Electromagnetic Fields

Review: Time – Varying Fields

In the dynamics case, we can distinguish between two regimes:

Low Frequency (Slowly-Varying Fields) – The displacement

current is negligible in the Maxwell’s equations, since
G
∂D ( t ) G
<< J ( t )
∂t

High Frequency (Fast-Varying Fields) – The general set of

Maxwell’s equations must be considered, with no approximations.

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 Electromagnetic Fields

In the low frequency regime we use the complete set of Maxwell’s

equations, but the displacement current is omitted

G
G ∂B
∇× E= −
dt
G G
∇× H = J
G
∇⋅ D= ρ
G
∇⋅ B = 0
G G
D=ε E
G G
B= µ H

G G G G
F = q ( E + v × B)

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 Electromagnetic Fields

The concept of low frequency and slowly-varying phenomena is

relative to the situation at hand. Any disturbance (time-variation) of
the electromagnetic field propagates at the speed of light. If a
length L is the maximum dimension of the system under study, the
maximum propagation time for a disturbance is

L Maximum Length
Maximum Propagation Time td =
vp Phase velocity of light

We can assume slow-varying fields if the currents are practically

constant during this time period.
For sinusoidal currents, with a period of oscillation T , we have
Wavelength
1 λ
Period
T= = >> t d and L << λ
Frequency
f vp

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 Electromagnetic Fields

The electric potential is now by itself insufficient to completely

describe the time-varying electric field, because there is also a
direct dependence on the magnetic field variations. By recalling the
definition of magnetic vector potential, we can derive a relationship
between electric field and electric potential

Time-Varying Fields Statics

G
G ∂ B( t ) ∂ G G
∇ × E(t) = − = − ∇ × A( t ) ∇× E=0
∂t ∂t
G G
G ∂ A( t )  E = −∇φ
⇒ ∇ ×  E(t) +  =0
 ∂t 
G
G ∂A ( t )
E(t) + = −∇φ ( t )
∂t

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 Electromagnetic Fields

We can also obtain an integral relation between electric field and

magnetic flux, by integrating the curl of the electric field over a
surface

G
G G ∂B ( t ) ∂ G G
∫ ∫S ∇ × E ( t ) ⋅ dS = ∫ ∫S − ∂ t dS = − ∂ t ∫ ∫S B ( t ) ⋅ dS
Stoke’s Theorem
Magnetic Flux Φ(t)

G G ∂ Φ(t)
v∫ E ⋅ d l = − ∂ t

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 Electromagnetic Fields

In the electrostatic case, we do not need to distinguish between

voltage and potential difference. The voltage between two points is
always defined as
bG G
∫
Vba = − E ⋅ d l = − e. m. f .
a

but in terms of potential φ we have

Time-Varying Fields Statics

G
b ∂A G bG G
Vba ( t ) = ∫  ∇φ +  ⋅ d l ∫
Vba = − E ⋅ d l
a ∂t a

∂ bG G
= φ b − φ a + ∫ A( t ) ⋅ d l = φb − φa
∂t a

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 Electromagnetic Fields

Note that for time-varying fields the line integral of the magnetic
vector potential between two given points depends on the actual
path of integration. In general:

bG G G G
∫ A ( t ) ⋅ d l ≠ A( b, t ) − A ( a, t )
a

Consider now the integral of the electric field along a closed path:
Time-varying fields Statics

G G G G
v∫ E ( t ) ⋅ d l ≠ 0 v∫ E ( t ) ⋅ d l = 0

The closed path could be a metallic wire which confines the current
due to moving electric charge.

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 Electromagnetic Fields

The line integral of the electric field gives the work necessary to
move a unit charge along the path of integration, under the
influence of time-varying electric and magnetic fields.

For a closed wire loop at rest, the work necessary to move a unit
charge once around the loop is

Force G G G G G
W = v∫ ⋅ d l = v∫ E ( t ) ⋅ d l = ∫ ∇ × ( E ( t ) ) ⋅ d S
Charge
G
∂ B( t ) G ∂ G G
=∫ − ⋅ d S = − ∫ B( t ) ⋅ d S
S ∂t ∂t S
∂
=− Φ(t)
∂t

Magnetic Flux

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 Electromagnetic Fields

As a more general case, consider a wire loop in motion. The

complete Lorentz force must be considered:
Force G G G G G
W = e. m. f . = v∫ ⋅ d l = v∫ ( E ( t ) + v ( t ) × B ( t ) ) ⋅ d l
Charge
G G G G
= ∫ (∇ × ( E ( t ) + v ( t ) × B ( t ))) ⋅ d S
G
 ∂ B( t ) G G  G d G G
= ∫− + ∇ × ( v ( t ) × B ( t ))  ⋅ d S = − ∫ B ( t ) ⋅ d S
 ∂t  dt
G
dB ( t ) Flux Φ(t)
dt
If the velocity of motion is constant, note that
G G
∇ × ( v × B ( t )) =
G G G G G G G G G G
v∇ ⋅ B − B∇ ⋅ v + ( B ⋅ ∇ ) v − ( v ⋅ ∇ ) B = − ( v ⋅ ∇ ) B
0 0 0

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