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Metrology
The science of measurement.
[4 Marks]
IFS 2013
Explain, with the help of sketches, the concepts of
hole basis and shaft basis in terms of assembly fit
specifications. Which of the two is preferred and
why?
[8 Marks]
IAS 2010
What is the difference between hole basis system
and shaft basis system? Why is hole basis system
the more extensive in use?
[8 Marks]
Hole Basis System
Zero Line
The higher limit of size of the hole and two limits of size
for the shaft are then selected to give desired fits.
Zero Line
Basic size of the shaft is taken Upper limit for the shaft (
Maximum metal condition)
i = 0.45 3 D 0.001D
The tolerance grade for number 8 quality is 25i and for 9
quality is 40i.
[10 Marks]
Geometric mean diameter(D) = 18 30 23.238mm
Standard tolerance unit (i) = 0.45 3 D 0.001 D 1.3074 m
Tolerance of hole = 25i = 33m 0.033mm
Tolerance of shaft = 40i = 52m 0.052mm
Fundamental deviation of shaft d = -16D0.44 64 m 0.064mm
Fundamental deviation of hole H = zero
LL of hole = BS =25mm
UL of hole = BS + Tolerance = 25.033mm
UL of shaft = BS +FD = 25- 0.064mm = 24.936mm
LL of shaft = UL - tolerance = 24.936-0.052 = 24.884 mm
Name five main areas into which the measurement
can be divided.
Methods of Measurement
1. Direct method
2. Indirect method e.g density
3. Absolute method or Fundamental method e.g
length form definition
4. Comparison method e.g comparator
5. Deflection method e.g. Dial Indicator
Write the amount of allowance and tolerance that
is permitted by the following classes of fit as per
ANSI class 4 : Snug fit and class 7 : Medium force
fit. Also mention applications.
American Standard Association Tolerance System
1. Heavy force shrunk fit
2. Medium force fit
3. Tight fit
4. Wringing fit
5. Snug fit
6. Medium fit
7. Free fit
8. Loose fit
Snug fit
1/3
Tolerance = 0.0004D and Deviation 0
Process capability
No.of group =
Tolerance desired
Interchangeability
Interchangeability, a maintainability design factor, is
quite closely related to standardization and is realized
through standardization.
If the variation of items are within certain limits, all
parts of equivalent size will be equally fit for operating in
machines and mechanisms and the mating parts will
give the required fitting.
This facilitates to select at random from a large number
of parts for an assembly and results in a considerable
saving in the cost of production, reduce assembly time,
replacement and repair becomes very easy.
IFS‐2015
Define a comparator.
[ 8 Marks]
Comparators
Comparator is another form of linear measuring
method, which is quick and more convenient for
checking large number of identical dimensions.
During the measurement, a comparator is able to give
the deviation of the dimension from the set dimension.
Cannot measure absolute dimension but can only
compare two dimensions.
Highly reliable.
To magnify the deviation, a number of principles are
used such as mechanical, optical, pneumatic and
electrical.
Fig. Principle of a comparator
Mechanical Comparators
The Mikrokator principle
greatly magnifies any
deviation in size so that
even small deviations
produce large deflections of
the pointer over the scale.
Sigma Mechanical Comparator
The Sigma Mechanical Comparator uses a partially
wrapped band wrapped about a driving drum to turn a
pointer needle. The assembly provides a frictionless
movement with a resistant pressure provided by the
springs.
Sigma Mechanical Comparator
Optical Comparators
These devices use a plunger to rotate a mirror. A light
beam is reflected off that mirror, and simply by the
virtue of distance, the small rotation of the mirror can
be converted to a significant translation with little
friction.
IAS 2013
For a machined surface, show macro‐
irregularities. What are their causes?
[ 5 Marks]
IES‐2012
In connection with surface texture define
(a) waviness
(b) flaws, and
(c) lay.
List three defects found on surfaces.
[2 marks]
Waviness: refers to those surface irregularities that have
a greater spacing than that of roughness width.
Determined by the height of the waviness and its
width.
The greater the width, the smoother is the surface and
thus is more desirable.
Lay direction: is the direction of the predominant
surface pattern produced on the workpiece by the tool
marks.
Flaw: are surface irregularities that are present which are
random and therefore will not be considered.
IFS 2011
Define the terms ‘roughness height’, ‘waviness
width’ and ‘lay’ in connection with surface
irregularities.
[4 marks]
Roughness height: is the parameter with which
generally the surface finish is indicated. It is specified
either as arithmetic average value or the root mean
square value.
Roughness width: is the distance parallel to the
nominal part surface within which the peaks and
valleys, which constitutes the predominant pattern of
the roughness.
Roughness width cut‐off: is the maximum width of
the surface that is included in the calculation of the
roughness height.
IES 2010
In surface roughness, discuss with a figure Root –
Mean – Square method.
Root mean square value of the deviation in place of the
arithmetic average , This in expression form is
1
RRMS
N
y 2
i
Fig. Surface roughness parameters
IAS 2013
Q. What are various measures of surface finish?
Explain any three of them.
[ 5 Marks]
Evaluation of Surface Roughness
1. Centre line average (CLA) or arithmetic mean
deviation denoted as Ra.
L
1 1
Ra y ( x) dx
L0 N
y i
The other parameter that is used sometimes is the root
mean square value of the deviation in place of the
arithmetic average , This in expression form is
1
RRMS
N
y 2
i
Fig. Surface roughness parameters
Peak to valley surface roughness
(h) = Rp + Rv
IAS 2012
Explain how flatness of a surface is measured
with an optical flat.
[12 Marks]
IES – 2012 Conventional
Write in short about optical flat. Two fringe patterns
are supplied for two completely different surfaces using
of surfaces.
When the fringes are perfectly straight and same fringe
width for dark and bright band we conclude that the
surface is perfectly flat.
For convex surface the fringes curve around the point of
contact.
For concave surface the fringes curve away from the
point of contact.
The distance of air gap between two successive fringes is given by
2
n
Distance of air gap of interference fringe of n order is
th
2
IFS 2011
Laser light has unique advantages for inspection.
What are they?
[4 marks]
LASER‐ Light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation.
Light for measurement applications are low‐power gas
lasers such as helium‐neon, which emits light in the
visible range.
Advantage
1. Highly monochromatic, which means the light has a
single wave length
2. Highly collimated, which means the light rays are
parallel. These properties have motivated a growing list
of laser applications in measurement and inspection.
(Laser scanning system, laser triangulation etc)
IES 2010 Conventional
Discuss a ‘Go’ gauge.
Taylor’s Principle
State and explain Taylor’s Principle of limit gauging.