Aida Smailbegović

University of Sarajevo
Oriental Institute in Sarajevo

INFINITE TRAVEL OF THE SOUL TO THE

SACRED CITY AND THE LUMINOUS CITY:
VISUAL DEPICTIONS OF MECCA
AND MEDINA IN DALĀ’IL AL-HAYRĀT

T his work deals with the tradition of copying and book illumination in
Bosnia, but also with the tradition of book copying in general and its
significance, focusing in particular on the perspective and contribution
of Sufi circles. It then deals with the presentation of Dalā’il al-Hayrāt (Guidelines
towards Good Deeds, in Ottoman Turkish: Delâ’ilü’l-Hayrat), a renowned com-
pilation of prayers: its contents, prescribed conditions of usage, as well as the
status ‘the Compilation’ enjoys throughout the Islamic world, especially among
followers of the Sufi orders. It highlights the importance of ‘the Compilation’
as one of the best artistically illuminated manuscripts of Islamic origin. In
addition, it describes the life of Šayh Abū ‘Abd Allàh Muḥammad Ibn Sulaymān
al-Ğazūlī (died 870/1465), who collected all the documented traditional forms
of blessings of the prophet of Islam in this compilation. Particular attention
was paid to the third part of this work, where artistic depictions of Mecca and
Medina are presented, an element that makes this work ever more intriguing
and appealing. Visual depictions of the two holy cities of Islam given herein
are based on two manuscript codices kept at the Oriental Institute in Sarajevo.

THE MANUSCRIPT TRADITION IN BOSNIA

It is generally accepted that the first discoveries of Islamic religion, art and
culture in the Balkans, including in today’s Bosnia and Herzegovina, were
brought and disseminated by Sufi adherents, following the Ottoman con-
36 Aida Smailbegović

quest of the region. At that time, they were the most influential characters
in matters of spiritual life in the Empire, guided by the principle of ancilla
theologiae, whereby cultural and artistic production was directly influenced
by Islam, the dominant religion in the Empire. The Sufis were great preservers
and promoters of Islamic art, particularly of calligraphy. Therefore, it comes as
no surprise that many skilful Bosnian and Herzegovinian calligraphers arose
from their ranks. Followers of the darwīš/derviş orders cherished art and their
engagement was described by Seyyed Hossein Nasr as follows: “Sufis were
cherishers of art, not because it was the goal of the Sufi way, but because
following Sufism meant to become more and more aware of the omnipresent
all-divine Beauty. In its light, the Sufis created beautiful things in accordance
with the beauty of their own nature. They followed traditional artistic norms
that reflect the beauty of the Supreme Artisan of Crafts”1).
Those Bosnian Sufis, much like their brethren in other parts of the
Islamic world, who transcribed and preserved copies of Dalā’il al-Ḥayrāt,
were submerged in this divine beauty. In that way, their actions contributed
to the development and enrichment of Islamic art. They produced pieces
of extraordinary artistic maturity consisting of spiritual and other values
that cannot be seen or touched except through our spiritual organs of the
transcendental cognition.2)
In addition, it is fascinating to observe that all works were written by hand
until the late 19th century, even though the first printed Bible appeared in
1455 (the first printed book in general), while in Bosnia, as far as we know,
the first printing house started to operate in 1519.3) Even so, this does not
mean that the Islamic world was lagging behind. On the contrary, the pious
believed transcribing a work by hand symbolised their connection with the
one and only creator. This concept could be linked to a hadith referring to: “the
human heart as lying between God’s two fingers”. The hadith is: “poetically
interpreted in the sense that the human heart is the pencil in God’s hand,
which the Creator uses to write everything that is crucial on the infinite board
of creation”.4) The Arabic script itself – the script of the Qur’an – written from

1)
 Nasr (2004: 25).
2)
 More: Hafizović (2013: 31).
3)
 Džemal Čelić indicated that seventy-nine years after the Gutenberg printing house
was founded, the first printing house in Bosnia and Herzegovina followed. But it did not
last for long. More in: Čelić (1982: 21).
4)
 Schimmel (2001: 258).
 Infinite travel of the soul to the Sacred City and the Luminous City: 37

right to left, begins with: “the field of action toward the heart”.5) Therefore, it
should not be surprising that careful attention was paid to transcription and
particularly to creative writing.
A copying service was obviously well developed in Bosnia even before the
Ottoman period and Islam and was particularly associated with the activities
of numerous convents, which were faithful keepers of manuscripts. They
continued their activity after the spread of Islam. Meanwhile, works of Islamic
origin were transcribed in Islamic religious educational centres, mostly in
madrasas/medreses.6) They were copied for personal purposes, mostly by
seminary students, in kneeling position, but also by domestic craftsmen and
calligraphers – haṭṭāṭs/hattats, scholars and different individuals, either on
commission or for personal purposes. Equal attention was also paid to decora-
tions of the copied or originally written works, as well as to bookbinding.
Bookbinding was a special kind of artistic work that spread following the
rich medieval Bosnian manuscript tradition, which developed under the influ-
ence of the first books brought by the Ottomans to the Balkans, setting the
model for the Sarajevo book artists - muğallids/mücellits.7) An interesting fact
that Hamdija Kreševljaković noticed is that, “all the mücellits were educated
and very literate,” and that they, “must have been the most intelligent artisans
in Sarajevo back in those days”.8) The manuscripts were bound using leather
bindings or other materials for preservation and refinement. Motifs of various
shapes and sizes were then imprinted and additionally highlighted in gilt or
various colours.
The same affection and effort were paid to the decoration of the inside
of the covers as well. Even so, there were many examples of books without
adornment.
Depending on their features, the pages of the manuscript were over-
whelmingly decorated with stylistic, geometric and vegetal ornamentation.
They were also rich in illustrations and miniatures of extraordinary artistic
maturity and value. Nevertheless, the opening pages of the Qur’an were
most beautifully illuminated. The first Qur’an chapter, Sūrat al-Fātiḥa (El-
Fatiha), and the first five āyāt (verses) of the chapter Al-Baqara, were set and

5)
 Burckhardt (2007: 152).
6)
  More on the transcription services in madrasas in: Dobrača (1972: 67); Traljić
(1973: 53).
7)
 Janc (1956: 61).
8)
 Kreševljaković (1979: 499).
38 Aida Smailbegović

written as diptychs by the neat hand of a skilful calligrapher. Such artistic

maturity sometimes appears to be almost unparalleled. Equally decorative
and worth admiring were cunwāns/unvans, which represent the beginning
of certain chapters (sūra) or ğuz’ (one of the equal thirty parts into which the
text of the Qur’an was traditionally divided). Bright and shiny colours and
splendid stylistic ornaments were used in such cases. It seems that vegetal
and geometric patterns were the rule in Qur’an decoration, as well as in
other works related to religious studies, while figurative illustrations were
mostly used for poetic and historic works.9) As far as our region is concerned,
in terms of the art of illumination and miniature , Zdenka Munk was of
the opinion that all illuminated manuscripts had a primary sacral purpose
throughout history. Further on, she stated that such illuminated manuscripts
were subjugated to “various religious rules, and within them, to specific ritu-
als, which was also reflected in their iconography”.10) The prayer collections
might have included slightly different artistic depictions as decorations, as
we will see. Artistic depictions of Mecca and Medina, which were included
in the collections of prayers, added to their curiosity value. Alexandra Bain
commented on the prayers collection Ancām: “The combination of Qur’anic
text with representational imagery is a potent and very unusual combination
in the Islamic world”.11)
As Islam spread through Bosnia, so did the need for books. In preserved
manuscripts, one can read that logic, philosophy and taṣawwuf/tasavvuf
(Sufism)12) books were already being transcribed in Sarajevo in 1463. Manu-
scripts travelled and reached Bosnia and Sarajevo in three ways: with scholars
and merchants who arrived from the East, with Bosnians who were craving
for knowledge, especially Sufis, who left to seek education and the truth in
the East, and with pilgrims. The latter – pioneers in the sphere of spirituality,
but also the bearers of the culture of life13) – frequently brought back very
valuable pieces of work home, despite not always being aware of their value.

9)
 Rizvić (1972: 76).
10)
 Munk (1964: 10).
11)
  Bain (2001: 213).
12)
 Bušatlić (2006: 187). Two streets also serve as proof of the well-developed and
widely spread art of bookbinding and illumination in Sarajevo - Mudželitiveliki and
Mudželitimali, where, as far as is known, the first shops of transcribers and bookbinders
could be found since the first decades of the arrival of the Ottomans.
13)
 Husić (2014: 179).
 Infinite travel of the soul to the Sacred City and the Luminous City: 39

The renowned Dalā’il al-Hayrāt, ‘Compilation of prayers’ (ṣalawāt/salâvat)

was probably also among these works. But it is hard to be precise about when
exactly the manuscripts were transcribed for the first time in Bosnia. Based
on the preserved samples of the manuscripts mentioned, it can be concluded
that they were written in Bosnia in the 18th and 19th centuries. There must
have been older transcribed samples from earlier centuries as well, but they
have not survived. An interesting fact is that pilgrims from Bosnia brought
pictures of Mecca as souvenirs during the time when the transcription of
Dalā’il al-Hayrāt was at its peak.
The price of such works was also remarkable; some of the pictures were
worth 4,800 aqče/akçe. Aladin Husić, author of the study on ḥağğ from Bosnia
during the Ottoman Period, stated that this was probably for their novelty,
since pictures of Mecca had not been documented earlier.14) According to
Ismet Bušatlić’s Dalā’il al-Hayrāt list, a manuscript dating back to the 1570s15)
was found among 26 manuscript samples, consisting of artistic depictions
(including two commentaries from the Dalā’il al-Hayrāt Compilation). With
no available manuscript from earlier centuries, it is difficult to discuss their
stylistic or typological past. Further on, we shall reflect on ‘the Compilation’,
its author and the significance and status ‘the Compilation’ enjoys.

ABOUT ‘THE COMPILATION’ AND ITS AUTHOR

God and His angels bless the Prophet. O believers, do

you also bless him, and pray for his peace.
(Koran, XXXIII, Al-Aḥzāb, 56)16)

Inspired by these words of the All-Forgiving, and striving for his pleasure,
worshippers across the world bless Muhammad (Muḥammad, ṣallá Allàhu
‘Alayhi wa-sallam), the prophet of Islam. After all, the Just: “revealed to His

14)
  More in: Husić (2014: 142‹–‹143).
15)
 Bušatlić (1980: 62). The given manuscript was kept in the Oriental Institute until
it burnt down in flames of hatred 23 years ago. Today, the List of Ismet Bušatlić, for
better or worse, is the only proof of this particular manuscript’s existence - (as well as
of many others) including depictions of Mecca, Medina and Ar-Rawḍa al-Muṭahhara
(Revdai-mutahhere). The copyist is unknown.
16)
  The translation of āyāt (verses) and extracts from the Koran listed in our work
were taken from: The Koran Interpreted, a translation by Arthur J. Arberry.
40 Aida Smailbegović

slaves the highly ranked position His slave and Prophet assume”17) via the
Qur’an. Muhammad is a man of God, for whom worlds had been created,18) as
referred to in one of the frequently cited traditions, which was very popular
in Sufi literature.
Among numerous ṣalawāt compilations – forms of glorifying Mahomet
after the mention of his name – one that especially stands out is the Dalā’il
al-Hayrāt Compilation, which is, according to the majority of authors, one of
the most popular religious books alongside the Qur’an.19) After the Qur’an,
it is its fragments and the compilations of An‛ām prayers that were most
often copied. The compilations of ṣalawāt mentioned were the ones most
frequently transcribed and they are equally renowned and used in all parts
of the Islamic world, especially among members of the derviş orders, who
used the ṣalawāt and ducā›/dua (prayers of supplication) compiled in Dalā’il
al-Hayrāt, as short prayers for daily recitation (wird/virt).20)
What additionally catches the eye are their artistic features, given that,
with only a few exceptions, they usually included artistic depictions of two
out of the three holy Muslim cities, such as scenes from the Prophet’s Mosque
in Medina and Al-Masğid al-Ḥarām in Mecca.21) The exceptional calligraphy
encompassing the pages of ‘the Compilation’, its unique illumination and the
aforenamed images represent a work of art par excellence.
Present-day samples of Dalā’il al-Hayrāt are predominantly printed copies.
They may include images of Ar-Rawḍa al-Muṭahhara (the Purest Grave) and
minbar (pulpit) of the Prophet’s Mosque in Medina, or Al-Kacba in Mecca,
which means that various compilations differ in their content. The differences
are not only manifested in artistic depictions, but also occasionally in the very
text of ‘the Compilation’. Even though certain parts of the text are dissonant,
Dalā’il al-Hayrāt must basically consist of an introduction (muqaddima/

17)
  Ibn Kesir (2002: 1080).
18)
  We refer to the famous ḥadīt qudsī “Were it not for you, o Muhammad, I would
not have created the universe”.
19)
 Derman (2001: 26).
20)
  For a more detailed explanation of the term: Hadžibajrić (1988: 216); Hafizović
(1999: 460).
21)
  Inspired by artistic depictions from ‘the Compilation’, the painter Mustafa
Faginović painted depictions of Mecca and Medina on the north-eastern inner wall of
the Mišćina (Kebkebir hajji Ahmed) Mosque in Sarajevo, for which the mosque is known.
Nevertheless, this is not the only example. More: Halimić (2010: 12); Bušatlić (1980: 63).
 Infinite travel of the soul to the Sacred City and the Luminous City: 41

mukaddime), eight chapters (ḥizb/hizip) and a closing prayer (ducā›).22) Apart

from the author’s preface and instructions for reading ṣalawāt and various
ducā›, the introductory section also includes the 99 beautiful names of God,
followed by the names of the Prophet Muhammad. Both sets were individu-
ally divided with punctuation marks, in the form of vegetal or rosette-shaped
gold ornaments.
Before studying ‘the Compilation’, one should declare an intention (make
a niyya or niyet) and turn to God asking for forgiveness of sins by reading the
introductory, initial prayer (ducā›). The reading of ‘the Compilation’ contin-
ues with clearly specified and prescribed parts for every day of the week with
chapters divided accordingly. A colour palette, reduced to just a few colours,
was used to specifically decorate the titles of the chapters, mostly done in
gold. Ṣalawāt and other prayers from ‘the Compilation’ were not only meant
for dervişes, but also for sympathizers of each ṭarīqa/tarikat (muḥibb/muhip).
One interesting fact is that, Mustafa Bey-zade (Nuruddin Šefirović) issued
an Iğāzat Nāma23) in 1200/1785‹–‹86, to Halīl Ibn Ibrāhīm, for the outstanding
recitation of Dalā’il al-Hayrāt. Halīl Ibn Ibrahim was probably also one who
transcribed ‘the Compilation’.24)
There were several different sources of transmissions, referring to the
events that inspired Šayh Abū cAbd Allàh Muḥammad Ibn Sulaymān al-Ğazūlī
(died in 870/1465)25) to collect documented traditional forms of ṣalawāt,26) but
they are not part of this topic. The basis of every intention is aimed at spiritual
advancement, to reach a higher degree of knowledge by reciting ṣalawāt on
Muhammad, and pleasing the All Forgiving at the same time, which is, at the
end, the summum bonum of every worshipper.
Šayh Abū cAbd Allàh Muḥammad Ibn Sulaymān al-Ğazūlī was a renowned
Sufi from Northern Africa and founder of the Ğazūlī branch of the Šādilī

22)
 Popara (2006: 42).
23)
  A certificate issued by the Islamic Community on the basis of one’s achievements
and education within the field of Islamic sciences.
24)
 Popara (2007: 45). There were many other examples. It is also known that one
transcriber of a Compilation from the Oriental Institute, “obtained the permission to
use this work as a prayer book”. The permission was granted by Velijudin Ahmed from
Lower Tuzla. See: Ždralović (1988: 250).
25)
 Vassâf (2011: 297).
26)
 Vassâf (2011: 298).
42 Aida Smailbegović

order. He was born in Sūs, Morocco, to a Berber tribe of Ğazūla27), at the

end of the 14th or beginning of the 15th century. As far as we are aware, he
studied in his native country and then pursued his education in Fes, finished
a madrasa, and with it acquired linguistic and religious knowledge. After
finishing the madrasa, he went to perform ḥağğ, or the most important
pilgrimage for Muslims, and according to some sources, he stayed in Mecca
for the next forty years, while, according to others, only seven. During that
period, he also resided in Medina and Jerusalem (Al-Quds), before returning
to Fes. Upon his return to Morocco, he joined the Šādilī order of the Ṣūfīs.
He collected all documented traditional forms of ṣalawāt into ‘the Renowned
Compilation’, the Dalā’il al-Hayrāt. Nevertheless, it is not known whether the
first compilation included any of the artistic depictions mentioned, nor when
exactly ornamentation started to be used in practice, nor the occurrence of
such depictions. According to some authors, there are certain assumptions
that originally ‘the Compilation’ was not illustrated.28)
After spending – according to some sources – fourteen years of his life in
seclusion (halwa), the Šayh attracted and gathered ten thousand followers.
As the number of his supporters grew, along with his influence, the governor
of the Sūs area banished him, afraid of a rebellion. The šayh settled in the
village of Āfūġāl, accompanied by a large number of his students, where he
stayed until he passed away in 870/1465.29)
Apart from Dalā’il al-Hayrāt, two other compilations by him are also
popular: Ḥizb al-falāḥ and Ḥizb al-Ğazūlī.30) Some authors state that he wrote
several works in fields of fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) and taṣawwuf.31) His
other works probably remained in the shadow of the Dalā’il al-Hayrāt, which
so far has been transcribed, illustrated, multiplied and used for five and a half
century throughout the Muslim World, inclusive of Bosnia. This certainly
shows the respect and love of Muslims for Muhammad: for the book, the
script, the word and the art. The aforementioned Compilation was subject
to many comments, which additionally contributed to the status it enjoyed
among scholars and common people.

27)
 Uludağ (1993: 515).
28)
 Witkam (2007: 71).
29)
 Uludağ (1993: 515); at present Al-Ğazūlī’s remains are buried in Marrākuš, Ben
Cheneb (1965).
30)
  Uludağ (1993: 515).
31)
 Popara (2006: 42).
 Infinite travel of the soul to the Sacred City and the Luminous City: 43

Further in this article, we shall reflect on two copies of Dalā’il al-Hayrāt,

written at the beginning of the 19th century, with depictions of the focal
points of the Islamic world: the Blessed City of Mecca and Medina, the City
of the Glory.

MECCA AND MEDINA IN THE ṢALAWĀT COMPILATION

OF DALĀ’IL AL-HAYRĀT FROM TWO MANUSCRIPTS IN THE
ORIENTAL INSTITUTE IN SARAJEVO

A ṭawāf around Al-Kacba is of little use to the forlorn, if Al-

Kacba of their hearts is not lit by eternal sunlight.
(Fevzija Mostarac: Bulbulistan)

Like a single self-existent micro-cosmos within a whole world of its own,

Islamic manuscripts, together with their illustrations, are the second most
important medium of Islamic art, although the majority of art historians
believe its greatest accomplishments relate to architecture. Therefore, the
greatest attention and analysis has always been focussed on monumental
architectural achievements, whereas other spheres were generally neglected
and ignored. Islamic art rests on unconditional loyalty to the principle of
tawḥīd (uniqueness, faith in the one and only God, the Shaper – Al-Muṣawwir,
the Authentic Creator – Al-Bāri’, the one that cannot be artistically repre-
sented, for one is helpless before His Beauty). Islamic art was founded on
the sayings of Muhammad, the messenger of God’s word. Therefore, the
creative productivity of Muslim artists has always been orientated towards
calligraphy, illustrations and the ornamental decoration of manuscripts.
Micro-cosmoses of that kind are the ones kept in the Oriental Institute in
Sarajevo, in two manuscripts of the Dalā’il al-Hayrāt. They are registered,
respectively, under numbers R 52 and R 57.32) Even a glance at the pages of ‘the
Compilation’, without scratching the surface of the message or delving into
the depths of their inner meaning, will provoke admiration, at least among
those who appreciate the beauty of the Arabic script. Both manuscripts have
been bound in leather, one of which has a fore-edge flap. One is decorated
with golden rosettes, the other with vegetal and geometric ornaments, also
made in gold. The manuscript no R 27 is kept in a partially damaged leather
case with vegetal ornaments. The manuscripts were written on thin and

32)
 Gazić (2009).
44 Aida Smailbegović

silky, yet high quality, paper. One was transcribed by Ismācīl ad-Dihnī Ibn
Muḥammad-efendī as-Sarā’ī33) (from Sarajevo)in 1216/1801, while the other
was transcribed by Aš-Šayh Ḥāfiẓ Muḥammad Rāšid as-Sacdī,34) forty-one
years later. Ismācīl ad-Dihnī Ibn Muḥammad-efendī as-Sarā’ī was a callig-
rapher from Sarajevo who had mastered the art of calligraphy at the hands
of Ḥāğğī Ḥasan al-Wafā’ī. He also established his own calligraphy school in
Sarajevo.35) Apart from the Compilation mentioned, he also transcribed an
An‛ām compilation, now kept in the Gazi Husrev-Bey Library in Sarajevo.36)
Unfortunately, there is insufficient data available regarding the other copyist,
but based on his title, we can assume that he was a šayh of the Sacdī ṭarīqa,
whose adherents were present in the Balkans, with Sacdī tekkes in Kosovo,
Macedonia, southern Serbia and Belgrade.37)
The calligraphy was skilfully and masterly employed in both of the works
written in the nashī script, which can be characterised as being of exceptional
artistic merit. The basic text was written in black ink, while certain notes,
comments or whole sentences, were highlighted in red. The cunwāns, carried
out and decorated very skilfully, also catch the eye. They were made in the
shape of a broken pointed arch (crown) and were comprised of intertwined,
colourful, vegetal elements. Their slightly sharp but harmonious contrast
pricks our curiosity. cUnwāns, and the text consisting of several verses, were
enclosed by a thick, predominantly golden frame and each sentence was
divided by differently written punctuation marks, also in gold. The closing
sentences or notes of certain chapters did not strictly follow the line of the
frame where the basic text was placed, but rather narrowed down towards
the bottom of the page.
Additional space at the sides was left for illuminations, usually filled with
triangles, one facing the other, as if they reflected each other in a mirror.
The text of the note of manuscript no R 52 also narrowed down towards the
bottom of the page and was enclosed by a trapeze-like frame. The note was
written in red ink and provided an explanation for the following artistic
depiction. The note about the copyist and the date of transcription of com-
pilation no R 57 was placed in a similar looking frame, while free fields in

33)
  Gazić (2009: 38‹–‹39).
34)
  Gazić (2009: 38‹–‹39).
35)
 Bušatlić (2006: 266).
36)
  More: Fajić (2003: 580).
37)
  More: Von Schlegell (1995: 731).
 Infinite travel of the soul to the Sacred City and the Luminous City: 45

both compilations are filled with stylized vegetal motifs. The technique of
narrowing down was used on the final page of the manuscript, so that the
text would not end in the middle of the page, making the manuscript pages
more aesthetically delightful.
The outer frame along the basic text was enriched with a thin red line
created by a long pencil stroke. This was supported by a second, considerably
thinner, inner-golden frame. The margins of certain pages of ‘the Compila-
tion’ include one or other comment or note related to the text, which were
written in red or black ink, where skilful calligraphy was applied as in the
basic text. Elegantly extended rosettes were also harmoniously included.
Their purpose in general, was to mark the place where the sağda/secde is
required (part of the praying ritual where the front of your head, knees and
hands are on the floor), or to mark the beginning of a new chapter or any
other part. In the compilations, they correspond to a ḥizb in number, whereas
the ones in ‘the Compilation’ (no. R 52) are rather nobler, and contain richer
illustrations.
It seems that the artistic depictions that emerged in Dalā’il al-Hayrāt
were primarily aimed at providing a visual explanation of the text, as in the
first illustrated works that were translated from different world languages
to Arabic. Illustrations of Mecca and Medina depicted on the pages of ‘the
Compilation’ were not in any way intended to serve as decorative features,
but rather as explanations. They appear to visually explain the Islamic reli-
gious expression Lā ilàha illā Allàhu wa-Muḥammadun rasūl Allàh! Countless
associations could be made. Understanding the latter could also represent
the spiritual basis of the two illustrations mentioned in the compilations.
For some people back then, they simply represented the first and possibly
only encounter with the focal points of Islam. Finally, such depictions are
important to those who are pious, given that, as Annemarie Schimmel states:
“the blessing of the Prophet’s spiritual presence is mediated through them”.38)
Architectural sights, whereby architectural buildings, and the most impor-
tant elements of the holy places, were shown from a top-down perspective,
dominated the artistic depictions in the Dalā’il al-Hayrāt.39) Some depictions
skilfully portrayed a pronounced sense of perspective and space, while others
were less skilful and becoming. Stylistic depictions of Al-Kacba in Al-Masğid
al-Ḥarām, or depictions of the Prophet’s Mosque in a typical ambiance, were

38)
 Schimmel (2001: 115).
39)
 Bušatlić (1985: 39).
46 Aida Smailbegović

placed in a rectangle of smaller dimensions (11 x 6 cm, or 11 x 6.5 cm) with

a thick golden frame, which is identical to the frame of ‘the Compilation’s’
basic text. The celestial blue reached as far as the semi-circular or multi-
foil arch, which additionally contributed to the miniature decoration, while
a further inner frame, formed by arches, enclosed the depiction. The arches
and celestial dome strikingly resemble medieval frames of numerous images
or miniatures of Western origin.
The depictions of Mecca and Medina, dating back to earlier centuries,
were not suitable for those kind of frames. In one of the older depictions,
the columns, formed by the inner frame, shaped the outlined part of the
mosque (hall).40) It seems that the 16th century miniatures were made by
combining different perspectives, while two-dimensional shapes were used
for architectural buildings and other elements. Despite the individual style
of the 16th century Ottoman miniature, it was certainly strongly influenced
from Persia, probably due to a large number of miniaturists who came to
the Ottoman metropolis after the occupation of their country. Stylistic com-
parisons of miniatures that emerged in this region, featuring 18th and 19th
century elements, could be found in a wider area of the Ottoman Empire.
Depictions of Mecca and Medina in the given compilations share clear
similarities in spatial organisation and features. Mecca (“the spiritual heart of
big and small men, the micro and macro-cosmos”41)) is the most holy complex
dressed in black and, according to tradition, Al-Kacba is an exact copy of
the heavenly Al-Kacba in the seventh heaven. The architectural complex
surrounding Al-Kacba appears to continue onto the next page, creating an
ambience around the Prophet’s grave and other more important features of
this honourable place, with few physical modifications and changes to other
buildings. The composition was set vertically, displaying a continuous series
of buildings surrounding and watching over the sacred places. Details such
as rocks and hills were barely included. Here and there, an isolated building
or a palm tree can be spotted in the background. Both depictions of Medina
include the Al-Baqīc Cemetery, placed at the very bottom of the hill in the
very back of the image. It is clearly evident that the depictions were not
topographically correct, but that issue was never addressed. Since it was
firmly believed that a column of light arises above the grave of Muhammad,
the illuminators captured that light in both of their depictions of Medina.

40)
 Hattstein (2007: 12).
41)
 Hafizović (2015: 172).
 Infinite travel of the soul to the Sacred City and the Luminous City: 47

Even if their pencil or thinner brush strokes in gold were slightly rough, the
illuminators increased the significance of Al-Fītūrī’s parcel of dust above the
Prophet’s bones, which creates the column of light.42)
Even though a lot of affection and attention has been devoted to the depic-
tions, they were carried out in a simple and naive manner. Everything was
totally subordinate to highlighting its content. The simplicity in the scenery
depiction was aimed not to distract from the central part of the image and
its value.
Images, which were subject to our analysis, were painted on a golden
background, which should additionally highlight their importance. They
resemble images depicting events from the Bible or mosaic depictions of
Byzantine emperors and saints, usually with a golden background. Gold and
silver have a very important role in these kind of fine arts, emphasising the
vividness of colours and clarity of the image.43) Covering the background
with small golden leaves made the gilt.44) The background has been somewhat
damaged in both depictions in Manuscript R 57, given that white spots were
subsequently painted.
The depictions are also similar in colour. They are dominated by white,
light blue, green and brown on a vivacious golden background, providing
an exceptionally complementary contrast. Here and there, however, certain
nuances appear, that according to all the rules applied in this form of art,
disturb the harmony and aesthetic delight.
Schematic depictions of Mecca and Medina are not particularly valuable in
terms of the fine arts. On the contrary, their quality, aesthetics, and distinc-
tive artistic features are reflected in the architectural sights or honourable
places they actually represent, on the basis of their spiritual background.
The compilations used in and deriving from our region serve as proof of an
unconditional commitment to the Lord of all worlds, manifested in the love
and affection for the Dearest to God. They also stand for a relentless quest for
knowledge, loyalty to love and beauty and the whole cycle of life towards
his infinite mercy.

42)
  Annemarie Schimmel quoted the lines of a modern Sudanese author, which refer
to the column of light, i: “Above the bones of the Prophet, every particle of dust shall
represent a column of light”. See: Schimmel (2001: 116).
43)
 Bušatlić (1985: 61).
44)
 Rizvić (1972: 76).
48 Aida Smailbegović

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Fig. 1. The opening pages of Dalā’il al-Hayrāt (fol. 1b-2a). cUnwān decorated with
floral motifs on a golden background, with no title given. Manuscript Compilation
of the Oriental Institute in Sarajevo, R 52

Fig. 2. Dalā’il al-Hayrāt (fol. 18b-19a).cUnwān and the title of ḥizb in gold, with title.
Manuscript Compilation of the Oriental Institute in Sarajevo, R 57
 [51]

Fig. 3. Artistic depiction of Mecca (right) and Medina (left) The Dalā’il al-Hayrāt
(fol. 63b–64a). Manuscript Compilation of the Oriental Institute in Sarajevo, R 52

Fig. 4. Artistic depiction of Mecca (right) and Medina (left) The Dalā’il al-Hayrāt
(fol.16b–17a). Manuscript Compilation of the Oriental Institute in Sarajevo, R 57