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METROLOGY

Metrology
 The science of measurement.

 The purpose of this discipline is to establish means


of determining physical quantities, such as
dimensions, temperature, force, etc.
IAS
 Define the terms accuracy and precision.
Accuracy & Precision
 Accuracy ‐ The ability of a measurement to match the actual
(true) value of the quantity being measured. The expected
ability for a system to discriminate between two settings.
Smaller the bias more accurate the data.
 Precision ‐ The precision of an instrument indicates its
ability to reproduce a certain reading with a given accuracy
‘OR’ it is the degree of agreement between repeated results.
 Precision data have small dispersion ( spread or scatter ) but
may be far from the true value.
 A measurement can be accurate but not precise, precise but
not accurate, neither, or both.
 A measurement system is called valid if it is both accurate
and precise.
Repeatability
 It is the ability of a measuring system to reproduce
output readings when the same input is applied to it
consecutively, under the same conditions, and in the
same direction.
 Imperfections in mechanical systems can mean that
during a Mechanical cycle, a process does not stop at the
same location, or move through the same spot each
time. The variation range is referred to as repeatability.
Reliability of measurement
 It is a quantitative characteristic which implies
confidence in the measured results depending on
whether or not the frequency distribution
characteristics of their deviations from the true values
of the corresponding quantities are known. It is the
probability that the results will be predicted.

Which of these targets represents A change in one variable, such as wind,


accurate shooting? Precise alters the results as shown. Dose this
shooting? Reliable shooting? show which shooting was the most
reliable?
Calibration
 It is the setting or correcting of a measuring device
usually by adjusting it to match or conform to a
dependably known value or act of checking.
 Calibration determines the performance characteristics
of an instrument, system or reference material. It is
usually achieved by means of a direct comparison against
measurement standards or certified reference materials.
 It is very widely used in industries.
 A calibration certificate is issued and, mostly, a sticker is
provided for the instrument.
IFS 2012
Define and distinguish between the following
characteristics of measuring instruments:
Accuracy, drift, rule of 10, resolutions, and sensitivity.
[ 10 Marks]
 Drift: It is a slow change of a metrological characteristics of a
measuring instruments
 Resolution: It is the smallest change of the measured
quantity which changes the indication of a measuring
instruments
 Sensitivity: The smallest change in the value of the
measured variable to which the instrument respond is
sensitivity. It denotes the maximum changes in an input
signal that will not initiate a response on the output.
 Rule of 10 or Ten‐to one rule: That the discrimination
(resolutions) of the measuring instrument should divide the
tolerance of the characteristic to be measured into ten parts.
In other words, the gauge or measuring instrument should be
10 times as accurate as the characteristic to be measured.
Errors
 Systematic errors or fixed errors (Bias): Due to faulty
or improperly calibrated instruments. These may be
reduced or eliminated by correct choice of instruments.

Eg. calibration errors, Errors of technique etc.

 Random errors: Random errors are due to non‐specific


cause like natural disturbances that may occur during
the experiment. These cannot be eliminated.
Eg. Errors stemming from environmental variations, Due 
to Insufficient sensitivity of measuring system
IAS 2014 (Main)
According to the ISO system, sketch the basic size,
deviation, and tolerance on a shaft and hole
assembly.
Terminology
IES‐2015 Conventional
What are the different types of fits possible with 
reference to mechanical systems?

[4 Marks]
IFS 2013
Explain, with the help of sketches, the concepts of
hole basis and shaft basis in terms of assembly fit
specifications. Which of the two is preferred and
why?
[8 Marks]
IAS 2010
What is the difference between hole basis system
and shaft basis system? Why is hole basis system
the more extensive in use?
[8 Marks]
Hole Basis System

Zero Line

Hole basis system


 The hole is kept as a constant member (i.e. when the
lower deviation of the hole is zero)
 Different fits are obtained by varying the shaft size then
the limit system is said to be on a hole basis.
 For hole basis system, H stands for dimensions of holes
whose lower deviation is zero.

 The basic size of the hole is taken as the lower limit of


size of the hole ( Maximum metal condition).

 The higher limit of size of the hole and two limits of size
for the shaft are then selected to give desired fits.

 The actual size of hole is always more than basic size or


equal to basic size but never less than Basic size.
Shaft Basis system

Zero Line

Shaft basis system:


 When the shaft is kept as a constant member (i.e. when the
upper deviation of the shaft is zero)
 Different fits are obtained by varying the hole size then the
limit system is said to be on a shaft basis.
 For shaft basis system, h stands for dimensions of shafts
whose upper deviation is zero.

 Basic size of the shaft is taken Upper limit for the shaft (
Maximum metal condition)

 Lower limit of the shaft and two limits of hole are


selected to give the desired fit.

 Actual size of shaft is always less than basic size or equal


to basic size but never more than basic size.
Why Hole Basis Systems are Preferred?
 Holes can be finished by tools like reamers, drills,
broaches, and their sizes are not adjustable. The shaft
sizes can be easily obtained by external machining.
 If shaft basis system is used considerable no of reamers
and other precision tools are required for producing
different classes of holes for one class of shaft for
obtaining different fits which increases cost of
production.
 It is economical
IAS 2014 (Main), IES‐2010
Why uni‐lateral tolerance is preferred over bi‐
lateral tolerance?
Why is a unilateral tolerance
preferred over bilateral tolerance ?
 This system is preferred for Interchangeable manufacturing.

 It is easy and simple to determine deviations.

 It helps standardize the GO gauge end

 Helpful for operator because he has to machine the upper


limit of the shaft and the lower limit of the hole knowing
fully well that still some margin is left for machining before
the part is rejected.
IAS‐2011 Main
An interference assembly, of nominal diameter 20
mm, is of a unilateral holes and a shafts. The
manufacturing tolerances for the holes are twice
that for the shaft. Permitted interference values are
0.03 to 0.09 mm. Determine the sizes, with limits,
for the two mating parts.
[10‐Marks]
Hint: Use unilateral hole basis system.
Using unilateral hole base system;
Min clearance = 0.03mm; Max clearance = 0.09 mm;
Basic size = 20 mm
Refering the figure:2 x  0.03  x  0.09 or x  0.02 mm
 size of hole:
Lower limit = 20 mm
Upper limit =20+2x  20+2  0.02=20.04 mm
size of shaft:
Lower limit = 20.04+0.03= 20.07 mm
Upper limit = 20.07+ x =20.07+0.02=20.09 mm
IES‐2006 Conventional
Find the limit sizes, tolerances and allowances for a
100 mm diameter shaft and hole pair designated by
F8h10. Also specify the type of fit that the above pair
belongs to.
Given: 100 mm diameter lies in the diameter step
range of 80‐120 mm. The fundamental deviation for
shaft designation ‘f’ is ‐5.5 D0.41
The values of standard tolerances for grades of IT 8
and IT 10 are 25i and 64i respectively.
Also, indicate the limits and tolerance on a diagram.
[15‐Marks]
Basic size =100 mm; D  D1  D2
 80  120  97.97 mm
Fundamental deviation of shaft
=  5.5 D 0.41  36  m
 Fundamental deviation of hole  36  m
1
i  0.45 D  0.001D  2.1711 m
3
Allowance = 
IT 8  25i  25  2.17  m  54  m min clearance 
IT 10  64i  64  2.17  m  139  m = 36 µm
IES‐2015 Conventional
Determine the fundamental deviation and tolerances and the 
limits of size for hole and shaft pair in the fit: 25 mm H8d9. 
The diameter steps are 18 mm and 30 mm. The fundamental 
deviation for d shaft is given as ‐16D0.44. The tolerance unit is,

i = 0.45 3 D  0.001D

The tolerance grade for number 8 quality is 25i and for 9 
quality is 40i.

[10 Marks]
Geometric mean diameter(D) = 18  30  23.238mm
Standard tolerance unit (i) = 0.45  3 D  0.001  D  1.3074 m
Tolerance of hole = 25i = 33m  0.033mm
Tolerance of shaft = 40i = 52m  0.052mm
Fundamental deviation of shaft d = -16D0.44  64 m  0.064mm
Fundamental deviation of hole H = zero
LL of hole = BS =25mm
UL of hole = BS + Tolerance = 25.033mm
UL of shaft = BS +FD = 25- 0.064mm = 24.936mm
LL of shaft = UL - tolerance = 24.936-0.052 = 24.884 mm
Name five main areas into which the measurement
can be divided.
 Methods of Measurement

1. Direct method

2. Indirect method e.g density

3. Absolute method or Fundamental method e.g
length form definition

4. Comparison method e.g comparator

5. Deflection method e.g. Dial Indicator
Write the amount of allowance and tolerance that
is permitted by the following classes of fit as per
ANSI class 4 : Snug fit and class 7 : Medium force
fit. Also mention applications.
American Standard Association Tolerance System
1. Heavy force shrunk fit
2. Medium force fit
3. Tight fit
4. Wringing fit
5. Snug fit
6. Medium fit
7. Free fit
8. Loose fit
Snug fit
1/3
Tolerance = 0.0004D and Deviation  0

Medium force fit :


1/3 1/3
Tolerance = 0.0006D and Deviation  0.0005D  0.0006 D
 Snug fit is applicable where no shake is permissible

 Medium force fit is applicable for shrink fit on cast


iron
IAS 2010
What are the differences between interchange
ability and selective assembly?
[4 Marks]
IFS 2011
What is meant by interchangeable manufacture?
[2 marks]
Selective Assembly
 All the parts (hole & shaft) produced are measured
and graded into a range of dimensions within the
tolerance groups.

 Reduces the cost of production

Process capability
 No.of group =
Tolerance desired
Interchangeability
 Interchangeability, a maintainability design factor, is
quite closely related to standardization and is realized
through standardization.
 If the variation of items are within certain limits, all
parts of equivalent size will be equally fit for operating in
machines and mechanisms and the mating parts will
give the required fitting.
 This facilitates to select at random from a large number
of parts for an assembly and results in a considerable
saving in the cost of production, reduce assembly time,
replacement and repair becomes very easy.
IFS‐2015
Define a comparator.

Write at least six desirable features it should possess.

Also name four types of comparators.

[ 8 Marks]
Comparators
 Comparator is another form of linear measuring
method, which is quick and more convenient for
checking large number of identical dimensions.
 During the measurement, a comparator is able to give
the deviation of the dimension from the set dimension.
 Cannot measure absolute dimension but can only
compare two dimensions.
 Highly reliable.
 To magnify the deviation, a number of principles are
used such as mechanical, optical, pneumatic and
electrical.
Fig. Principle of a comparator
Mechanical Comparators
 The Mikrokator principle
greatly magnifies any
deviation in size so that
even small deviations
produce large deflections of
the pointer over the scale.
Sigma Mechanical Comparator
The Sigma Mechanical Comparator uses a partially
wrapped band wrapped about a driving drum to turn a
pointer needle. The assembly provides a frictionless
movement with a resistant pressure provided by the
springs.
Sigma Mechanical Comparator
Optical Comparators
 These devices use a plunger to rotate a mirror. A light
beam is reflected off that mirror, and simply by the
virtue of distance, the small rotation of the mirror can
be converted to a significant translation with little
friction.
IAS 2013
For a machined surface, show macro‐
irregularities. What are their causes?
[ 5 Marks]
IES‐2012
In connection with surface texture define
(a) waviness
(b) flaws, and
(c) lay.
List three defects found on surfaces.
[2 marks]
 Waviness: refers to those surface irregularities that have
a greater spacing than that of roughness width.
 Determined by the height of the waviness and its
width.
 The greater the width, the smoother is the surface and
thus is more desirable.
 Lay direction: is the direction of the predominant
surface pattern produced on the workpiece by the tool
marks.
 Flaw: are surface irregularities that are present which are
random and therefore will not be considered.
IFS 2011
Define the terms ‘roughness height’, ‘waviness
width’ and ‘lay’ in connection with surface
irregularities.
[4 marks]
 Roughness height: is the parameter with which
generally the surface finish is indicated. It is specified
either as arithmetic average value or the root mean
square value.
 Roughness width: is the distance parallel to the
nominal part surface within which the peaks and
valleys, which constitutes the predominant pattern of
the roughness.
 Roughness width cut‐off: is the maximum width of
the surface that is included in the calculation of the
roughness height.
IES 2010
 In surface roughness, discuss with a figure Root –
Mean – Square method.
 Root mean square value of the deviation in place of the 
arithmetic average , This in expression form is

1
RRMS 
N
y 2
i

Fig. Surface roughness parameters
IAS 2013
Q. What are various measures of surface finish?
Explain any three of them.
[ 5 Marks]
Evaluation of Surface Roughness
1. Centre line average (CLA) or arithmetic mean
deviation denoted as Ra.

2. Root mean square value (Rg) : rms value

3. Maximum peak to valley roughness (hmax)

4. The average of the five highest peak and five deepst


valleys in the sample.

5. The average or leveling depth of the profile.


Arithmetical Average:
 Measured for a specified area and the figures are added
together and the total is then divided by the number of
measurements taken to obtain the mean or
arithmetical average (AA).
 It is also sometimes called the centre line average or
CLA value. This in equation form is given by

L
1 1
Ra   y ( x) dx 
L0 N
y i
 The other parameter that is used sometimes is the root 
mean square value of the deviation in place of the 
arithmetic average , This in expression form is
1
RRMS 
N
y 2
i

Fig. Surface roughness parameters
Peak to valley surface roughness 
(h) = Rp + Rv
IAS 2012
Explain how flatness of a surface is measured
with an optical flat.
[12 Marks]
IES – 2012 Conventional
Write in short about optical flat. Two fringe patterns
are supplied for two completely different surfaces using

optical flat, name the types of surfaces, and draw if


required

Fig. Fringe patterns for two completely different types

of surfaces.
 When the fringes are perfectly straight and same fringe
width for dark and bright band we conclude that the
surface is perfectly flat.
 For convex surface the fringes curve around the point of
contact.
 For concave surface the fringes curve away from the
point of contact.

The distance of air gap between two successive fringes is given by 
2
n
Distance of air gap of interference fringe of n order is 
th

2
IFS 2011
Laser light has unique advantages for inspection.
What are they?
[4 marks]
LASER‐ Light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation.
 Light for measurement applications are low‐power gas
lasers such as helium‐neon, which emits light in the
visible range.
 Advantage
1. Highly monochromatic, which means the light has a
single wave length
2. Highly collimated, which means the light rays are
parallel. These properties have motivated a growing list
of laser applications in measurement and inspection.
(Laser scanning system, laser triangulation etc)
IES  2010 Conventional
Discuss a ‘Go’ gauge.
Taylor’s Principle
State and explain Taylor’s Principle of limit gauging.

 This principle states that the GO gauge should always be


so designed that it will cover the maximum metal
condition (MMC) of as many dimensions as possible in
the same limit gauges, whereas a NOT GO gauges to
cover the minimum metal condition of one dimension
only.

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