT)(cos 8- cos49'TT)
(cos 8- cos89'TT) (3.15)
Use (3.13) when n=9 and observe that the factor that cor-
responds to r=3, is z8- 2z cos 23'TT +1=z2+z+1, the re-
maining three quadratic factors being as on the right-hand
side of (3.14). This expression is therefore equal to (z'- 1)/
(z- 1) (z2+z+1) = (z'-1)/(z8- 1) = z'+z'+1, which
proves (3.14). Next, divide (3.14) throughout by z8 and
then put z=e'. With this value of z, z+z-1=2 cos 8,
z8+z-a=2 cos 38, and (3.15) is an immediate consequence.
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER THREE

I. Write down all the sixth roots of unity in the form a+ib (a. " real).
2. Evaluate i1.I'.
3. Evaluate (2+2.)1/8.
4. Show that if \"'\=1 and gt",= -i. then .... ""'1.
s. Prove that. if w= - i+!i~3.. (i) aI+11'=(a+b-)(aw+bwl)(awl +bw),
(ii)(a+b+c)8+(a+bw+cuff+(a+bw'+cw)8=3(aI+11'+£,+6abc).
6. Show that the complex numbers 0, ". " correspond to the vertices
of an equilateral triangle if and only if "1+"1=",,.
7. Deduce from Ex. 6 that the numbers "'I' "'I' .... correspond to the
vertices of an equilateral triangle if and only if
-1+·1+-1=·... +·..1+·1·..
41
ROOTS OF UNITY
8. Write down the roots of ...'+ I =0 and plot them in the :r-plane.
Resolve ...8+ I into real quadratic factors and deduce that
cos 40=8 (cos O-cosi) (cos 8-coJf)( cos 8-coJi)
(cos 0- coal;).
9. Resolve r+ I into linear and quadratic factors with real coefncienta
Deduce that 4 sin~ cos"'!: = I.
10 5
10. Show that the roots of (... - 1)8+(... + I)~=O are
±icot'!!:',
12
±icotS7T
U
, ±i.
42
CHAPTER FOUR
Elementary Functions of a Complex Variable
1. INTRODUCTION
In the preceding chapters we studied complex numbers
from an algebraical point of view, coupled with geometrical
interpretations, and this enabled us to arrive at a sensible
and consistent definition of powers :II', where r is an integer.
We also discussed fractional powers and their many-
valuedness. Thus we are in the position to handle expres-
sions like (:ri+2:11- Ii)!(3zl+.), in which several such powers
are combined.
However, there remains a vast class of functions, familiar
to the reader from the real field, which has not yet been
extended to the case of a complex variable. We have
already mentioned, without proof, the properties of exp :II,
when :II is complex, but we have not considered the other
'elementary' functions sin z, cos z, and log z.
It is clear that the geometrical definition of sin 8 as
(opposite side)/(hypotenuse) in a right-angled triangle loses
its meaning, when the 'angle' 8 is replaced by an arbitrary
complex number. We therefore abandon the geometrical
approach and base our definitions on the series
z zl zl
exp z=1+11+21+31+... (4.1)
• :z3 Zli :;;7
smz=z- 3'+51-71+..• (4.2)
zl :r' Zl
cos z=l- 2'+ 4'- 6'+· .. (4.3)
To be sure, this raises the question as to what is meant by
43
FUNCTIONS OF A COMPLEX VARIABLE
an infinite series with complex terms, and we are obliged at
this stage to embark upon a digression on the convergence
. of complex sequences and series. Although we shall en-
deavour to make the next two sections as nearly self-con-
tained as possible, the reader is expected to be acquainted
with the correspondingf work on real sequences and series.
2. SEQUENCES
The notion of convergence of a sequence of complex
numbers can be reducod to the idea of a null-sequence of
real numbers, that is of a sequence of real numbers, which
tend to zero.
Definition. The sequence of complex numbers

ZI' ZII' Z3' ••• , Z", •••
is said to converge to c, in symbols, Za-C, as n-oo, if and
only if Iz,,- cl-O.
The geometrical significance of this definition is easily
.2, x
.
~ Z2
z·~ .. •
*~
o
Figure 13
t See). A. Green, Sequences and Senu, in thi, Library.

44
SEQUENCES
explained: plot the numbers ZI' ZI' Z8' ••• in the z-plane
and consider the sequence of distances of these points from
their presumed limit, thus
IZ1- cl, IZ2- cl, ••. , Iz,,- cl, • • • (4.4)
This is a sequence of non-negative (real) numbers, and the
assertion that z,,-.:;c means that the points ZI' z., ...
cluster around c in the sense that their distances from e
tend to zero as n tends to infinity.
An alternative approach is to split the complex numbers
into their real and imaginary parts, say z"=X,, + iy" ,
whence the problem of convergence is reduced to the con-
sideration of the two real sequences {Xn} and {y.}. The
equivalence of the two methods is contained in the follow-
ing theorem.
Theorem. The sequence Z"=Xn+iy,, tends to e=a+ib,ij

and only if simultaneously xn-.:;a and yn-.:;b.
Proof. (i) Suppose that ZfI-':;C in accordance with our
definition (p. 44). Thus IZfI- cl-.:;O and hence Iz,,- elll-.:;O,
or more explicitly,
Pn=(Xn- a)I+(y.- b)I-.:;O.
Recalling now the definition of convergence for real
sequences (note that Xn, Yn and pn are real), we may infer,
roughly speaking, that pn becomes arbitrarily small as n
increases. But (Xn- a)1I and {Yn- b)2 are each smaller than
P", or at least not greater, whence it follows that (xn- a)I-.:;O
and {yn- b)2-.:;O, and therefore
x,,-+a, y.-.:;b. (4.S)
It is not difficult to recast this argument into a rigorous
form but we refrain from doing so, as it would hardly be
helpful to the reader.
(ii) Conversely, assume that x,,-.:;a and y,,-.:;b. Then
retracing the steps in the preceding paragraph, we deduce
that (x.- a)I-.:;O and (y.- b)'-.:;O and hence that (x.- a)l+
4S
FUNCTIONS OF A COMPLBX VARIABLB
(y,,- 6)11 ...0. This means that Iz.- elll ...O, and finally
1=,,- el"'O. Thus z ....e according to the original definition.
Corollary. If z.-.c, then Iz.I ... lel.
For !lz.I-lell ~Iz.- el by (2.4) so that z.-.c implies
that Iz.I ... lel.
Notice that lim z. cannot possibly exist, if Iz.1 fails to
tend to a finite limit.
Examples.
(1.) z. (3+i1l)1
n'" Separatmg
. .mto reaI an d Imaginary
. . parts
9-n" 6 i . 9-nl
we have that z.=-a-+-=x.+,y.,
n n where x" nI
= -1+ 92 " , -1
n
andy.=~n...O. Hencez.... -1+0;=-1.
. (2 3,,\· S' 12 3'JI
4 9 145
(11) z,,= 3+4")' mce 3+4" ='9+16=144>I,ltIO-
. r I
lows that Iz.1 =(145/144)t" ten s to infinity, and hence
lim z. does not exist.
(iii) z.=( - 1).+~II· Here z. does not tend to a limit, be-
cause the real parts, that is x" =( - 1)·, do not form a con-
vergent real sequence.
(iv) If Izi <1, then z"",O, as n ...O. For we know that the
real sequencef Izl" tends to zero. Since Izl"=lzal, Iz"I"'O
or lza- 01 ...0 which means that z ....O.
(v) z.=(cos~+;sin~r·+l. By de Moivre's theorem
I'.=cos (211+1)," +; sin (2,,+1),". Since 211+1 ...2• it fol-
n " n
lows from the continuity of the functions cos B and sin B
that lim z.=cos 2,"+; sin 2'7T=1.
t J. A. Green, Ioc. cit., Example 2, p. 6.
46
SBRIBS
The rules for calculating with convergent sequences of
complex numbers are analogous to those for sequences of
real numbers. t
Rules. If ZA-C and wA-d, then

(i) zA+wA-c+d, (ii) ZA- WA-C- d, (iii) z"wA-cd,
(iv) ZA/WA -c/d, where in (iv) WA oF 0 for all nand d oF O.
We can either prove these results from first principles
by arguments similar to those used in the real case, or else
we resolve each complex number into its real and imaginary
part and then apply the known rules for real sequences.
Thus let zA=xA+iYA, wA=uA+ivA, c=a+ib, d=e+if.
Then, for example, ZAWA=(XA",,- YAvA)+i(yAuA+xAvA)'
Now our hypotheses imply that XA-a, ",,-e, YA-b,
vA-f. Hence zAwA-(ae- bf)+i(be+af)=(a+ib)(e+ij)=
cd.
3. SERIES
The definition of convergence of an infinite series
W1+W Il + . . ,+WA+' • • (4.6)
with complex terms WA =XA +iYA is the same as for series
with real terms.t In both cases the concept of convergence
of a series is reduced to the more fundamental notion of
convergence of a sequence.
Definition. The series

WI +wa+ • • ,+WII+' •• (4.6)
is said to converge to the sum W, if the sequence of partial
sums WI' WIl, ••• , WII, •.• defined by
W1=W 1, Wa=w1+w s,"" WII=w1+ws+" .+w., •.•
converges to W in the sense of the definition of section 2. The
series is said to diverge if the sequence of partial sums diverges.
t J. A. Green, loco cit., Chapter I, aection 6.
t See J. A. Green, loc. dt., p. a8.
47
On applying the Theorem of p. 4S to the sequence of
partial sums we arrive at an alternative definition which
states that the convergence of (4.6) is equivalent to the
simultaneous convergence of the real series
"1+".+ .. .+Un+... (4.7)
and
"1+"11+ .. .+"n+. . . (4.8)
formed by the real and imaginary parts respectively. For
if we denote the nUl partial sums of these series by Un and
VA respectively, we have that Wn=Un+iVn, and we know
that the complex limit formula lim W,. = W = U +iV, is
equivalent to the pair of real formulae lim Un = U,
lim Vn=V.
Thus it follows that (4.6) diverges if either (4.7) or (4.8)
diverges. For example, the series ~n;i diverges because
the seri~s of real parts, that is, .E(l/n) diverges.
Another useful test of divergence is furnished by the fact
that EWn certainly diverges if the sequence {Wn} does not
tend to zero. For in that case either {Un} or {Vn} does not
tend to zero, so that either (4.7) or (4.8) diverges.
The splitting of a complex series into real and imaginary
parts is often laborious and, as we have seen, involves test-
ing two real series for convergence. For most practical pur-
poses it is sufficient to establish absolute convergence, which
is defined as in the real case.t
Definition. The series WI +w.+. .• is said to converge
absolutely, if the series
Iwl l+lw21+... +IWnl+... (4.9)
converges.
The terms of (4.9) are, of course, real and non-negative,
and this series can be investigated by means of the familiar
tests. The importance of the concept of absolute con-
vergence stems from the following fact.
A. t J. Green,loc. dt., p. 45.
48
POWER SERIES
Theorem. An absolutely c071vergmt series is convergent.
Proof. Assume then that (4.9) converges. Since
IWnl =(u~ +vi)i;il: (ui)! = IUnl and since similarly
IWnl;il: Ivnl,
the comparison test for real series with non-negative termst
shows that the series (4.7) and (4.8) are absolutely con-
vergent and hence convergent.
Examples.
(1') 2:( -1)"+i cos n9 2:(-1)"+ '2:cos n9 converrres,
..
n"
- - ' J-
n-
, --q-
n" t:>
because the real and the imaginary parts each form a con-
vergent series. In fact, the series converges absolutely, since
(~-_l~)"_+~t_'c_os_n_ol ~ 1+1 cosnO\ ~ -2
1 n2
2 [Th'IS step uses (2 .1 )]
n-
0)
n'
(ii) 2:G~~D" diverges, because ~he general term does
not tend to zero, for
IG~~J"I=I~~~~I"=G!:)"/2=1
for all n (see p. 48).
(iii) 2: (1 ~ z)" converges absolutely provided that
Iz/(1- z)1 <1. This condition means that z is closer to 0
than to 1, that is, 9lz<t. (Alternatively, we can obtain this
result by calculation, thus IzI2<11- zI2 means that x2+y2<
(1- X)2+yll and so x<t.)
4. POWER SERIES
A power series is a series of the form
co+C1z+cllz2+Caz3+ . • •+cnz"+ • •• , (4.10)
where z=x+ry is a complex variable and where the co-
efficients COl CII Clll ••• are given numbers, in general com-
t J. A. Green,loc. cit., p. 34-
49
plex. It may happen that the series converges for all z,
obviously a very desirable situation, or again, at the other
extreme, for no value of z except zero, evidently a rather
useless case. In general, there exists a positive number R
such that (4.10) converges absolutely if Izl <R and diverges
if 1.:::1 >R. We omit the proof of this fact, but we note its'
geometrical interpretation, namely that each point of the
divergence
Figure 14
open circle Izl <R (that is, exclusive of the boundary) is

a point of absolute convergence whilst each point outside
the circle is a point of divergence. This leaves out of account
the points on the circumference of the circle. Their classi.
fication is often a difficult task and will not concern us here.
The number R is called the radius of convergence, and it is
a useful convention to put R=oo when the series converges
(absolutely) in the whole plane.
The determination of the radius of convergence is an
important problem. Notice that it involves only the series
!col +lc1ZI +IC2Z2 1+· .. (4.11)
with real non-negative terms. In many cases R can be found
by an application of the ratio test to (4.11). (It will hardly
be necessary to warn the reader that the ratio test must
50
POWER SERIES
never be used for the power series itself or any other series
whose terms are not positive.)
Examples.
(i) l+z+zZ+ ... +zn+ . •.. In order to examine for
absolute convergence we consider the limit, as n-+cx>, of
the ratio Iznlllzn-11 =Izi. Since the ratio happens to be
independent of n, it follows that lim Iznlllzn-11=lzl. The
ratio test now tells us that the series converges absolutely
when Izi <1 and that it diverges when Izi >1. Thus in
this case R=l. In fact, when Izi <1, it is shown as in the
real case, that 1+z+z2+ ... +zn+ . .. =(1- Z>-1.
(ii) The series
zzSz3 zn
E{z)=1+ 1l + 2!+31+"'+ n!+'" (4.12)
.I
converges absolutely for a 1 z. The proof is the same as in
zn+1
the real case·t Indeed, It (n+l)! III z1ln!1 =hm
• n+1
Izl =OJ
irrespective of the value of z.
(iii) The series C(z)=l-;;+~-z:!+ . .. and
z3 Z5 Z7
S(z)=z- 31+5!- 71+" also converge for all z, as the
reader can readily prove.
As long as the variable i restricted to lie inside the circle
of convergence, the manip lation of power series is in many
ways analogous to that of finite sums (polynomials). Thus
two power series may b added and subtracted in the
obvious way and if
1(z)=aO+a1z+a2z2+• ••
and
g(w)=bo+b1w+b sw2+ • ••
both converge absolutely for certain values of :l and fD,
fez) g(w)=aobo+(a1bOz+aObl W )+{a2boZl+alb1zw+aobaw2) •••
f J. A. Green, loco cie.,p. 48
51
Thus absolutely convergent power series may be multiplied
term by term, and the terms may be arranged in any man-
ner,t for example according to increasing degrees in the
variables III and aI.
Example.
(1- IIltl=(1- IIltl(1- IIltl
=(1 + III +1Il2 + ...)(1 +1Il+1Il2 + . •• )
=1+211l+311l2 +4z3+ • ..
Complex series are sometimes a useful tool for obtaining
results about real series. The following example will serve
as an illustration. In the formula (1- IIlt 1 =1+1Il+z3+ . ..
(11Il1 <1) put lIl=r e'8 (r<1) and compare real parts. Thus
1+r cos 8+rcos 28+ •• •=&1(1- re'8t1
1-rcos8
1- 2r cos 8+rI'
Assume now that 0<8<!1T. It follows that o<cos 8<1,
so that the last equation is valid for r=cos 8. Hence
l+(cos 8)'+(cos 8)2 cos 28+(cos 8)8 cos 38+ ..•
1-cosl! 8 1
1-cos· 8
and therefore
cos 8+cos 8 cos 28+(cos 8)1 cos 38
+(cos 8)3 cos 48+ ••• =0.
S. THE FUNCTIONS e', cos Ill, sin III

We have seen that the infinite series E(IIl), C(IIl) and Sea')
which we discussed in the preceding section, converge for
every value of Ill. In other words, they are functions of Ill,
defined for all values of Ill. When IIl=X, where x is real,
these series agree with the expansions: of the familiar func-
tions exp x (or e S ), sin x and cos x, which shows that our
definitions are reasonable. Henceforth we shall write
t See J. A. Green, Zoe. tit., pp. 51-4-
t P. J. Hilton, DiIf...1i4l CGlt:UIw, p .•7 and p. 44.
52
THE FUNCTIONS e z, cos z, sin z
exp %, (or ell), cos % and sin % in place of E(%), C(%) and
8(03) respectively. All relevant properties of these functions
must be derived, directly or indirectly, from their defini-
tions as power series, as will now be illustrated in a few
simple cases.
(i) The most important property of the exponential
function is the functional equatio1J
exp z exp w=exp (z+w) (4.12)
The prooft is exactly the same as for a real variable and
need not be repeated here. In particular, on putting w= - Z,
we see that the relation exp z exp (- z)=exp 0=1 holds
also for complex %, whence it follows that the exponential
function is never zero.
The reader should, however, beware of uncritically trans-
ferring unproved assertions from the real to the complex
domain. For instance, the statement that exp x is always
positive, is true for real values of x, but for complex 03 the
series for exp 03 need no longer be real, let alone positive.
For example, we know that exp (m)= - 1.
(ii) Replacing z by iz in the definition (4.12) we find that
. io3 Z2 izll z' iz& o3'
exp (I1T)=1+11- 21 :-31+ 41+ 51- 61-'··
=(1- ;;+~- )+i(Z- ~+;;- ...).

Thus we obtain the fundamental relation
exp iz=cos z+i sin Z; (4.14)
a special case was already mentioned on p. 29. We recall
that (4.14) leads to the important equation exp (2m)=1
and hence to the fact that exp z is periodic with period 2m.
Since (4.14) holds for arbitrary complex values, we may
replace z by - z, thus
exp (- iz)=cos (- z)+i sin (- z).
Now inspection of the defining series shows that cos z is
an even function and that sin z is an odd function, that is
t J. A. Green, loco cit., pp. 5a-3'
53
FUNCTIONS OF A COMPLBX VARIABLB
cos (- ...)=COS ..., sin (- ...)= - sin .... (4.15)
It follows that
exp (- i%)=cos ... - i sin %. (4.16)
Combining (4.14) and (4.16) we obtain that
1
cos z='2(e"+e- f .)
} (4.17)
sin %=~(e"- e-").
Thus it has become apparent that in the complex domain

the functions cos %and sin z are little more than abbrevia-
tions of simple combinations of exponential functions. The
number of elementary functions has therefore virtually
been reduced from three to one. This fact remains hidden, if
we confine ourselves to real variables. Note that (4.17)
reduces to (2.22), when ... =8, where 8 is real. In this book,
we take the familiar properties of cos 8 and sin 8 for
granted. In particular, we do not intend to 'define' 'IT and
to prove that CGS t.".=O and sin t'IT=I, etc. On the other
hand, it is relevant to ask whether formulae like the addition
theorem
sin (%+w)=sin z cos w+cos ... sin w (4.18)
still hold when ... and ware complex. In order to prove this
result consider
. e' 11- e-" e hD +e-'1II
2 SID %cos w=2 2i 2
1
-2i{(e"- e- h )(e'lII+e-'III)}
1
= U{e H .+ III)- e-'('+III)+e'(II-III)- e-'('-III)},
that is
2 sin ... cos fl1=sin (... +w)+sin (... -w).
On interchanging %and w we derive the further relation
2 cos ... sin fl1=sin (z+w)- sin (... - w),
S4
THE PUNCTIONS e', cos ~, sin ~
whence (4.18) follows at once by addition. In particular,
when W=!7T, we see that
sin (!7T+.a-)=cos:r, (4.19)
and similarly, that sin (7T+Z)= - sin :r, cos (7T+Z)=
- cos z, etc. The remaining addition formulae, namely,
cos (:r+w)=cos z cos w- sin z sin w
sin (z- w)=sin :r cos w- cos z sin w
cos (:r- w)=cos z cos w+sin:r sin w
easily follow from (4.18) by substituting for tv either
!7T+W or - w. Note that when :r=w, the last equation
reduces to
COSI :r+sin' :r=1. (4.20)
From this relation it must not be inferred, as in the real
case, that cos z and sin z have moduli less than unity. For
these functions may in general take complex values, and
the square is no longer the same as the square of the
modulus. For example, let p be a positive number. Then
cos (ip)=!(e-21+e21) >!e 21,
since e-P>O. Thus we see that cos ip is real and can exceed
any bound, if p is sufficiently great.
The remaining trigonometric functions are less important
and are defined in terms of cos z and sin z in the usual
way. For example,
sin 11" 1 e"- e-"
tan :r=-- = -: .
cosz ,e"+e-"
The reader will observe that our definition of sin :r and
cos :r is analogous to the definition of the hyperbolic func-
tionst
cosh z=!(ez+e- z), sinh z=t(e z- e- z) (4.21)
Comparing (4.17) and (4.21) we deduce the simple rela-
tions
cos i:r=cosh z, sin iz=i sinh z }
cosh ;z=cos z, sinh ;:r=i sin :r (4.22)
Finally, we examine the splitting of the elementary
t P.]. HiltOD,loc. cit., p. 30.
55
PUNCTIONS OF A COMPLEX VARIABL~
functions into real and imaginary parts. Let z=x+,y.
Then
exp z=exp (x+iy) = e:Z'e(lI = e:Z'(cos y+i sin y),
so that
me'=e:Z'cosy, .l'e'=e:Z'siny
Je'/=e:Z', arge' y+211'k,wherekisthat
integer for which - 11' <y+211'k:;;; 11'. Notice that the modulus
of e ~ depends only on the real part of z.
Next, by an application of (4.18) we find that
sin (x+,y)=sin x coshy+i cos x sinhy,
whence
Rlsin z=sin x coshy, .l'sin z=cos x sinhy,
Isin zl2=sin2 x cosh2 y+ cos· x sinh2y
=sin2 x (1+sinh2 y)+cos2 x sinh2 y
=sin2 x+(sin2 x+cos2 x) sinh2 y=sin2 x+sinh2 y,
so that
Isin zl =(sin2 x+sinh2 y)i.
The reader will have no difficulty in deriving the cor-
responding formulae for cos (x+,y) and for the other
trigonometric functions.
6. THE LOGARITHM
All logarithms in this book refer to the base e. We recall
that if x is positive, log x is that number u for which
x=exp u. It is known that there is one and only one real
number with this property, so that log x is unambiguously
defined as the real solution, for u, of the equation
x=exp u,
where x is a given positive number.
By analogy, let us try to define log z as the solution,
for w, of the equation
z=exp w, (4.23)
where z is a given complex number. However, we now meet
with the difficulty that, if w is a solution of (4.23), so is
w+211'ik, where k is an arbitrary integer (see (2.21». It
follows that if w=log z exists at all, it has infinitely many
56
THE LOGARITHM
values differing from one another by integral multiples of
2m. Let us now examine these values more closely.
Since exp fO is never zero, no meaning can be attached to
log z, when z=O. Accordingly we shall henceforth assume
that z#;O. Write z=rexp (i8) and w=u+iv. Then (4.23)
becomes
(4.24)
Comparing moduli, we firtd that r=exp u and therefore
u=log r,
where the logarithm has the usual unique real value which
exists because r>O. Equation (4.24) now becomes exp i8
=exp iv, from which we can only deduce that
v=8+21Tk,
where k is an integer. Remembering that "=Izl and
8=arg z, we can express the final result in the form
log z=log Izl +i(arg Z+21Tk), (4.25)
where log Izl on the right-hand side denotes the real
logarithm.
The value that corresponds to k=O, is called the principal
value of the logarithm, and it is sometimes distinguished by
a different notation, such as
Log z=log Izl +i arg z.
The principal value reduces to the usual meaning of
log x( =Log x), when x is positive, because in that case
argx=O.
Examples.
(i) log (- 2)=Logl- 21 +i arg (- 2)=Log 2+1Ti.
(ii) Log i=Log lir +arg i=Log 1+i1T/2=i1T/2.
(iii) Solve 4cos z=3+i. The equation is equivalent to
2 exp (iz)+2 exp (- iz)=3+i. Hence
2 exp (2iz)- (3+,) exp (iz)+2=0.
Regarding this as a quadratic for exp (i.r) we find, after
lome calculations. that
57
FUNCTIONS OF A COMPLEX VARIABLB
exp (iz)=l +i or t- ti, and hence either
iz=log (l+')=tLog 2+i(~+2'ITn),
8n+l i
z=-4-'lT- 2Log 2 (n=O, ±1, ±2, ••. )
or
iz=log (t- tt)= - tLog 2+i( -~+2'ITm),
8m-l i
z=-4-'IT+'2Log 2 (m=O, ±1, ±2, ...).
(iv) The equation tan z=i has no solution, even when !Z
is complex. For if Z=Zo were a solution, it would follow
that sin zo=i cos zo, sinl zo= -cosB zo, sins zo+cos2 zo=O,
in contradiction to (4.20).
EXERCISES ON CHAPTER FOUR

I. Examine lim .11',., 88 n-+oo, in the following cases and find its value
when it exists.
+. a
(i) .,. = (~) Cii) •• =i. (iii)•• =
I+n
(!.+
a 5
1i)
•
(iv) •• =(cosn~1 +isinn~I)" (v) .II'.=tan in.

a. Discuss the convergence of the following series.
(i) 2:nI~ in (ii)2:nI~i (iii) 2: I
e ,. nI
Civ) L(::~Jr (v) 2:sn:,.in

3. Find the radius of convergence of the following power series.
C1.) ~...
"" ( ••)
11 ~a"+I.
"3"-
I • ( ••• ) ",,(an) 1.3"
III ~ (n1)-
Civ) 2:co~in.,.
4. The power series Ea,.." and Xb,.." are such that Jb.
1 ~ lanlCn=o,
I, a, ••• ). Prove that the radius of convergence 0 the first power
series cannot exceed that of the second.
5. Show that if. lies on the circle xI+r-
2oS'- 2Y- :a-o, then e- 1 "
I.-I ~e'.
58
THE LOGARITHM
6. Evaluate:
(i) log (- I). (ii) log (1- i tan «)(0<<<<1"). (iii) a l• (iv) i'.
,. Solve the equation sin :r=a.
8. Prove that:
(i) :I cosh 1/1 cosh w=cosh (a+w)+cosh (z- w).
(ii) :I sinh z cosh w=sinh (:r+w)+sinh (:- w).
(iii) :I sinh z sinh w=cosh (z+w)- cosh (z- w).
9. (i) Find the real and imaginary parts of tanh z (=sinh III/cosh.
where z=x+iy (x. y real).
(ii) Solve the equation tanh z=i.
10. Show that if r is real and Irl < 1. then
. 8+ . 8+ I ' 8+ (l+r) sin 8
sIn r sm 3 r sm 5 ••• = 1_ :lr cos 28+""
Deduce that if 8 is not an integral multiple of 1"
sin 8+cou8 sin 38+ (cosa8)1 sin 58+ ••. =1 cosec 8.
59
Answers to Exercises
Clraptnl
1. (I.)5+101,
-
. (II
..) -3 - -a. ( ...)
' , 111 - 7 + a4l,. (.)
IV -
7 + -6"
a . ()II a.
V - - ~,
13 13 130 5 5 5
(vi) - i.
a. (i) 1- i, (il) 3- ai.
3. n(n- I)+i"'.
4. (i) S, (il) la-ill=(v's)'=12S, (ii) IS+l2il- 1-{v'(aS+I44)}-1
-1/13, (iv) I.
s'lil-lex~I-'exd il =lexll;1
I+ai U (v's)J
11- ail' -(v's)' =(v'S)'-Sv'S.
6. (i)± (Ja + Ja,) (ii) ±{(va+ I)i+i(v'a- I)t}, (iii) ±(a+.).
7. a- i, I+ai.
8. ~- 4t+ 5=0, roots a+i, a-i.
10. ±!(v'6±v'a.) (four combinations of ligna).
Chapter 11
I. If X is represented by :t, the condition is that (a- x),'(b - x) should be
purely imaginary: X=3.
3. Interior and circumference of ellipse with foci at I and i and major
ais 4.
4. The conditions are equivalent to (.11'1- .11'.)/(.11'1- .11'.) =,\ (see Example
2, p. as).
6. By the well-known property of cyclic quadrilaterals it suffices to show
that the Bum of opposite angles, say at .11'1 and .11'., is equal to 'IT. Thul
arg (.11'1- .1)/(.11'.- .ll'1)+arg (.11',- .II',)f(.II'I- .11',)= ±'IT or 0
arg (.11'.- .1)(.'-.11'./(.11',- .11'1)(.11'1- .11'.)= ±'IT or 0,
that is {.II'I' .11',; a., a,} is real.
7. u- a==q(b- a), fI- b=u- a.
8. When A-I, that is when 1.11'- al-I.II'- bl, the equation represents all
points equidistant from a and b, the perpendicular bisector of the
IelPDeDt .liB.
60
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
4m+I)tI(1+,)/v'a.
10. (- I)m ( se~7T
Chapter 111
I. 1. t+liv'3. - t+liv'3. - I, - t- liv'3. t- liv'3.
a. b, bit - b, -bi, where b==cos (7T18)+i sin (71'/8).
3. v'a(cos..!.+isin 71'). -1+i, -v'a(cosS7T+isinS!\.
Ia Ia la 12/
6. The sides of the triangle are represented by the vectors fl. 11- fl.
- o. Let JII=( - o)/fI, w=(o- fI)/fI. It is required to show that arg JII-
±a7T/3. arg w= ±a7T/3. This follows from the fact that .r+JII+ 1 -
wI+W+l=O.
,. Put fI=.I- JIll. 0-=.1- JIIa (moving the origin to JIIa)'
8. In the product formula for a8+ I divide each side by %4 and put
JIIs=e ill•
9. In the product formula for a-6+ I put .=;.
Chapter IV
I. (I) - i, (ii) no limit, (iii) 0, (iv) - I. (v) i.
a. (i) conv.• (ii) div., because resl parts div., (iii) aba. conv., (iv) conv.,
I
(v) div., because
Sin
~ - zi~
I
~I_I e-tl- e" e"- I
>~CX).
3. (i) I, (ii) a/3, (iii) 1/4, (iv) 11,.
S. le'l =eS. The greatest and least values of" on the circle are 3 and - I
respectively..
6. (i) (Zk+I)7Ti. (ii)log seccx+i(-cx+ak7T),(iii) C08\Og a+i.in lOll a
(iv) up (- tw<4k+ I) ).
7. (4k+1)7T/a- ilog (a±v'3).
(.) sinh a,,+; sin a" (.') 4k+ I .
9· 1 com ax+cos a,,' 11 - .. -71'1.
61
Index
absolute convergence, 48 imaginary axis, IS

absolute value, 7 imaginary part, 6
Argand plane (diagram), IS integer, I
argument, 22
associative law of addition, 2 de Moivre's theorem, 27
associative law of multiplica-
tion, 2 number:
complex, S
commutative law of addition, 2 irrational, 3
commutative law of multipli- natural, I
cation, 2 purely imaginary, 7
complex plane, IS rational, I
complex variable, 19 real, 3
conjugate complex, 7 polar form, 23
convergence of sequences, 44
- - series, 47 primitive root of unity, 3S
radius of convergence, So
distributive law, 2 real axis, IS
real part, 6
Euler's formula, 29 root of unity, 33
63
CALCULUS OF VARIATIONS A. M. Arthurs
COMPLEX NUMBERS W. Ledermann
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS P. J. Hilton
ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL OSCILLATIONS D. S. Jones
ELEMENTARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND OPERATORS
G. E. H. Reuter
FOURIER AND LAPLACE TRANSFORMS P. D. Robinson
FOURIER SERIES I. N. Sneddon
*FUNCTIONS OF A COMPLEX VARIABLE, I AND II (2 vols.)
D.O. Tall
INTRODUCTION TO ABSTRACT ALGEBRA C. R. J. Clapham
INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS C. R. J. Clapham
LINEAR EQUATIONS P. M. Cohn
*LlNEAR PROGRAMMING K. Trustrum
MULTIPLE INTEGRALS W. Ledermann
NUMBER THEORY T. H. Jackson
NUMERICAL APPROXIMATION B. R. Morton
PARTIAL DERIVATIVES P. J. Hilton
PRINCIPLES OF DYNAMICS M. B. Glauert
PROBABILITY THEORY A. M. Arthurs
SEQUENCES AND SERIES J. A. Green
SETS AND GROUPS J. A. Green
SETS AND NUMBERS S. Swierczkowski
SOLID GEOMETRY P. M. Cohn
SOLUTIONS OF LAPLACE'S EQUATION D. R. Bland
VIBRATING STRINGS D. R. Bland
VIBRATING SYSTEMS R. F. Chisnell
*Also available in cloth edition

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LIBRARY OF MATHEMATICS

EDITED BY WALTER LEDERMANN

The aim of this series is to provide short introductory text-books for

'The authors obviously understand the difficulties of undergraduates.

Linear Equations P.M.Cohn

Routledge & Kegan Paul

© Walter Ledermann I960, I96a

Second impression (with some corrections) I96a

No part of this book may be reproduced in any form

THE purpose of this book is to prescnt a straightforward

1. Algebraic Theory of Complex Numbers

•• Elementary Functions of a Complex Variable

Before defining complex numbers let us briefly review

on which in the first place we mark all the integers in a

for this would assign a meaning to '1/ - 1 and hence to '1/ - a,

2. THE ALGEBRAIC THEORY

Summarizing, we can say that complex numbers are mathe-

Example. Evaluate v(5- 12,). Let v(5-12,)=x+iy.

EXERCISES ON CHAPTER ONE

6. Evaluate (i) vi, (ii) Cj,,+ZJ)t. (i~) (3+4i)J-.

We have already remarked that the complex: number

Then z+w=(x+u)+i(y+fJ) corresponds to the vector

Consider again the triangle OPR (Fig. 3) which illustrates

IZ 1- z21 ~ /1.8'11-IZ21 1, (2.4)

Alternatively, we can obtain the result by calculation.

Example 4. A line which does not pass through the origin,

unless z is a real negative number. When this is the case,

Example 1. Prooe that the diagonals of a rhombus intersect

Example 2. The distinct points .1' %. and s, are collinear

Example 3. Let a and b be fixed complex numbers and

=( 1- ~+ ~- :;+...) +i(O- ~+:;- ;j+ •• .).

Example 1. Find a simple formula for the sum

Example 2. Show that, if n is a positive integer,

EXERCISES ON CHAPTER TWO

A complex number of unit modulus (r=1) is of the form

points are represented by the points on the circumference

Example 1. The fourth roots of unity are 1, i, - 1, - i.

Example 2. The fifth roots of unity are

Ea=COS 6; +i sin 6S1r = - ·8090- '5878 i.

E,=COS 8S1r+i sin 8s1r =·3090-·9511 i.

Example 3. If E is a primitive neb root of unity,

Example 1. Prove the identity

Example 2. The complex numbers ~u ~2' ~a are of unit

Example 4. Obtain the three cube roots of 8i. Here we

Example 5. Show that, if e is a primitive nth reot of unity,

zn-1=(z-1)(z+1) n (Z2_ 2 COS2n1TTZ+1), when

Example 6. Show that

EXERCISES ON CHAPTER THREE

Definition. The sequence of complex numbers

t See). A. Green, Sequences and Senu, in thi, Library.

Theorem. The sequence Z"=Xn+iy,, tends to e=a+ib,ij

Rules. If ZA-C and wA-d, then

Definition. The series

open circle Izl <R (that is, exclusive of the boundary) is

S. THE FUNCTIONS e', cos Ill, sin III

=(1- ;;+~- )+i(Z- ~+;;- ...).

Thus it has become apparent that in the complex domain

EXERCISES ON CHAPTER FOUR

(iv) •• =(cosn~1 +isinn~I)" (v) .II'.=tan in.

Civ) L(::~Jr (v) 2:sn:,.in

absolute convergence, 48 imaginary axis, IS

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