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Environmental Management - CE355

Written & Composed BY ENGINEER SAQIB IMRAN

WhatsApp & Contact No: 0341-7549889
Email: Saqibimran43@gmail.com
Student of B.TECH(Civil) at Sarhad University of Science &
Information Technology Peshawer.
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ENVIRONMENTAL LEGISLATION AND REGULATIONS

Environmental legislation is the collection of laws and regulations relating to air quality, water
quality, the wildlife and other environmental factors. The environmental legislation covers
many laws and regulations: how ever they all work together toward a common goal, which is
regulating the interaction between man and the environment to reduce threats to the
environment and increase public health. Some of the major regulations applied by various
states are:
1. OCEAN DUMPING ACT (ODA): It focuses on the regulation of disposal of materials into
oceans waters and allows related research. The ODA control the dumping of material into
ocean waters and the transportation of materials for the purpose of dumping. The purpose of
the act is to strictly limit ocean disposal of any material that would negatively affect human
health, the marine environment and ecological systems.
2. SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL ACT: It authorize to manage the disposal of hazardous solid waste
into open environment and dumping into soil. Its main goal is to reduce waste and protect
human and environmental health by decreasing pollution and promoting better municipal was
disposal technology. It also defines solid waste as local responsibility and announces waste
management standards.
3. OIL POLLUTION ACT: It primarily covers the cleanup of petroleum products. Main goals in
this act are: • Developing and updating the oil spill emergency response plans, • Maintaining
required records/documentation, • Testing emergency response equipment, • Notifying
federal, state and local agencies in case of an incident, • Mitigating all spills and discharge, •
Ensuring employees have required training.
4. POLLUTION PREVENTION ACT (PPA): The pollution prevention Act focused industry,
government and public attention on reducing the amount of pollution through changes in
production, operation and usage of raw materials. The main objectives of this act include:
• pollution should be prevented or reduced at the source, • pollution that cannot be prevented
should be recycled in an environmentally safe manner, • pollution that cannot be prevented or
recycled should be treated in an environmentally safe manner, • disposal or other release into
the environment should be utilize only as last alternative and should be conducted in an
environmentally safe manner.
5. CLEAN AIR ACT 1970: The Clean Air Act seeks to protect human health and environment
from emissions that pollute air. It requires the EPA to establish minimum national standards for
air quality and assigns responsibility to assure fulfillment with the standards. It also addresses
the prevention of pollution in areas with clean air and protection of the stratospheric ozone
layer.
6. CLEAN WATER ACT 1972: The 1972 legislation launches motivated programs for water
quality improvement that are still being implemented. The Clean Air Act (CWA) today consists
of two major parts; one is the provisions for municipal sewage treatment plant construction.
The other is regulatory requirements, which apply to industrial and municipal discharges.
Industries were given to install “Best Practicable Control Technology” (BPT) to clean up waste
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discharges. The primary focus of BPT was on controlling discharges of conventional pollutants,
such as suspended solids, biochemical oxygen demanding material, coli form and bacteria an
PH.
7. SAFE DRINKING WATER ACT 1974: The Safe Water Drinking Act (SDWA) is the law for
protecting public water supplies from harmful containments. First pass in 1974 and make
improvements in 1986 and 1996. Act is administered through programs that establish standards
and treatment requirements for public water supplies, control underground injection of wastes,
finance infrastructure projects and protect sources of drinking water.
ENVIRONMENTAL STATUS
With approval, the Nixon Administration established the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) in 1970 under a plan, which combines numerous pollution control responsibilities that
had been divided among several agencies. EPA,s primary responsibilities include the regulation
of air quality, water quality and chemicals in commerce, the development of regulatory criteria
for the management and disposal of solid and hazardous wastes and the cleanup of
environmental contamination.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): EPA also provides financial support to state and local
governments to help them in administrating pollution control program and fulfill some certain
federal environmental requirements. EPA assigns some laws and regulations to ensure the
protection of environment. Some of the important laws and regulations are discussed below.
CLEAN AIR ACT 1970:
The Clean Air Act seeks to protect human health and environment from emissions that pollute
air. It requires the EPA to establish minimum national standards for air quality and assigns
responsibility to assure fulfillment with the standards. It also addresses the prevention of
pollution in areas with clean air and protection of the stratospheric ozone layer.
Key Elements: • Reducing outdoor or ambient concentrations of air pollutants that cause smog,
haze, and acid rain and other problems. • Reducing emissions of toxic air pollutants that are
causing cancer or other serious health effects. • Phasing out production and use of chemicals
that destroy stratospheric ozone.
CLEAN WATER ACT 1972:
The 1972 legislation launches motivated programs for water quality improvement that are still
being implemented. The Clean Air Act (CWA) today consists of two major parts; one is the
provisions for municipal sewage treatment plant construction. The other is regulatory
requirements, which apply to industrial and municipal discharges. Industries were given to
install “Best Practicable Control Technology” (BPT) to clean up waste discharges. The primary
focus of BPT was on controlling discharges of conventional pollutants, such as suspended solids,
biochemical oxygen demanding material, coli form and bacteria an PH.
Key Elements: • Establish water quality standards for all bodies of water especially where
additional pollutant controls are needed. • Set total maximum daily load (TMDL) of pollutants
that ensures water quality standards can be attained and maintained. TMDL is process for
attaining water quality standards and quantitative assessment of pollution problems.
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• Implement control strategies for waters expected to remain polluted by toxic chemicals even
after industrial discharges have installed the best available cleanup technologies.
SAFE DRINKING WATER ACT 1974:
The Safe Water Drinking Act (SDWA) is the law for protecting public water supplies from
harmful containments. First pass in 1974 and make improvements in 1986 and 1996. Act is
administered through programs that establish standards and treatment requirements for public
water supplies, control underground injection of wastes, finance infrastructure projects and
protect sources of drinking water.
Key Elements: • Protect sources of drinking water. • Protect public health through treatment
techniques. • MCL,s: Maximum Contaminant Level, • Well Head protection areas.
Good Environmental Status: Good Environmental Status is a qualitative description of the state
of the seas that the European Union's Marine Strategy Framework Directive requires
its Member States to achieve or maintain by the year 2020. Good Environmental Status is
described by 11 Descriptors:
Descriptor 1. Biodiversity is maintained.
2. Non-indigenous species do not adversely alter the ecosystem.
3. The population of commercial fish species is healthy.
4. Elements of food webs ensure long-term abundance and reproduction.
5. Eutrophication is minimized.
6. The sea floor integrity ensures functioning of the ecosystem.
7. Permanent alteration of hydrographical conditions does not adversely affect the ecosystem.
8. Concentrations of contaminants give no effects.
9. Contaminants in seafood are below safe levels.
10. Marine litter does not cause harm.
11. Introduction of energy (including underwater noise) does not adversely affect the
ecosystem.
FUNDAMENTAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL REMEDIATION (FOUR PHASES OF
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION)
DIFFERENT TYPES OF REMEDIATION: Over the past five years, the Remediation and
Environmental Cleanup Services industry has grown by1.6%. One of the biggest reasons for this
is because for many people, it is a necessity. Certain large events, such as the Deepwater
Horizon oil spill stick out in our memories. Other parts of the country, such as the Rust Belt, are
not victims of a single event but of a long, slow environmental decline. Whatever the case may
be, there is a chance that the land you want to buy or sell is contaminated. The Environmental
Protection Agency reported tracking 23 million acres of land nationwide. Some areas are more
prone to environmental contamination than others, but it is important to understand that land
can be polluted from a wide variety of sources. Some of these sources can be natural.
1. Groundwater Remediation: Groundwater remediation is the process of treating polluted
water below the earth. There is water underground in many different parts of the country, and
some of it is contaminated. Some pollutants can be removed directly, while others can be
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converted into harmless products. A few different practices can cause water to be
contaminated. Runoff from farms, leaking landfills, and industrial spills can cause water to
become harmful. Underground water contamination is important because water naturally
harbors certain types of diseases. E. coli, among others, can be found in water. Additionally,
water flows. While this may seem obvious, it is important to keep in mind that an underwater
aquifer is a highway for pollutants. Something nasty could be deposited on your land. This can
cause serious, and long-term problems.
2. Surface Water Remediation: Surface water remediation is very similar to groundwater
remediation, except it is far easier to access water above the soil. Surface water is exposed to
many different elements. Still water is a natural breeding ground for insects, bacteria, and other
things which are generally harmful to humans.
Surface water remediation matters because humans are more likely to come in contact with
surface water than they are with groundwater. Problems are a little bit simpler to find, and it
may be a little bit easier to take care of them as well.
3. Soil Remediation: Soil remediation is the process of removing contaminants from soil.
Hydrocarbons, heavy metals, and creosote all present problems for property owners. There are
a few different methods of fixing soil. You can do it using natural means, such as using certain
types of bacteria. Additionally, thermal soil remediation, air sparging, and encapsulation may be
effective. The most immediate type of remediation is removal of the contaminated soil and
replacement with clean fill. Soil contamination has serious, long-term, and deleterious effects
on ecosystems and property. Many animals absorb soil contamination in one form or another,
and soil contamination can cause massive die-offs. This, in turn, can cause more problems.
Humans may become permanently sick due to soil contamination.
4. Sediment Remediation: This one is a mix of water and soil remediation. When you mix the
two, new circumstances are created, and thus new problems may arise. The EPA defines
contaminated sediment as soil, sand, organic matter, or other material that accumulates at the
bottom of a water body that contains toxic materials at high levels.
Sediment remediation matters because it can affect both the water and the soil. It can be
contaminated by both as well.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION: Environmental contamination or Environmental pollution
is the introduction of contaminants into the environment that cause harm or discomfort to
humans or other living organisms and damage the environment. These contaminants can come
in the form of chemical substances, or energy such as noise, heat or light. Pollution control is a
term used in environmental management, which means the control of emissions and effluents
in the environment.
FOUR PHASES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION:
1. WATER CONTAMINATION: Water contamination happens when chemicals or dangerous
substances are introduced to water, including chemicals, sewage, pesticides and fertilizers from
agricultural runoff, or metals like lead or mercury. Water contamination is the constant
addition of pollutants to the water bodies resulting in contamination of water.
i. Causes of Water Contamination
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Industrial Waste: Industries produce huge amount of waste which contains toxic chemicals and
pollutants which can cause water contaminated. They contain pollutants such as lead, mercury,
Sulphur, asbestos, nitrates etc.
Oil Leakage: Oil spills are caused when oil rigs which are present in the oceans are damaged by
either natural or human errors cause a long-time damage to the ocean as oil is lighter than
water and floats on water forming a layer blocking sunlight which can cause varying damage to
species in the ocean.
Agricultural Activities: Chemical fertilizers and pesticides are used by farmers to protect crops
from insects and bacteria. However, when these chemicals are mixed up with water can be
harmful.
ii. Effects of Water Contamination
Loss of Aquatic Animals: The main problem caused by water pollution is that it kills life that
depends on these water bodies.
Disruption of food-chains: Pollution disrupts the natural food chain as well. Pollutants such as
lead and cadmium are eaten by tiny animals. Later, these animals are consumed by fish and the
food chain continues to be disrupted at all higher levels.
Diseases: Eventually, humans are affected by this process a well. People can get diseases by
eating seafood that has been poisoned.
iii. Control Measures
Water pollution can be reduced with some efforts, such as: • By a regular qualitative and
quantitative monitoring of fresh water resources. • Domestic and industrial wastes should be
stored for some days. Due to sun-light and organic nutrients present in waste there will result
in growth of those bacteria which will digest the harmful waste matter. • Polluted water can be
reclaimed by proper sewage treatment plants. • Suitable strict legislation should perform to
make it obligatory for the industries to treat the waste water.
2. AIR CONTAMINATION: The air naturally comprises of 78% of nitrogen, 21% of oxygen, o.9%
of oxide gases and 0.1% of inert gases. Air contamination is the mixing of such natural air with
different particles. Such particles are known as pollutants like smoke emitted from the vehicles.
i. Causes of Air Contamination
Household and Farming Chemicals: Crop dusting, fumigating homes, household cleaning
products or painting supplies, over the counter insect/pest killers, fertilizer dust emit harmful
chemicals into the air and cause pollution.
Agricultural Activities: Ammonia is very common by product from agriculture related activities
and is one of the most hazardous gases in the atmosphere. Use of insecticides, pesticides and
fertilizers in agricultural activities has grown quite a lot. They emit harmful chemicals into the
air and can cause air pollution.
Mining Operations: Mining is a process in which minerals below the earth are extracted using
large equipment’s. During the process dust and chemicals are released in the air causing
massive air pollution.
ii. Effects of Air Contamination
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Acidification: Harmful gases like nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides are released into the
atmosphere during the burning of fossil fuels. When it rains, the water droplets combine with
these air pollutants, becomes acidic and then falls on the ground in the form of acid rain.
Eutrophication: Eutrophication is a condition where high amount of nitrogen present in some
pollutants gets developed on the surface of sea, which can result in algae growth in lakes and
water bodies and adversely affects fish, plants and animal’s species.
Respiratory and Heart Problems: It is known to create several respiratory and heart conditions
along with Cancer, among other threats to the body. People in areas exposed to air pollutants
are said to commonly suffer from pneumonia and asthma.
iii. Control Measures
• Use of equipment’s/process for control of dust in various industries like Mechanical dust
collectors, electrostatic precipitators, water sprayer at dust generation points, proper
ventilation system etc. • Many fertilizes are a source of nitrous oxide which is a greenhouse gas
that contributes to global warming. Try organic products instead of that gas. • Trees absorb and
store carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and filter out air pollution.
3. NOISE CONTAMINATION: The sounds which are not pleasant to hear are called noise. So an
excess of noise in the outdoors leads to noise contamination. It is the generation of sounds that
are irritating and have a high pitch as compared to the hearing capabilities of humans.
i. Causes of Noise Contamination
Transport Vehicles: Automobile revolution in urban centers has proved to be a big source of
noise pollution. Increasing traffic has given rise to traffic jams contributes to the noise
pollution.
Construction Activities: Under construction activities like mining, construction of bridges,
dams, buildings, stations, roads, flyovers take place in almost every part of the world. These
construction activities take place every day as we need more buildings, bridges to
accommodate more people and to reduce traffic congestion.
Industrialization: Most of the industries use big machines which are capable of producing large
amount of noise. A part from that, various equipment’s like compressor, generators, exhaust
fans, grinding mills also participate in producing big noise.
ii. Effects of Noise Contamination
Hearing: The immediate and acute effect of noise pollution to a person, over a period of time, is
harm to hearing. Constant exposure to loud levels of noise can easily result in the damage of
our ear drums and loss of hearing.
Health Issues: Excessive noise pollution in working areas can influence psychological health.
Studies show that the occurrence of aggressive behavior, constant stress, fatigue can be linked
to excessive noise levels.
Sleeping Disorders: Loud noise can certainly slow down sleeping pattern and may lead to
irritation and uncomfortable situations.
iii. Control Measures
• Protective equipment should be made mandatory when noise levels exceed 85 dB in industry.
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• It has been observed that noise level reduces by 10 decibels (dB) per every 10m wide green
belt development. Creation of green cover adjacent to municipal roads and in mines is the way
to mitigate noise pollution. • Creation of greenbelt in the space between the residences and
highways also reduces the noise nuisance.
4. LAND CONTAMINATION: Enhancing the nature of land fertility by using artificial chemicals
like pesticides, insecticides, ripening agents etc. is known as land contamination. Land can
become polluted by household garbage and by industrial waste. Industries generate hazardous
waste from mining, petroleum refining and pesticide manufacturing and other chemical
production.
i. Causes of Land Contamination
Garbage or Waste: These include household or municipal waste such as glass, metal, cloth,
plastic, wood, paper, and so on. They are usually collected and sent to landfills, they can
damage the environment by polluting the land.
Deforestation: Trees absorb and reflect 20% of the intense heat from the sun, protecting and
preserving soils. Cutting down trees mean that land is exposed to direct sunlight and rain,
resulting in soil erosions, desertification and land degradation.
Industrial Activities: Industrial activities are also contributing factor to land pollution. Industrial
wastes are the effluents discharged from chemical industries, paper and textile mills, steel
industries, cement industries, thermal and nuclear power plants etc.
ii. Effects of Land Contamination
There can be tragic factors of land contamination in relation to humans, animals, water and
soils. Contaminated lands can:
Soil Pollution: Soil pollution is a form of land pollution, where the upper layer of soil is
damaged. This is caused by the over use of chemical fertilizers, soil erosion caused by running
water and other pest control measures which leads to the loss of fertile land.
Environmental Impact: When land is polluted, it is directly or indirectly affects the climate
patterns. Like when deforestation is committed it leads to a steep imbalance in the rain cycle. A
disturbed rain cycle affects a lot like Global warming.
Effect on Human Health: The toxic chemicals can reach our body through foods and vegetables
that we eat as they are grown in polluted soil, leading to problem of skin cancer and human
respiratory system.
Effect on Wildlife: The constant human activity on land is leaving it polluted; forcing animal
species to move further away and adopt to new regions or die trying to adjust.
iii. Control Measures
• Make people aware about the concept of Reduce, Recycle and Reuse. • Reduce the use of
pesticides and fertilizers in agricultural activities. • Create dumping ground away from
residential areas. • Encourage organic farming. • Efficient utilization of resources and reducing
wastage.
PROJECT MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS
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A project is unique in the sense that it is not a routine operation, but a specific set of activities
designed to accomplish a singular goal.
Project Management is a set of principles, methods and techniques for effective planning of
objective-oriented work, to establish a basis for effective scheduling, controlling and planning in
management of various steps of the projects.
Project management emerged because of the growing demand for complex, complicated,
customized goods and services and expansion of human knowledge. It depends on combination
of production/distribution and finally allows a number of disciplines to contribute in the
development of goods and services.
In other words, it provides an organization with powerful tools that improve the organization’s
ability to plan, organize, implement and control its activities and the ways it uses its people and
resources.
FUNCTIONS OF MANAGEMENT
1. PLANNING: Planning is deciding what to do, when to do & how to do. Planning is necessary
to ensure proper utilization of human & non-human resources. Planning involves defining a
goal and determining the most effective course of action needed to reach that goal.
2. ORGANIZING: An organization can only function well if it is well-organized. Organizing
involves assigning tasks and responsibilities to employees with the specific skill sets needed to
complete the tasks. It is the process of bringing together physical, financial and human
resources and developing productive relationship amongst them for achievement of
organizational goals.
3. LEADERSHIP: It motivates organizational methods to work efficiently for achievement of
organizational goals. It requires the use of authority to achieve those ends as well as the ability
to communicate effectively. It is an aspect of management which deals directly with
influencing, guiding, supervising and motivating the sub-ordinates.
4. CONTROLLING: The controlling fuction of management is useful for ensuring all other functions of the
organization are in place and are operating effectively. Controlling involves establishing performance
standards and monitoring the output of employes to ensure each employee’s performance meets those
standards.
MANAGERIAL SKILLS
1. Communication Skills: One of the single most important characteristic of a first-rate project
manager is excellent communication skills. Written and oral communications are the backbone
of all successful projects. Project managers should communicate clearly, quickly and frequently.
2. Organizing and Planning Skills: Organizing and Planning Skills are closely related and the
most important after communication skills. Project documentation, information, memos,
project reports, personal records, vendor quotes, contracts and much more will be available to
the project manager to track and he should be able to make a quick response. Time
management and planning skills are also closely related to organizational skills. Combining
these two with excellent communication skills helps in success of project management.
3. Budgeting Skills: Project manager establish and manage budgets and therefore need some
knowledge of finance and accounting principles. Especially important in this skill area is the
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ability to perform cost estimates for project. Different methods are available to determine the
project costs. They range from estimating individual activities to estimating the project’s cost in
one portion.
4. Conflict Management Skills: It involves solving problems. For these problems grip the scope
and objectives of projects, identify the roles and responsibilities of others, use project
management tools to stay on track and become an effective member of project team.
5. Negotiation and Influencing Skills: Effective problem solving requires negotiation and
influencing skills. Negotiation on project is necessary in almost every area of the project. This
might involve one-on-one negotiation or with team. Influencing requires an understanding of
the formal and informal structure of all the organizations involved in the project.
6. Leadership Skills: Leaders and managers are not the same, but project manager exhibits the
characteristics of both during different times on the project. It includes set priorities, delegate,
motivate and develop project team and coach them to get high level of performance.
Successful project managers know how to motivate team and keep teams working effectively.
7. Team Building and Motivating Skills: Teams are often formed with workers from different
parts of the organization. So some components of team-building might involve the project
manager. While motivation is another important role the project manager fulfills during the
course of project. The project manager will motivate the team members through various stages
of team development to fully functional. OR
Managerial skills are a term that refers to the required skills (competencies) of the manager. In
particular, following skills are included: Planning, Organizing, Leadership, Communicating,
Decision Making, Problem Solving. • Planning - to know planning techniques and be able to
apply them in practice. • Organizing - to know organizing techniques and be able to apply them.
• People management - the ability to manage people (it is a typical hard skill - work allocation,
monitoring, etc.) • Leadership. the ability to lead people (it is a typical soft skill - to motivate,
inspire, coach, etc.) • Communicating - to be a good communicator. • Decision making - to
know decision making techniques and be able to practically apply them. • Problem solving - to
be able to solve problems. It is essential that managerial skills can be partially obtained in the
course of higher management education and partially they are acquired by practicing. The MBA
studies also focuses on managerial skills. OR
MANAGERIAL SKILLS: A skill is an individual's ability to translate knowledge into action. In
order to be able to successfully discharge his roles, a manager should possess four major skills.
These are conceptual skill, human relations skill, technical skill and design skill.
Conceptual skill deals with ideas. The conceptual skill refers to the ability of a manager to
take a broad and farsighted view of the organization and its future, his ability to think in
abstract, his ability to analyze the forces working in a situation, his creative and innovative
ability and his ability to assess the environment and the changes taking place in it.
The technical skill is the manager's understanding of the nature of job that people under him
have to perform. It refers to a person's knowledge and proficiency in any type of process or
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technique. In a production department this would mean an understanding of the technicalities

of the process of production.
Human relations skill is the ability to interact effectively with people at all levels. This skill
develops in the manager sufficient ability (a) to recognize the feelings and sentiments of
others; (b) to judge the possible actions to, and outcomes of various courses of action he may
undertake; and (c) to examine his own concepts and values which may enable him to develop
more useful attitudes about himself.
Design Skill involves the ability to solve problems of the organization. Top and middle level
managements must have the ability to see more than a problem. They must have in addition
the skill of a good design engineering working out a practical solution to the problem.
Managers must be able to develop a workable solution to the problem.
SYSTEM APPROACH TO OPERATIONAL MANAGEMENT:
Operation management may be defined as a systematic approach to address all the issues
related to the transformation process that converts some inputs into output that are useful and
could obtain profits to the organizations. There are five functions of OM:
1. Planning, 2. Organizing, 3. Controlling, 4. Behavior, 5. Models.
A systematic approach involves understanding the nature of issues and problems to be studied,
establishing measures of performance, collecting relevant data, using scientific tools and
techniques and solution methodologies to analyze and developing effective as well as efficient
solutions to the problem at hand. Some of the functions of systematic approach are:
• Join and focus on the interaction between activities. • Studies the effects of interactions.
• Highlight overall opinion. • Adjust groups at the same time. • Combines duration of time.
• Confirm facts through comparison of the behavior with reality. • Has an efficient approach
when interactions are strong. • Leads to corrective education. • Leads to action through
objectives, • Have knowledge of goals and unclear details. OR
SYSTEM APPROACH: A system approach is set of interrelated and inter dependent parts
arranged in a manner that produces a unified whole. For Example:  The human body is a
system with all the organs, muscles, bones and conscious that likes all of its parts.  In a
company a group of division people working for a common goal or success. So this system for
mainly approach to the management.
FEATURES OF A SYSTEM:  A system is a combination of parts and sub system.  Parts and sub
parts of a system are mutually related to each other.  Arrangement in a system is more
important.  Prevalence of boundary.  Closed and open system.  System transforms inputs
into outputs.
FEATURES OF MANAGEMENT: AS A SYSTEM:  Management as a social system, 
Management as open system,  Adaptive,  Dynamic,  Probabilistic,  Multi-level and
multidimensional,  Multivariable,  An integrated approach.
BASIC TYPES OF SYSTEMS
Closed Systems: Closed systems are not influenced by and not interact with their environment.
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Open Systems: Dynamically interact to their environments by taking inputs and transforming
them into outputs that distributed into their environments.
THE FOUR PARTS OF A SYSTEM
 Inputs: From the external environment include people, capital, management & technological
skills etc. in short- man money material.
 Outputs: Include products, services, profit, loses, employee, satisfaction or discontent, and
the like that are produced by the organization.
 Transformation Process: The organization’s capabilities in management and technology that
are applied to converting inputs to outputs.
 Feedback: Information about the reaction of the environment to the outputs that affects
the inputs.
THE ORGANIZATION AS AN OPEN SYSTEM

Advantages of system approach

 Under system approach, manager have a good view of the organization.
 It gives importance to interdependent of the different parts of an organization and its
environment.  It forecast consequences and plans action.  Goal oriented.
Disadvantages of system approach
 Does not offer specific tools and techniques for practicing manager.  In smaller organization
it is not relevant.  Activity of any part affect activity of other parts.  Unpractical: It cannot be
easily and directly applied to practical problem.
Conclusion: System approach is very crucial for organizations for its existence in business
scenario and economic environment, in order to face all cyclic circumstances and to move step
ahead to achieve goals.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROJECT MANAGEMENT
Management: Management is the process of reaching organizational goals by working with
organizational resources. Management processes include planning, organizing, directing and
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controlling. An important aspect of management’s function is a location of limited resources.

Resources can be human, financial, technological or natural.
Environmental Project Management: The key elements of an integrated approach to
environmental project management require expertise in scientific, engineering, legal, public
policy and project management disciplines. Environmental project management includes:
• Developing an environmental project plan. • Develop time management approaches.
• Define management functions. • Determine project effectiveness. • Establish cost control.
• Establish project organization and staffing. • Resolve project conflicts. • Perform pricing and
cost estimating.
Environment: The sum total of all surroundings of a living organism, including natural forces &
other living things which provide conditions for development & growth as well as of danger &
damages.  The science of Environment studies is a multi-disciplinary science.  It is the science
of physical phenomena in the environment.  It is a broad field of study that includes also the
natural environment, built environment and the sets of relation between them.  Our very
survival in this planet earth depends on the proper management of environment.  Every living
being are interdependent directly or indirectly.  The climatic condition depends on the air,
temperature. Everyone is now feeling the change of climate due to the rise in air temperature
of the earth.  More presence of CO2 is resulting ozone layer depletion & acid rain.
 Due to enormous increase in population & stress on environmental factors like air, water &
soil, it is now urgently needed to frame guidelines & rules for the management of environment
in a proper way.  A good management of environment can only bring a sustainable life to all in
this planet earth.
Environmental Management: Environmental management system refers to the management
of an organization's environmental programs in a comprehensive, systematic, planned and
documented manner. It includes the organizational structure, planning & resources for
developing, implementing and maintaining policy for environmental protection.” OR
Environmental management is the process by which environmental health is regulated. It does
not involve managing the environment itself, but it is the process of taking steps and behaviors
to have a positive effect on the environment. To reduce the risk of these environmental
impacts’ occurrence, we clearly set objectives and targets. OR
• “Environmental management is concerned with the man-environment interface, the complex
boundary where bio-physical and socio-cultural systems interact”. - (Hare, 1970.)
• “An approach which goes beyond natural resources management to encompass the political
and social as well as the natural environment”. - (Clarke, 1999.)
• “Environmental management – a generic description of a process undertaken by systems
oriented professionals with a natural science, social science or less commonly, an engineering
,law or design background, tackling problem of human altered environment on an
interdisciplinary basis from a quantitative and/or futuristic viewpoint”. - (Downey, 1989).
• “The process of allocating natural and artificial resources so as to make optimum use of the
environment in satisfying basic human needs, at the minimum, and more, if possible, on a
sustainable basis”. - (Jolly, 1978.)
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Environmental Management Techniques

• Minimizing odour emissions. • Minimizing particulate matter emissions: Minimizing emissions
of particulate matter management practices must minimize the quantity of pollutants, leaving
the site as airborne particulate matter, reduce the storm water sediment load and protect the
local amenity. • Minimizing emissions of airborne pathogens methods are: (a): Do not allow
organics that are being processed, or products to lose too much moisture. (b): Have adequate
environmental technique at the facility to manage particulate matter. (c): Avoid uncontrolled
emissions of biogas in aerobic processes. • Minimizing amenity impact (including odour and
particulate matter): keep stockpiles of raw organics and product law to avoid potential negative
Environment impact. • Managing storage times for feed stock: The storage times of organic
feed stock should be controlled to avoid emissions of offensive odours. • Covering of Organics:
The biodegradable organics should be covered in order to reduce odour emissions.
• Management of leachate drains and storage ponds. • Cleaning of vehicles. • Management of
biogas. • Preventing water pollution. • Screening of organics received.
Characteristics of Environmental Management:  Environmental management supports
sustainable development.  Environmental management demands the multi-disciplinary
approach. It deals with a world affected by humans.  Environmental management has to
integrate different development viewpoints.  Environmental management seeks to integrate
natural and social science.  Environmental management can extend from short-term to long-
term and from local to global level.
Concept of Environmental Management:  It’s an attempt to control human impact on and
interaction with the environment in order to preserve natural resources.  Environmental
management focuses on the improvement of human welfare for present and future
generations.  Administrative functions that develop, implement, and monitor the
environmental policy of an organization.  Environment management implies not only a mere
management of environment but it is essentially the management of various activities with
intolerable constraints imposed by the environment itself and with full consideration of
ecological factors.  Thus it involves environmental planning, conservation of resources,
environmental status evaluation and environmental legislation and administration.
PROJECT MANAGEMENT RESOURCES
Resources of Project Management: In project management terminology, resources are
required to carry out the project tasks. They can be people, equipment, facilities, funding or
anything else required for the completion of a project activity. Five resources available for the
project manager are:
PERSONNEL: People are the most important resource for a project. Managing the people
means having the right people, with the right skills, at the right time. It also means ensuring
that the project staff knows what needs to be done, when, and how, and motivating them to
take ownership in the project. It includes consulting services; consist of the right people with
the expertise and skills needed to complete the activities on the project schedule. People may
come from the organization, or hired for the duration of the project.
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EQUIPMENT: The project management for equipment is much like for people resources. You
have to make sure you have the right equipment in the right place at the right time and that it
has the supplies it needs to operate properly. Equipment includes all the tools needed by
project, from water pumps to electrical generators that will be used by project. It also includes
the need for vehicles and office equipment such as computers and printers.
TIME: Time is a critical resource for any project. Project managers who succeed in meeting their
project schedule have a good chance of staying within their project budget. To enable time
management, the different project activities need to be detailed and prioritized.
BUDGET: Each project comes with costs and a budget to match these costs. On the income side,
the main sources of funding are subsidies, grants, donations, and own contributions. On the
costs side, the types of expenditure vary according to the nature of the project, but the most
common cost factors are staff costs, equipment, travel and subsistence, subcontracting and
overheads. The financial management of a project requires that all expenditure must be
allocated to a detailed budget, which means that the budget must be carefully planned.
MATERIAL: Materials include a wider category of requirements such as utility services such as
electricity, telephone lines, and access to the internet, office material, office space etc. Material
may also include building material that will be used to build facilities or food and medicines that
will be delivered to the personnel.
PROJECT MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS
There are nine project management functions which include five core functions and four
facilitating functions.
FIVE CORE FUNCTIONS
1. Project Cost Management: Project cost management is keeping your project within its
defined budget. Cost estimating, cost budgeting, and cost control are three cost related
processes that interact with each other and with other areas of project management. All of
these processes require effort and working knowledge of costs of different equipment’s,
workers and machines.
2. Project Quality Management: Good project quality management techniques are important
to ensure that project delivers and end results meet the customer’s expectations. Project
quality management begins by defining the quality standards to be used for the project. This
area includes Quality planning, perform quality assurance and perform quality control.
3. Project Scope Management: It defines the boundaries of the project and what is outside
those boundaries. The boundaries are typically defined in terms of objectives, deliverables and
resources. Project scope management is concerned with the work of the project and only the
work that is required to complete the project. Its process includes scope planning, scope
definition, scope verification and scope control.
4. Project Time Management: It is concerned with estimating the duration of project plan
activities; develop a project schedule and monitoring and controlling difference from the
schedule. Its processes include activity definition, activity sequencing, activity resource
estimating, activity duration estimating, schedule development and schedule control.
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5. Project Integration Management: Project integration management involves coordinating all

aspects of the project and includes Develop project charter, preliminary project scope
statement, develop project management plan, direct and manage project execution, monitor
and control work, integrated change control and close project.
FOUR FACILITATING FUNCTIONS
1. Risk Management: Steps to identify and mitigate potential risks are known as risk
management. Project risk management is concerned with identifying and planning for potential
risks that may impact the project. Its process includes Risk management planning, Risk
Identification, Qualitative risk analysis, Risk response planning and risk monitoring and control.
2. Project Human Resources Management: The number of workers/personnel and their types
of skill vary during the course of project. Project human resources management ensures
effective use of such human resources and includes Human resources planning, get project
team and develop project team and management of project team.
3. Project Communication Management: Project communication management ensures proper
and timely communication. Managing stakeholders, communication of the plan, collecting
information regarding its execution, obtaining feedback from the personnel involved and
communicating status of project all drop under communications management.
4. Procurement Management: It concerns procurement and contract supervision. The
processes included in this knowledge area are plan purchases and acquisition, plan contracting,
request seller responses, select sellers, contract administration and contract closure.
IMPORTANCE OF A HIGH QUALITY PROPOSAL
A proposal is the major tool by which company secures new business; therefore, the
importance of a proposal cannot be defined. The ability to attract and successfully respond to
request for proposal is a strong indicator of the long-term potential of any company.
It helps to define question and enables to express how to go about answering that question.
Secondly, the proposal is able to give an overview of the research project so that other people
understand the scope of the project, the significance of the research, as well as proposed
methodology.
RECOMMENDED PROPOSAL FORMAT
The recommended proposal format is as follows:
1. Introduction: Request for proposal (RFP) conditions are summarized and general approach to
the work by the contractor is indicated.
2. Background Information: It provides: • Protocol title and date. • Name and address of the
sponsor/funder. • Name and title of the investigator’s including responsibilities of each.
• Name’s and address’s of the clinical laboratories and other medical and/or technical
department’s and/or institution’s involved in the project.
3. Objectives: This section is used to relate the objectives as identified by the customer and to
state the short and long term objectives for the project.
4. Technical Approach: It presents the basic strategy that has been developed in order to meet
the objectives.
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5. Scope of Work: This section details the services the owner will provide. It includes the
services that will be performed and the documents that will be produced. All services should be
well defined. All of the documents that are provided should be listed in detail.
6. Project Management: This section should describe the role and responsibility of each
member of team. It introduces related personnel and their experience on related projects.
7. Methodology: The methodology section is the most important part of the proposal. It should
include detailed information on the involvements to be made, procedures to be used,
measurements, observations, laboratory investigations etc.
8. Duration of the Project: The protocol should specify the time that each phase of the project
is likely to take, along with a detailed month by month timeline for each activity to be
undertaken.
9. Costs: It explains cost requirements for each step in methodology, based on calculations.
Cost estimates will include salaries of all technical and non-technical personnel, as well as
indirect costs like travel, communication, computer use and production.
POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS OF THE
ENVIRONMENTAL PROJECTS
PESTLE Analysis: PESTLE analysis, that is usually referred as PEST analysis, may be an idea in
promoting principles. Moreover, this idea is employed as a tool by corporations to trace the
atmosphere they’re operational in or getting to launch a brand new project/product/service
etc. PESTLE is a method that in its expanded kind denotes P for Political, E for Economic, S for
Social, T for Technological, L for Legal and E for Environmental. It provides a bird’s eye read of
the full surroundings from many various angles that one needs to ascertain and keep a track of
whereas considering on a particular idea/plan.
Political Factors: The political factors account for all the political activities that go on within a
country and if any external force might tip the scales in a certain way.
 Trading policies.  Government changes.  Funding.  Foreign pressures.  Conflicts in the
political area.  Shareholder and their demands.
Economic Factors: The economic factors take into view the economic condition prevalent in the
country and if the global economic scenarios might make it shift or not.
 Disposable income.  Unemployment level.  Foreign Exchange rates.  Interest rates.
 Trade tariffs.  Inflation rate.
Social Factors: Social factors are your consumers. You need to look at buying habits, emotional
needs, and consumer behavior in this section. Because these are the people who directly
influence your sales.
 Ethnic/religious factors.  Major world events.  Demographics.  Consumer opinions and
attitudes.  Trends.  Education.  Brand preferences.
Technological Factors: Technology can be directly involved with company products, like
manufacturing technologies.
 Technological development.  Research and development.  Associated Technologies.
 Patents.  Licensing.  Information technology.  Communication.
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Legal Factors: Legal factors have to do with all the legislative and procedural components in an
economy. Also, this takes into account certain standards that your business might have to meet
in order to start production/promotion.
 Employment law.  Consumer protection.  Industry-specific regulations.  Competitive
regulations.  Future legislation.  Environmental regulations.
Environmental Factors: Environmental factors have to do with geographical locations and other
related environmental factors that may influence upon the nature of the trade you’re in. For
example, agri-businesses hugely depend on this form of analysis.
 Ecological.  Environmental issues.  Staff attitudes.  Management style.  Environmental
regulations.  Consumer values
Aim of PEST analysis
■ PEST analysis describes a framework of macro environmental factors used in the
environmental scanning component of strategic management.
■ It is part of an external analysis when conducting a strategic analysis or doing market
research, and gives an overview of the different macro environmental factors to be taken into
consideration.
■ It is a strategic tool for understanding market growth or decline, business position, potential
and direction for operations.
WORK BREAKDOWN STRUCTURE (TREE DIAGRAM FORMAT)
WBS is a particularly important project tool for dividing complex projects to simpler and
manageable tasks. In WBS, much larger tasks are broken down to manageable elements of
work graphical display known as tree diagram format for providing common frame work for
project planning, monitoring and communication. These elements can be easily supervised and
estimated. WBS is not restricted to a specific field but it can be used for any type of project
management.
Purpose of WBS: WBS in a project is needed for: • Accurate and readable project organization.
• Accurate assignment of responsibilities to the project team. • Indicates the project target.
• Helps to estimate the cost, time and risk. • illustrate the project scope.
Benefits of WBS: All the work within the WBS can be:
Definable: Can be described and easily understood by project participants.
Manageable: Specific responsibility and authority can be assigned to a responsible individual.
Estimate-able: Cost in resource can be estimated required to complete the project.
Integrate-able: Integrates an activity with other project elements.
Measurable: Can be used to measure progress i.e. has start and completion dates and
measurable target.
Adaptable: Sufficiently flexible so the addition/of work can be easily accommodated in the WBS
framework.
TREE DIAGRAM FORMAT
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WBS can be presented in tree diagram format. Most project management software programs
allow developing and printing the WBS in tree format. Tree diagram format present the project
broken down into stages, tasks, subtasks and finally work packages or activities.
In Tree diagram format, the project is graphically expressed. Usually the diagram starts with a
box at top, which represents the entire project. Then, there are sub-components under the box.
These boxes represent the deliverables of the project. Under each deliverable, there are sub-
elements. These sub-elements are the activities that should be performed in order to achieve
the objectives. WBS tree diagram format is input for Gantt Chart which is used for tracking the
progression of the tasks derived by WBS.
The first two levels of tree define set of planned outcomes that collectively represent 100% of
project. Each element contains following four items:
1. The scope of work. 2. The beginning and end for the scope of work. 3. The budget for the
scope of work. 4. The name of the person responsible for the scope of work.
Benefits: • The main benefit of the Tree diagram format is that it graphically displays the order
of project in sequence. • It is very easy to see how the work packages add up to form subtasks,
subtasks form tasks and son on. • The tree diagram represents not only order of tasks, but
objectives as well.
Drawbacks: • The problem with a WBS presented in tree diagram format is that it can become
too large to be useful. • Presenting an entire project in tree diagram format could require many
sheets of large size drawing paper.
TECHNIQUES FOR WBS DEVELOPMENT
1. General Process for WBS Development
The general process for developing the WBS is described in the following steps:
Step 1: Identify the major elements (tasks and deliverables) of the project.
Step 2: For each major element, decide if adequate cost and duration estimates can be
developed at this level.
Step 3: Also determine if responsibility can easily be assigned to a single person or functional
group at this same level.
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Step 4: For those elements for which adequate durations and cost estimates cannot be made or
responsibilities cannot be easily assigned, proceed to step 4. Otherwise proceed to step 5.
Step 5: Further sub-divide each element into its constituent elements. Repeat steps 2 and 3 for
each constituent element,
Review the WBS by comparing it to the WBS specifications and rules of thumb.
Rules of THUMB for WBS Development
The following rules of thumb can help in the development of the WBS:
• The names assigned to WBS elements should be easy to understand.
• Include a task called project management. This will provide the project manager, and the
project team for project coordination, monitoring and status reporting.
• Include a sub-task entitled task management for each task that will be managed by a task
manager.
• Think deeply about the cost and duration of the lowest level elements during the
development of the WBS.
• The lowest level elements should account for from 5 to 10% of the total project budget.
• The lowest level elements should not have duration beyond two weeks.
• Do not use the same task performed by two separately responsible groups.
• Include a task in the WBS for the development of the project health and safety plan.
• Include tasks in the WBS that will be performed by outside of the project (customer and
regulatory review).
• Include target in the WBS to signify the beginning or end of a project stage.
2. Team Development of WBS
A team approach is essential for creating successful WBS for more complex projects. It provides
methodology for developing the WBS in team management. Ideas tools for team development
of WBS include the use of e-mail, voice mail system and other communication tools.
Under ideal conditions all projects would be planned by the project team. While under actual
working conditions, this method should be kept for projects with budget in excess of $250,000
and duration greater than six months.
3. Wall Planning Method of WBS Development
The recommended method for developing the WBS in group involves using number of large
self-adhesive notes and very large blank wall. The group will utilize the notes to jointly
construct the WBS on the planning wall.
Developing the WBS using the wall method has proven to be highly effective in planning large
projects performed by a major environmental service company. The wall method allows team
members to: • See the complete WBS. • Voice suggestion and comments. • Quickly add,
remove, and rearrange tasks as necessary.
This method of collaboration is superior to gathering everyone around a computer screen. Once
the WBS has been completed on the wall, entering it into a computer is a simple task that can
be any member of the project planning team.
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CRITICAL PATH METHOD (CPM) AND THE PROGRAMME EVALUATION AND

REVIEW TECHNIQUES (PERT)
CRITICAL PATH METHOD (CPM)
Critical path is the longest path in the network diagram. It is the shortest time possible to
complete the project. This method was first introduced in 1950s as a joint venture between
Remington Rand Corporation and DuPont Corporation.
Critical path Method is arrangement of activities from start to the end of a project. The initial
critical path method was used for managing plant maintenance projects, while the original
method was developed for construction work. In the critical path method, the critical activities
of program or project are identified. These are the activities that have direct impact on the
completion date of the project.
Advantages: • The activities and their outcomes can be shown as a network.
• Presents time to complete the tasks and overall project. • Tracking of critical activities.
• Most flexible and powerful management planning technique. • Can be used for both large
and small projects.
Disadvantages: • It can be complicated for larger projects. • Does not handle the scheduling of
personnel or the allocation of resources. • The critical path is not always clear and needs to be
calculated carefully. • Estimating activity completion times can be difficult.
CPM Technique: • CPM follows the following steps for accomplishing a project planning:
• Break down the projects into various activities systematically. • Label all activities. • Arrange
all the activities in logical sequence. • Construct the arrow diagram. • Number all the activities.
• Find the time for each activity. • Mark the activity times on the arrow diagram. • Calculate
early and late, start and finishing times. • Tabulate various times I.e. Earliest start time (ES),
earliest finish time (EF), latest start time (LS), latest finish time (LF). • Calculate the total project
duration. • Optimize the cost. • Update the network.
PROGRAMME EVALUATION AND REVIEW TECHNIQUES (PERT)
PERT was developed during the 1950s by the efforts of the U.S Navy and some of its contractors
working on the Polaris missile project. It is commonly used to conduct the initial review of
project. PERT is adopted by organizations to analyze and represent the activity in a project and
to show the flow of events in project. It evaluates and estimate the time required to complete
task within deadlines. It breaks down project into events and activities in proper sequence in
the form of network.
In PERT network, each activity is represented by a line and the completion of each activity is
represented by a node. The main goal of PERT is to reduce the cost and time needed to
complete project. The different times shown for each project activity when creating the
network diagram can be defined as:
The Optimistic Time: The minimum time required to complete a task.
The Pessimistic Time: The maximum time required to complete a task.
The Most Likely Time: An estimate of how long the task will actually take.
Information included on network diagram for each activity may include:
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• Activity name. • Expected duration. • Earliest start (ES). • Earliest finish (EF). • Latest start
(LS). • Latest finish (LF). • Slack.
Advantages: PERT is useful because it provides the following information: • Expected project
completion time. • Probability of completion before specified date. • The critical path activities
that directly impact the completion time. • The activities that have slack time and that can be
provide resources to critical path activities. • Activity start and end date.
Disadvantages: • There can be hundreds or thousands of activities and dependency, • When
the charts become unwieldy, they are no longer used to manage the project. • PERT is not
useful when no reasonable estimates of time schedule can be made, • It gives importance on
time only but not on costs.
PERT Technique: • Identify activities and target. • The tasks and their beginning and end are
listed in table. • Determine the proper sequence of the activities. • In this step, activities are
put in sequence. • Construct a network diagram. • Network diagram is drawn which shows
activities. Software are available that can automatically produce network diagram from tabular
information. • Estimate the time required for each activity. • Any unit of time can be used,
while days and weeks are common. • Determine the critical path. • The critical path is
determined by adding the activity times for each sequence and determining the longest path in
the project as in CPM. • Update the PERT chart. • As the project progresses, estimated times
can be replaced with actual times. OR
PROGRAM EVALUATION AND REVIEW TECHNIQUE
The Program Evaluation and Review Technique is a method that is used in both planning and
coordinating large projects. It is a project management tool that serves as a roadmap for a
project in which all elements have been identified including their relationships with one
another. It is also a technique used to estimate that applies the weighted average of the
different types of estimates – optimistic, pessimistic and most likely – especially when
uncertainty is present with the individual duration of the activity.
The main feature of the Program Evaluation and Review Technique is the network diagram. This
particular project management tool provides a visual image of all major project activities
including the sequence on how they should be completed. It is important to take note that
activities are defined as individually distinct steps in project management. These steps are
necessary for the completion of the project that consumes both resources and time.
Project managers can get a lot of information by using the Program Evaluation and Review
Technique as such they can determine which activities they need to do first before doing the
next one.
This term is defined in the 5th edition of the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK).
PROJECT COST MANAGEMENT
Project cost management is concerned with the cost of the resources needed to complete
project activities. It should consider the effect of project decisions on the cost of product and
should also consider the information about the needs of project stakeholders. Project Cost
Management includes the processes required to ensure that the project is completed within
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the approved budget. The Project Cost Management processes include the following:
1. Resource Planning: Resource planning involves determining physical resources (people,
equipment, materials) and their quantities to perform project activities. Inputs needed for
resource planning includes:
2. Work Breakdown Structure: The work breakdown structure identifies the project elements
that will need resources and thus is the primary input to resource planning.
3. Historical Information: Historical information regarding types of resources required for
similar work on previous projects should be used if available.
4. Scope Statement: The scope statement contains the project justification and the project
objectives, both of which should be considered during resource planning.
5. Resource Pool Description: Knowledge of resources is necessary for resource planning. The
detail and the level of resource pool description will vary with time. For example, during the
early phases of an engineering design project, the pool may include junior and senior engineers
while in later phases it may be limited to those individuals as a result of having worked on the
earlier phases.
6. Organizational Policies: The policies of the performing organization regarding staffing and
the rental or purchase of supplies and equipment must be considered during resource planning.
CONTINGENCY ESTIMATION ON LUMP SUM CONTRACTS
Contingency estimates are usually associated with lump sum contracts. They refer to the
amount of money added to cost estimate for the purpose of absorbing project risks. This
amount is typically not revealed to the customer. If the project is executed with little or no risk
impact, the contingency amount is taken as increased profit. There are number of methods for
estimating contingency amounts for lump sum contracts ranging from small to large scale
projects. The three primary methods are:
1. PERCENTAGE ESTIMATE: The percentage estimate is the easiest and most common method
of estimating contingency. To apply this method, the project planning team will develop cost
estimates of different activities of the project. Cost of these activities will then combine to
arrive at the project cost. This project cost will then be increased by some percentage amount
of the total project cost.
2. RISK MANAGEMENT APPROACH: In this case, project planning team identifies all the various
risk factors like fire, accidents, earthquake etc. After identifying all the risks, the project
planning team calculates risk event status for each like high class or low class risk. At the end,
the total contingency estimate is derived by adding all the risk event statuses. This risk
management approach can be performed on each activity or on whole project. Using this
approach on each activity will result in higher contingency estimate than using it on a whole
project. This method also results in higher contingency amount than percentage estimate.
3. COMPUTER MODELING: Computer modeling involves different techniques such as Monte
Carlo simulation, Decision tree analysis, Range estimating etc to arrive at a contingency
estimate. These techniques are the part of advanced project management. Comparing with
other methods of contingence estimate, this method depends upon the skills of person
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designing the model. Computer modeling approach has become common in large construction
companies.
PAST PAPERS
Attempt the following MCQs:
i. Smog is _____________.
A: nothing but black smoke B: a combination of smoke and fog C: a liquid particle
resulting from vapor condensation D: a solid particle e.g. fly ash.
ii. __________________ is the process of killing organism in water.
A: Coagulation B: Sterilization C: Sedimentation D: Disinfection.
iii. Which of the following is a manmade source of air pollution?
A: Automobile exhaust. B: Forest fire. C: Bacterial action in soil and swamp areas D:
All (a), (b) and (c).
iv. Growth of __________ is promoted by the presence of manganese in water.
A: files B: algae C: mosquitoes D: micro-organisms
v. Which of the following is not a secondary air pollutant ______________?
A: Ozone B: Photochemical smog C: Sulphur dioxide D: All (a), (b) & (c)
vi. The main industrial source of emission of hydrogen sulphide air pollutant is
_________.
A: petroleum refineries. B: coal based thermal power plants. C: pulp and paper
plant. D: metallurgical roasting & smelting plant.
vii. In water treatment, alum [Al2 (SO4)3] is used for the process of __________.
A: filtration B: coagulation C: disinfection D: sedimentation.
Mark the correct one
i. The upper layer of atmosphere is called
a) stratosphere b. troposphere c. ionosphere
ii. which of the following is a man-made source of air pollution?
a. Automobile Exhaust b. forest fire c. both
iii. Global warming may result in
a. flood b. Cyclone c. decrease in flood productivity
iv. Sulphur dioxide present in the industrial chimney exhaust causes
a. Respiratory and lung diseases b. corrosion c. Acid rain d. All
v. Which of the following is the most major constituent of the air pollution?
a. SO2 b. NO2 c. CO d. H2S
a) Noise is the type of pollution. True/False
b) Water pollution can cause serious diseases like hepatitis B. True/False. Hepatitis A & E.
c) Dividing complex projects to simpler and manageable tasks is the called WBS.
True/False
d) The significant findings of an EIA should be documented. True/False
e) Program Evaluation & Review Technique use expected time formula for time.
True/False
f) EIA stands for……(Environmental impact assessment, environmental impact ability,
environmental impact authority, environmental impact agency).
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g) OBS stands for ………………. Organization Breakdown Structure.

h) WBS stands for ……………… Work breakdown structure.
i) PERT stands for ……………... Program Evaluation & Review Technique.
j) CPM stands for ……………… Critical Path Method.
Which one of the following is not a 'renewable' energy source?
(a)Solar (b) coal (c) waves (d) wind
The first step in project planning is to
(a) Determine the budget (b) select a team organizational model
(c) Determine the project constraints (d) establish the objectives and scope.
Which of these are critical practices for performance-based project management?
(a) Defect tracking against quality targets (b) empirical cost estimation
(c) formal risk management (d) All of them
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CPM AND PERT
CPM PERT
CPM uses activity oriented network. PERT uses event oriented Network.
Durations of activity may be estimated with a Estimate of time for activities are not so
fair degree of accuracy. accurate and definite.
It is used extensively in construction projects. It is used mostly in research and
development projects, particularly projects of
non-repetitive nature.
Deterministic concept is used. Probabilistic model concept is used.
CPM can control both time and cost planning. PERT is basically a tool for planning.
In CPM, cost optimization is given prime In PERT, it is assumed that cost varies directly
importance. The time for the completion of with time. Attention is therefore given to
the project depends upon cost optimization. minimize the time so that minimum cost
The cost is not directly proportioned to time. results. Thus in PERT, time is the controlling
Thus, cost is the controlling factor. factor.
PHYSICAL TECHNIQUES FOR CLEANING AND PURIFICATION OF WATER
SEDIMENTATION: Sedimentation has been practiced since ancient times using small water
storage vessels or larger settling basins, reservoirs and storage tanks. Storing water for few
hours will allow the large and dense particles such as inorganic sands and silts to settle down.
However, clay particles and smaller microorganisms will not settle under these conditions.
Most viruses and bacteria and fine clay particles are too small to be settled out by simple
gravity sedimentation. Sedimentation of particles improves the qualities of the water and
thereby increases its acceptance by consumers. Pre-treatment of turbid water by
sedimentation is recommended because it is easy to perform and requires a minimum of
materials or skill. For turbid waters containing non-settable solids, sedimentation will be
ineffective and alternative methods of particle removal, such a filtration, are needed.
FILTRATION: Filtration is another ancient and widely used technology that removes particles
and at least some microorganisms from water. A variety of filter media and filtration processes
are available for treatment of water. The practicality, ease of use, availability, accessibility and
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affordability of these filtration media and methods vary and often depend on local factors.
Filtration through porous granular media, typically sand is the most widely used physical
method for water treatment at the community level and it has been used extensively for on-
site treatment of both community and household water since ancient times.
ADSORPTION: Adsorption is a process where a solid is used for removing a soluble substance
from the water. In this process active carbon is the solid. Activated carbon is produced
specifically to achieve internal surface. This internal surface makes active carbon ideal for
adsorption. The activity of an active carbon depends on the temperature and the nature of the
substances. Active carbon comes in two variations: Powder Activated Carbon (PAC) Granular
Activated Carbon (GAC) The GAC version is mostly used in water treatment.
CHEMICAL TECHNIQUES FOR CLEANING AND PURIFICATION OF WATER
CHLORINATION: Chlorination is the most widely accepted and adopted method of purification
of water. Basically this method is the addition of chlorine in water. Chlorine gas can be added at
different points in the water treatment process and each step has different effects. Adding the
chlorine at the beginning of the process to the raw water would give the most contact time
which would guarantee purification. Another choice is to post chlorinate, which means adding
the chlorine after the water has been coagulated, settled, and filtered. Factors influencing
purification by chlorination are: concentration of the chlorine contact time temperature of the
water pH of the water
ION EXCHANGE TECHNIQUE: Ion exchange processes are used to remove inorganic
contaminants if they cannot be removed adequately by filtration or sedimentation. It is a rapid
and reversible process in which impurity ions present in the water are replaced by ions released
by an ion exchange resin. They can be used to remove arsenic, chromium, excess fluoride,
nitrates, radium and uranium. There are two basic types of resin:
• Cation-exchange resins. • Anion-exchange resins.
Cation exchange resins will release Hydrogen (H+) ions or other positively charged ions in
exchange for impurity cations present in the water. Anion exchange resins will release hydroxyl
(OH-) ions or other negatively charged ions in exchange for impurity anions present in the
water.
DISTILLATION: Distillation is the oldest method of water purification. Water is first heated to
boiling. Then the water vapor rises to condenser, where cooling water lowers the temperature
so the vapor is condensed, collected and stored. With boiling points lower than 100°C, organics
such as herbicides and pesticides cannot be removed efficiently and can actually become
concentrated in the product water. Distillation requires large amounts of energy and water and
is very slow to produce clean water. Distilled water can also be very acidic (low pH).
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA)
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is process of evaluating the environmental impacts of a
proposed project or development, taking into account organized socioeconomic, cultural and
human-health impacts, both beneficial and adverse. Environmental assessment (EA) is the term
used for the assessment of the environmental consequences (positive and negative) of a plan,
policy, program or project. The purpose of the assessment is to ensure that decision makers
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consider the environmental impacts when deciding whether or not to proceed with a project.
The fundamental components of EIA would necessarily involve the following stages:
 Screening to determine which projects or developments require full or partial impact
assessment study.  Scoping to identify which impacts are relevant to evaluate, identify
alternative solutions, mitigate or compensate adverse impacts and finally to get terms of
reference.  Assessment and evaluation of impacts and development of alternatives to predict
and identify the environmental impacts of proposed project.  Reporting the EIA including an
environmental management plan (EMP) and a non-technical summary for the general audience.
 Review of the EIA based on the terms of reference and public participation.  Decision-
making on whether to approve the project or not and under what conditions.
 Monitoring, fulfillment, enforcement and environmental inspection.
DISOLVED OXYGEN (DO): Dissolved oxygen (DO) is the amount of oxygen that is present in the
water consumed by oxidation of organic matter/reducing agent etc. It is measured in milligrams
per liter (mg/L). The optimum value of DO in good quality water is 4-8mg/L. Water having DO
value less than 4 mg/L is termed as polluted and is unfit for human or aquatic animals.
BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD): The Biological Oxygen Demand or BOD is the amount
of oxygen consumed by bacteria in the decomposition of organic matter. It is determined
experimentally by determining the dissolved oxygen (DO) at the beginning and at the end of 5-
day period in a sealed sample.
CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (COD): The COD value indicates the amount of oxygen which is
needed for the oxidation of all organic substances in water. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is
measure of capacity of water to consume oxygen during the decomposition of organic matter
and the oxidation of inorganic chemicals such as ammonia and nitrite. The COD of water sample
is determined by the chemical oxidation of the organic matter by K2Cr207 in 50% H2SO4.
IMPORTANCE OF PLANNING
Provides Direction: Under the process of planning the objectives of the project are defined in
simple and clear words. All the employees get a direction and all their efforts are focused
towards a particular end. In this way, planning has an important role in the achievement of the
objectives of the organization.
Reduces Risks of Uncertainty: Planning is always done for future and future is uncertain. With
the help of planning possible changes in future are projected and various activities are planned
in the best possible way. In this way, the risk of future uncertainties can be minimized.
Reduces Overlapping and Wasteful Activities: Under planning, future activities are planned in
order to achieve objectives. As a result, the problems of when, where, what and why are almost
decided. Consequently, wastages moves towards nil, efficiency increases and costs get to the
lowest level.
Facilitates Decision Making: Decision making means the process of taking decisions. Under it, a
variety of alternatives are discovered and the best alternative is chosen. The planning sets the
target for decision making. It also lays down the criteria for evaluating courses of action.
Establishes Standards for Controlling: By determining the objectives of the project through
planning all the people working and all the departments are informed about when, what and
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how to do things.
IMPORTANCE OF ORGANIZING
Benefits of Specialization: Under organizing, all the activities are subdivided into various works
or jobs. For all the sub works, capable people are appointed who become experts by doing a
particular job time and again. In this way, maximum work is accomplished in the minimum span
of time.
Clarity in Working Relationship: Organizing clarifies the working relations among employees. It
specifies who is to report to whom. Therefore, communication becomes effective and helps in
fixing responsibility.
Utilization of Resources: Under the process of organizing the entire work is divided into various
small activities. There is optimum utilization of all the available resources for each activity.
Effective Administration: It has generally been observed that there is always a condition of
doubt about the authority of the managers among themselves. The process of organizing
makes clear for each and every activity of every manager and also of their level of authority.
Expansion and Growth: The process of organizing allows the employees the freedom to take
decisions which helps them to grow. They are always ready to face new challenges.
IMPORTANCE OF LEADERSHIP
The following points justify the importance of leadership in project management:
Initiates action: Leadership starts the work by communicating the policies and plans to the
subordinates from where the work actually starts.
Motivation: Leadership proves to be playing a motivation role in project management. It
motivates the employees with economic and non-economic rewards and thereby gets the work
from the subordinates.
Providing guidance: A leader has to not only supervise but also play a guiding role for the
subordinates. Guidance here means instructing the subordinates the way they have to perform
their work effectively and efficiently.
Creating confidence: Confidence is an important factor which can be achieved through
expressing the work efforts to the subordinates, explaining them clearly their role and giving
them guidelines to achieve the goals effectively which can be achieved by leadership.
Coordination: Coordination can be achieved through merging personal interests with
organizational goals. This can be achieved through proper and effective co-ordination.
IMPORTANCE OF ENVIRONMENTAL PROJECT MANAGEMENT
The following points will justify the importance of environmental project management:
 Environmental Project Management ensures that development project; program and
legislation requirements are met during project implementation under planning conditions to
implement environmental assurance and requirements.
 It also support and form part of project funding for biodiversity and landscape conservation
and legal agreements with local authorities or other parties regarding to environment.
 It involves the mobilization of resources and the use of government to administer the use of
both natural and economic goods and services.
 It is based on the principles of ecology. It uses systems analysis to distribute the costs and
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benefits of development activities and seeks to protect the activities from natural hazards.
 Conflict identification is one of the more important tasks in environmental project
management.
MAJOR TYPES OF POLLUTANTS
CARBON MONOXIDE: Carbon monoxide is a colorless, odorless, poisonous and tasteless gas.
CO is slightly less dense than air.
Sources: Carbon monoxide is a temporary atmospheric pollutant in some urban areas, chiefly
from the exhaust of internal combustion engines including vehicles, portable and back-up
generators etc. But also from incomplete combustion of various other fuels including wood,
coal, charcoal, oil, propane, natural gas and trash.
Effects: The initial symptoms of low to moderate CO include: Headache Fatigue Shortness of
breath Nausea
NITROGEN DIOXIDE: Nitrogen dioxide is an important reddish-brown toxic gas air pollutant
because it contributes to the formation of smog and is a large scale pollutant.
Sources: NO2 mostly comes from power plants. Nitrogen dioxide is formed in two ways: when
nitrogen in the fuel is burned when nitrogen in the air reacts with oxygen at very high
temperatures. Nitrogen dioxide can also react in the atmosphere to form ozone, acid rain and
particles.
Effects: High level of nitrogen dioxide can give people coughs and can make them feel short of
breath. People who are exposed to nitrogen dioxide for long time have higher chance of getting
respiratory infections. Nitrogen dioxide reacts in the atmosphere to form acid rain, which can
harm plants and animals.
SULFUR DIOXIDE: Sulfur dioxide is a colorless common air pollutant and corrosive gas that
cannot be seen or smelled at low levels but can have a rotten egg smell at high levels. It is
found on Earth and exists in very small concentrations.
Sources: Sulfur dioxide mostly comes from the burning of coal or oil in power plants. It also
comes from factories that make chemicals, paper or fuel. Like nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide
reacts in the atmosphere to form acid rain and particles.
Effects: Sulfur dioxide exposure can affect people who have asthma by making it more difficult
for them to breathe. It can also irritate eyes, noses and throats. Sulfur dioxide can harm trees
and crops, damage buildings and make it harder for people to see long distances.
GROSS ORGANIC CONTENTS IN FRESH WATER: • Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), •
Chemical oxygen demand (COD), • Total organic carbon (TOC).
DIFFERENT ACTS FOR SAFE DRINKING WATER
The Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974: The Safe Drinking Water Act was proposed by President
Nixon and signed into law by President Ford in 1974 and is the basis for safe drinking water act.
If drinking water exceeds EPA's standards than water utilities are required to treat the problem.
States are given authority to implement the Act and to monitor systems that are unable to
comply with federal standards.
The 1986 Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments: Under these Amendments, EPA was required
to set new drinking water standards for 83 named contaminants. EPA was also required to
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establish requirements for unregulated contaminants, specify the best available treatment
technologies, disinfection standards, implement limitations on lead-based material public water
systems and develop programs to protect ground water.
The Lead Contamination Control Act: In 1988 Congress passed new provision to SDWA,
requiring EPA to maintain accounting of water coolers with lead-based components and
develop guidance for controlling lead contamination in drinking water supplies.
The 1996 Safe drinking water acts amendments: On July 6, 1996 the House Health and
Environment Subcommittee approved this legislation. The Act created a State Revolving loan
Fund (SRF) program to help states for funding them for drinking water systems. SRF funds are
to be used for providing loans to the health protection objectives of the SDWA.
Reduction of Lead in Drinking Water Act 2013: This act effect from January 4, 2014 for all
water systems that provide water for human consumption must use materials, device and
components that meet the new lead-free requirement. The law changes to lead content of 8
percent or less to weighted average of less than or equal to 0.25 percent for surfaces in contact
with potable water. It also establishes a formula to calculate the weighted average lead
content.
Q. Write the role of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) on environment?
Ans: Role of EIA: EIA have two Roles: legal and educational:
1. Legal Rule: The legal one is quite straight forward to ensure that development projects such
as a housing estate, a road/bridge or some such construction project has a minimal impact on
the environment in its entire ‘lifecycle’ – i.e. during design, construction, use, maintenance, and
demolition. Many countries now have laws stipulating that unless an EIA study is carried out
particularly for large infrastructure projects, permission for construction will not be granted by
the local authority.
2. Educational Rule: The educational role is equally important to educate everyone involved
both professionals and users. We need to look at all our daily actions as eventually and
cumulatively affecting the environment. This includes our daily choices, where a delicate
balance between financial and environmental considerations needs to be made automatically
without thinking.
Q. Define the Classification of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA):
Ans: EIA can be classified based on the purpose and the theme of development. EIA can be
climate impact assessment, demographic impact assessment, development impact assessment,
ecological impact assessment, economic and fiscal impact assessment, health impact
assessment, risk assessment, social impact assessment, strategic impact assessment,
technology assessment.
In addition to this list, EIA is also categorized based on systematic analysis of environmental
parameters, geographical region, carrying capacity limitations and sectoral planning. They are
strategic EIA, regional EIA, sectoral EIA, project level EIA and life cycle assessment.
Strategic EIA (SEIA): Strategic EIA refers to systematic analysis of the environmental effects of
development policies, plans, programs and other proposed strategic actions. This process
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extends the aims and principles of EIA upstream in the decision- making process, beyond the
project level and when major alternatives are still open. Strategic EIA represents a proactive
approach to integrate environmental considerations into the higher level of decision-making.
Regional EIA: EIA in the context of regional planning integrates environmental concerns into
development planning for a geographic region, normally at the sub- country level. Such an
approach is referred to as the economic-cum- environmental (EcE) development planning. This
approach facilitates adequate integration of economic development with management of
renewable natural resources within the carrying capacity limitation to achieve sustainable
development. It fulfills the need for macro-level environmental integration, which the project-
oriented EIA is unable to address effectively. Regional EIA addresses the environmental impacts
of regional development plans and thus, the context for project-level EIA of the subsequent
projects, within the region. In addition, if environmental effects are considered at regional
level, then cumulative environmental effects of all the projects within the region can be
accounted.
Sectoral EIA: Instead of project-level-EIA, an EIA should take place in the context of regional
and sectoral level planning. Once sectoral level development plans have the integrated sectoral
environmental concerns addressed, the scope of project-level EIA will be quite narrow. Sectoral
EIA will help to address specific environmental problems that may be encountered in planning
and implementing sectoral development projects.
Project Level EIA: Project level EIA refers to the developmental activity in isolation and the
impacts that it exerts on the receiving environment. Thus, it may not effectively integrate the
cumulative effects of the development in a region.
Life Cycle Assessment: A broader approach to deal with environmental impacts in
manufacturing is called life cycle analysis. This approach recognizes that environmental
concerns enter into every step of the process with respect to the manufacturing, of the
products and thus examines environmental impacts of the product at all stages of the product
life cycle. This includes the product design, development, manufacturing, packaging,
distribution, usage and disposal. LCA is concerned with reducing environmental impacts at all
these stages and looking at the total picture rather than just one stage of the production
process. Through utilizing this concept, firms minimize the life cycle environmental costs of
their total product system. LCA gives sufficient scope to think about the alternatives which are
lower at cost.
Q. Define the types of Work Breakdown Structure?
Ans: Even though the term “Work Breakdown Structure” has been used as a label for all project
scope hierarchical diagrams, there are, in practice, many types other than “deliverable”
oriented structures.
Verb-oriented WBS: A task-oriented WBS defines the deliverable of project work in terms of
the actions that must be done to produce the deliverable. The first word in a given WBS
element usually is a verb, such as, design, develop, optimize, transfer, test, etc.
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Noun-oriented WBS: A deliverable-oriented WBS defines project work in terms of the

components (physical or functional) that make up the deliverable. In this case, the first word in
a given WBS element is a noun, such as, Module A, Subsystem A, Automobile Engine, Antenna,
etc. Since the nouns are usually parts of a product, this WBS type is sometimes called a
“Product Breakdown Structure (PBS). Deliverable-oriented WBS structures are the preferred
type according to PMI’s definition.
Time-phased WBS: A “time-phased” WBS is one that is used on very long projects. It breaks the
project into major phases instead of tasks. In this type, a “rolling wave” approach is adopted
and only the near-term phase is planned in detail.
Other WBS types may include organization-types, geographical-types, cost breakdown types,
and profit-center types.
Define the 100% Rule in WBS?
Ans: The 100% Rule. One of the most important WBS design principles is called the 100% Rule,
defined as follows:
“The 100% Rule…states that the WBS includes 100% of the work defined by the project scope
and captures all deliverables – internal, external, interim – in terms of the work to be
completed, including project management. The 100% rule is one of the most important
principles guiding the development, decomposition and evaluation of the WBS. The rule applies
at all levels within the hierarchy: the sum of the work at the “child” level must equal 100% of
the work represented by the “parent” and the WBS should not include any work that falls
outside the actual scope of the project, that is, it cannot include more than 100% of the work…
It is important to remember that the 100% rule also applies to the activity level. The work
represented by the activities in each work package must add up to 100% of the work necessary
to complete the work package.”
Q. Define WBS Dictionary?
Ans: The official Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) definition of a WBS
Dictionary is: A document that provides detailed deliverable, activity, and scheduling
information about each component in the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS). The WBS
Dictionary describes each component of the WBS with milestones, deliverables, activities,
scope, and sometimes dates, resources, costs, quality. Used correctly, the WBS Dictionary
becomes much more than a document that describes the work. It becomes a project
kaleidoscope that allows you to look at your project data in an infinite number of ways. The
main application of the WBS dictionary is that it helps to create the product that will be
obtained with the execution of the project Work Packages are the lowest level of the WBS.
They represent the list of tasks in order to produce the particular unit of work.
Q. Define project proposal and explain its contents and types?
Ans: Project Proposal: A project proposal is the document that facilitates a professional
relationship between an organization and outside contributors. Typically, a project proposal is
the initial framework for establishing the concept of the project and includes what you want to
accomplish, an explanation of objectives, and plans for achieving them. It is common for a
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project proposal to include a list of activities or tasks that will be associated with the project,
illustrate the significance of this specific project idea, and explain the origins of this project.
A project proposal is also the marketing document that kicks off a relationship between an
organization and outside project stakeholders. Creating a proposal allows an organization to
establish a formal, logical presentation to an outside worker or project donor. Proposals are
generally drafted during one of the early phases of your project (before detailed plans are
made and resources are allocated). Therefore, time and budget estimates are often rough, at
best.
Sample Project Proposal Outline or Content
Section 1: Project Information: This section intends to provide a high-level picture of the
project as well as convey the most critical project details. Include the following in this section:
• Name of the Organization. • Project Title. • Project Summary. • Project Time frame.
• Prepared by. • Attached Documentation.
• Project Contacts (any individuals involved in the project).
Section 2: Project Summary: The goal of this section is to present the reasons for doing this
project as well as stating all of the objectives. In this section in particular, it is very important to
write concisely and clearly. Some project professionals even suggest writing the project
summary last. Before you begin writing, you should be able to answer the following questions.
• Why are you doing this project? • What will you be doing? • How will you be doing it? • Who
will be doing it? • Where will it be done? • How long will it take? • How much will it cost?
Project Background: This section of the proposal requires a few succinct sentences that clarify
the problem your proposal is tackling. Here, it is critical to explain the current state of the
problem and why your audience should care about solving it. Make sure to include references
and statistics in this section. Best practice is to keep this no longer than 1 page.
Project Objectives: Use this section of the proposal to explicitly list the goals that the project is
trying to achieve.
Section 3: Project Methodology: The project methodology section of a proposal is where you
detail the plan for how the objectives mentioned in the previous section will be achieved. This
is the first section of the proposal that details the course of action to remedy the problem and
is meant to prove that adequate research has been done for this decision. To start, outline the
methodology being used, the population being addressed, and establish the process for
reaching your objectives. This section is typically broken into three parts:
The Project Approach Summary: Use a few sentences to describe the overall approach to the
project. This includes how the team will be organized, what tools will be used, and how changes
will be addressed during execution.
Task Breakdown and Time Estimates: This is the section of the proposal where a detailed
project schedule is presented. To start, make a list of tasks that are required for the project as
well as an estimation of the hours required to complete each one. From there, you can take a
look at your resource pool and allocate your team accordingly. The purpose of this section is to
establish the time and steps it will take to achieve the solution, as well as the resources
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involved in each section. Here is where you start to see ideas turn into action. A project
proposal will often include a Gantt chart outlining the resources, tasks, and timeline.
Project Deliverables: This is where you list out all the deliverables you expect to see after the
project is closed. For example, this could be products, information, or reports that you plan to
deliver to a client. Ensure that each deliverable has an associated estimated delivery date.
Section 4: Project Risk Management: This section is dedicated to managing change during
project execution. Clients know that a proposal rarely covers everything that is required to
achieve the given project, so change management techniques are required. Establish how you
will monitor project success throughout its entire life cycle to show clients that when and if
change occurs, the project will not go haywire. This section is broken into two parts:
Risk Management Plan: A detailed plan of action to minimize the chance of risk or change
during the project lifecycle.
Risk Register: A line-item list of risks and potential counter efforts that will be used to
counteract these risks.
Section 5: Project Costs: This section is dedicated to estimating the overall cost of the proposed
project and is broken into three major parts:
Project Budget: This should be a detailed, line-item budget broken up by different project
categories, such as travel, salary, or supplies. Ensure all overhead or indirect costs are also
included in the budget.
Budget Narrative: This is a brief list of commentaries on the budget if any further clarification
or justification is needed.
Additional Financial Statements: Some projects, depending on complexity, will require
additional financial statements like a profit and loss statement, a tax return, or funding sources.
Section 6: Conclusion: The conclusion section of a project proposal intends to be a brief review
of all the points already discussed. This is your last chance to win over your audience, so ensure
that you incorporate the most important evidence to receive approval. This is also the final
moment to prove you have adequately researched all solutions and your proposed method is
the best for business.
Section 7: Appendix: This section is dedicated to any additional charts, graphs, images, or
reports that were cited in the proposal. Many times, referenced material will go into the
appendix as it does not naturally fall into the main body copy of the proposal.
Final Thoughts: • Determine your project proposal type first for an effective presentation.
• Make sure your proposal targets your audience and clearly defines the problems it will solve.
• Follow the seven sections of a proposal to more effectively convince your audience.
Types of Project Proposal
1. Formally Solicited: A formally solicited project proposal is established in response to an
official request for a new proposal. In this case, a Request for Proposal (RFP) document is used
to outline client demands and specific needs. A formally solicited proposal is the structured and
specific response to said RFP. Having an RFP makes the entire proposal process easier. As the
specifics are spelled out, project planning can prevent misunderstandings or a lack of
information that may cause complications later.
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2. Informally Solicited: An informally solicited proposal does not require an RFP. That is, there
is no specific document required to outline customer or audience demands. This is the initial
rough starting point when proposing a project’s viability. The major differentiator between a
formal and informal project proposal is the number of details involved in planning. Informal
proposals lack granular project details, such as goals, deliverables, and methods. An informally
solicited project proposal can be understood as a proposal request that is lacking specifics.
3. Unsolicited: Unsolicited project proposals can be compared to a cold call — no one asked for
or expected to receive one, but if the audience can relate to the proposal, it can prove
extremely valuable. An unsolicited proposal is typically formed from more ad-hoc activities,
such as an “aha” moment or an enlightening conversation with a customer. Unsolicited
proposals can be the most difficult types to write, as you will have to put extra work in to
convince the audience of the project’s viability. Many times, these proposals require the most
research and the most finesse, as the audience is unaware that the proposal is even coming
their way.
4. Continuation: Continuation project proposals are essentially an update or reminder for
ongoing and already approved projects. This type of proposal is the simplest to construct, as it
is a continuation of already existing documentation. A continuation proposal can be thought of
as a check-in with the audience to ensure the correct funds are provided for the next phase, as
well as discussing progress and accounting for any changes before moving forward.
5. Renewal: A renewal project proposal is required when an ongoing project has been
terminated or the resources and support behind such project can no longer be used. This
proposal is more about proving that the return on investment is greater than the money being
spent on resources so that the project can begin again.
6. Supplemental: A supplemental project proposal is required when more resources are
required to complete a project than were originally proposed. The main goal of a supplemental
proposal is to prove the value of adding resources and update the audience with a timeline
based on this new plan. Many times, a supplemental proposal is required when the original
project scope has grown beyond initial expectations. It can be seen as a continuation of the
original proposal document.
What are the Advantages of a clear Project Proposal?
- Establishes Project Viability. Clear proposals prove the viability of a project or program.
- Clarifies Expectations. Increase clarity regarding requirements and project roadmap.
- Creates Structure. Structure and organization is established up front, reducing the chance for
misalignment.
- Increases Budget. Successful proposals lead to approved budgets and financial support for
organizational growth and project replication.
- Fuels Business Growth. Proposals play an integral part in organizational growth, helping in
budget approval and new client adoption.
- Exposes the Brand. Reaching out to stakeholders and building alliances increases credibility
and exposure in the community at large.
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- Ensures Future Success. Having detailed your project’s methods and measurement tools in
advance builds accountability into every step of your work.
- Establishes How to Plan for Success. Integrating grant writing into day-to-day work turns
proposals into useful planning documents and detailed templates for project implementation.
Q. Define Management and Manger?
Management: Many management thinkers have defined management in their own ways. For
example, Van Fleet and Peterson define management, ‘as a set of activities directed at the
efficient and effective utilization of resources in the pursuit of one or more goals.’
Megginson, Mosley and Pietri define management as ‘working with human, financial and
physical resources to achieve organizational objectives by performing the planning, organizing,
leading and controlling functions ‘.
Kreitner’s definition of management: ‘Management is a problem solving process of effectively
achieving organizational objectives through the efficient use of scarce resources in a changing
environment.’ According to F.W. Taylor, ‘Management is an art of knowing what to do, when
to do and see that it is done in the best and cheapest way ‘.
According to Harold Koontz, ‘Management is an art of getting things done through and with
the people in formally organized groups. It is an art of creating an environment in which people
can perform and individuals and can co-operate towards attainment of group goals. ‘
Manager: An individual who is in charge of a certain group of tasks, or a certain subset of a
company. A manager often has a staff of people who report to him or her. As an example, a
restaurant will often have a front-of-house manager who helps the patrons, and supervises the
hosts; or a specific office project can have a manager, known simply as the project manager.
Certain departments within a company designate their managers to be line managers, while
others are known as staff managers, depending upon the function of the department.
Q. Write the sources of water Pollution?
Ans: Sources of Water Pollution: This section gives information about the most significant
sources of water pollution.
1. Sewage (Waste Water): Sewage is another name for waste water from domestic and
industrial processes. Despite strict regulatory control, the Environment Agency data shows that
the water and sewage industry accounted for almost a quarter of the serious water incidents in
England and Wales in 2006.
2. Agricultural Pollution: The agriculture industry covers 76% of the land area of England and
Wales. Agricultural processes such as uncontrolled spreading of slurries and manure, disposal of
sheep dip, tillage, ploughing of the land, use of pesticides and fertilizers can cause water
pollution. Accidental spills from milk dairies can also affect the quality of water.
3. Oil Pollution: Every year there are about 3,000 pollution incidents involving oil and fuels in
England and Wales. Oil spillages affect water quality in a number of ways. Oil can make drinking
water unsafe to drink. A substantial amount of oil released into oceans and seas will destroy
wildlife and the ecosystems that sustain them. Oil spills also reduce oxygen supplies within the
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water environment. The main causes of oil related water pollution are: • loss from storage
facilities. • spillage during delivery and; • deliberate disposal of waste oil to drainage systems.
4. Radioactive Substances: Radioactive waste is another source of water pollution. Radioactive
substances are used in nuclear power plants, industrial, medical and other scientific processes.
They can be found in watches, luminous clocks, television sets and x-ray machinery. There are
also naturally occurring radioisotopes from organisms and within the environment. If not
properly disposed of, radioactive waste can result in serious water pollution incidents.
5. River dumping: Lots of people dump supermarket trolleys, bicycles, garden cuttings and
electronic waste into rivers or river banks. This is illegal and offenders may be charged for fly-
tipping if caught. River dumping not only causes water pollution; it also harms wildlife and
increases the risk of flooding. Fly-tipping (this includes river dumping) is a criminal offence. In
the most severe cases, it can attract a maximum fine of £50,000 or a 5-year jail term.
6. Marine Dumping: The Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF) estimates that a staggering
amount of waste enters into the sea every year. Part of this is due to deliberate dumping of
waste into coastal waters. Other sources of waste at sea include plastics and other materials
blown or washed from land. Marine dumping is illegal under international and UK legislation.
Q. Define the TOP 10 QUALITIES OF AN EXCELLENT MANAGER?
Ans: An excellent manager taps into talents and resources in order to support and bring out the
best in others. An outstanding manager evokes possibility in others.
1. Creativity: Creativity is what separates competence from excellence. Creativity is the spark
that propels projects forward and that captures peoples' attention. Creativity is the ingredient
that pulls the different pieces together into a cohesive whole, adding zest and appeal in the
process.
2. Structure: The context and structure we work within always have a set of parameters,
limitations and guidelines. A stellar manager knows how to work within the structure and not
let the structure impinge upon the process or the project. Know the structure intimately, so as
to guide others to effectively work within the given parameters. Do this to expand beyond the
boundaries.
3. Intuition: Intuition is the capacity of knowing without the use of rational processes; it's the
cornerstone of emotional intelligence. People with keen insight are often able to sense what
others are feeling and thinking; consequently, they're able to respond perfectly to another
through their deeper understanding. The stronger one's intuition, the stronger manager one
will be.
4. Knowledge: A thorough knowledge base is essential. The knowledge base must be so
ingrained and integrated into their being that they become transparent, focusing on the
employee and what s/he needs to learn, versus focusing on the knowledge base. The excellent
manager lives from a knowledge base, without having to draw attention to it.
5. Commitment: A manager is committed to the success of the project and of all team
members. S/he holds the vision for the collective team and moves the team closer to the end
result. It's the manager's commitment that pulls the team forward during trying times.
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6. Being Human: Employees value leaders who are human and who don't hide behind their
authority. The best leaders are those who aren't afraid to be themselves. Managers who
respect and connect with others on a human level inspire great loyalty.
7. Versatility: Flexibility and versatility are valuable qualities in a manager. Beneath the
flexibility and versatility is an ability to be both non-reactive and not attached to how things
have to be. Versatility implies an openness - this openness allows the leader to quickly change
on a dime when necessary. Flexibility and versatility are the pathways to speedy
responsiveness.
8. Lightness: A stellar manager doesn't just produce outstanding results; s/he has fun in the
process! Lightness doesn't impede results but rather, helps to move the team forward.
Lightness complements the seriousness of the task at hand as well as the resolve of the team,
therefore contributing to strong team results and retention.
9. Discipline/Focus: Discipline is the ability to choose and live from what one pays attention to.
Discipline as self-mastery can be exhilarating! Role model the ability to live from your intention
consistently and you'll role model an important leadership quality.
10. Big Picture, Small Actions: Excellent managers see the big picture concurrent with
managing the details. Small actions lead to the big picture; the excellent manager is skillful at
doing both: think big while also paying attention to the details.
Sources of Pollution
There are two main sources of pollution: (1): Natural sources, (2): Man made or Anthropogenic.
(1): Natural sources: • Volcanic eruption’s release gases and volcanic ash. • Forest fire produce
smoke and trace gases. • Dust storms increase the wind-blown dust into the environment.
• Bacteria, spores, cysts and pollens are all natural pollutants. • Decay of organic matter in
marshy places release marsh gas which is light colorless inflammable hydrocarbon.
(2): Man-made or Anthropogenic sources: They cover a wide spectrum of types as man has
aggravated the problem of pollution by innumerable activities like: • Industrialization. •
Invention of automobiles. • Over population. • Deforestation: Destruction of natural habitat. •
Nuclear explosions. • Over-exploitation of natural resources. • Construction of buildings, roads
and dams. • Explosives used in wars. • Uses of fertilizers & pesticides • Quarrying & mining.
Define safety regulation and environmental regulation.
Ans: Safety Regulations: Safety regulations are defined as mandatory requirements that aim to
prevent or reduce injury. They include laws and regulations, such as prohibiting the sale of
fireworks, and mandatory standards, such as specifying that children's nightwear be fire
resistant.
Environments for Safety Regulations: A common factor in whether regulation is used is the
seriousness of the outcome being addressed in terms of human health. For this reason,
regulation is more common in transportation and the workplace, where the potential for fatal
injury is perceived to be relatively great, and less common in the home and in sports
environments, where the potential for fatal injury is perceived to be less. Regulations are often
introduced in situations where the actions of one person can injure other persons who do not
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have the ability or opportunity to decide whether to accept the risks associated with those
actions. The most common examples relate to regulations protecting the safety of children and
of workers.
Even where a person's actions are likely to cause injury only to herself, regulation may be
introduced if the costs of injury to that person are largely borne by the public. Perhaps the most
contentious among this class of regulations in the United States are mandatory motorcycle
helmet and safety belt laws. The overall effectiveness of safety regulations depends on whether
the requirement being mandated is capable of preventing or reducing the target injury and on
whether the process of regulation is effective. Some of the factors that influence the
effectiveness of the process of regulation include: (1) whether the regulation requires active or
passive compliance; (2) the effectiveness of enforcement; (3) public awareness of the
regulation; and (4) public support for the regulation.
Regulations can require active compliance by the person being protected, for example putting
on a safety belt, or they can provide passive protection, for example the temperature of hot
water systems being preset before leaving the factory. Compliance with passive protection is
generally much greater and there is less need for enforcement activity at the level of the
individual when this approach to regulation is adopted.
ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION: The regulation of human interactions with the environment
has taken shape in various political institutions, policies, and market mechanisms that have
evolved over time according to changes in social, cultural, and technological conditions. Forms
of environmental regulation differ among nations and continue to emerge on the international
level as industrialization and globalization create transboundary issues.
From the liberal or socialist perspective, in which the state is understood as a legitimate
extension of the community, environmental regulation is regarded as a state activity
representing effective public administration. But the conservative or libertarian perspective, in
which the state should intervene as little as possible in the lives of its citizens, holds that market
mechanisms or private agencies can provide environmental benefits more effectively. The
complexity of environmental regulatory efforts also arises from questions about the proper role
of scientific knowledge and various mechanisms for handling scientific uncertainty.
Environmental regulation is a complex interdisciplinary effort involving ethical principles,
political interests, scientific knowledge, and technological capacities. This broad scope of
considerations ensures that several worldviews, with their attendant values and
recommendations, will interact in regulatory efforts. OR
Environmental Regulation: Environmental regulations attempt to protect public health and the
environment from pollution by industry and development. RAND research has sought to
develop methods for collecting interpretable, quantitative information about the costs and
benefits of environmental regulations in areas where compliance imposes a financial burden,
awareness of the health risks of noncompliance is lower, and officials are less trusting of the
data on which regulations are based.
Define the Importance of Evaluation and Review Techniques (PERT) in Environment
management.
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Ans: PERT – Why is it important?

PERT is a project management tool used to schedule, organize, estimate and coordinate tasks
within a project. PERT stands for Program Evaluation Review Technique, a methodology
developed by the U.S. Navy in the 1950s to manage the Polaris submarine missile program
It has two variants: • PERT Chart – used for project scheduling. • PERT estimation also known
as three-point estimation.
Pert Chart: A PERT chart is nothing but graphical depiction of a project. It is similar to a network
diagram. It consisting of numbered nodes, in the form of circles or rectangles, representing
events, or milestones in the project linked by labelled vectors, directional lines, representing
tasks of the project.
The sequence of tasks is defined by direction of the arrows on the lines. Below diagram is
showing one example of PERT Chart.
The tasks between nodes 1, 2, 4, 8, and 9 must be completed in sequence. These are
called dependent or serial tasks.
The tasks between nodes 1 and 2, and nodes 1 and 3 are not dependent on the completion of
one to start the other and can be undertaken simultaneously. These tasks are
called parallel or concurrent tasks.

There are tasks which must be completed in sequence but that don’t require resources or
completion time are considered to have event dependency. These are represented by dotted
lines with arrows and are called dummy activities. For example, the dashed arrow linking nodes
6 and 8. The numbers on the opposite sides of the vectors indicate the time allotted for the
task. Pert chart is though similar to Gantt chart but sometimes it is preferred over Gantt chart.
Reason is the clarity with which it illustrates task dependencies. The disadvantage of PERT chart
is it’s much more difficult to interpret especially when we are talking about a complex project
where dependencies are many. It also depends on one’s ease as Project Manager with the tool.
PERT Estimation: This technique is also referred as Three Point Estimation. This concept
originated with the program evaluation and review technique (PERT). PERT uses three
estimates to define an approximate range for an activity’s duration:
Most likely (tM). This estimate is based on the duration of the activity, given the resources
likely to be assigned, their productivity, realistic expectations of availability for the activity,
dependencies on other participants, and interruptions.
Optimistic (tO). The activity duration based on analysis of the best-case scenario for the
activity.
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Pessimistic (tP). The activity duration based on analysis of the worst-case scenario for the
activity.
Depending on the assumed distribution of values within the range of the three estimates the
expected duration, tE, can be calculated using a formula. Two commonly used formulas are
triangular and beta distributions. The formulas are:
Triangular Distribution. tE = (tO + tM + tP) / 3
Beta Distribution (from the traditional PERT technique). tE = (tO + 4tM + tP) / 6
Duration estimates based on three points with an assumed distribution provide an expected
duration and clarify the range of uncertainty around the expected duration.
Write Technological Considerations of the Environmental management Projects.
Ans: Environmental Issues | Technological Considerations: The petroleum industry has a
proactive approach in evaluating and introducing new engineering and operational techniques
aimed at environmental issues protection and implementation.
Atmospheric emissions: A principal target for emissions reduction is flaring and venting which
provide the most significant source of air emissions in the industry.
Many process optimization studies have been conducted by industry to identify opportunities
for emissions reductions. This has led to the development of improved process control
procedures, design and maintenance systems. Technological advances in valve design have the
potential to reduce fugitive emissions, whilst improved flare design has increased combustion
efficiency. Flare gas recovery and increased NGL recovery have resulted from evolving new
technologies. Various technological initiatives have been introduced to reduce emissions as a
result of combustion processes related to power production. More efficient gas turbines have
been developed together with improved turbine maintenance regimes.
Efficiency improvements have also resulted from gas turbine optimization considerations.
Technologies to improve fuel efficiency include: • Steam injection; • Combined cycle power
generation; • Electric power distribution; • Pump and compressor optimization; • Waste heat
recovery.
Technologies aimed at improved combustion performance are: • Dry low NOX combustion
(DLN) technology; • Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) technology; • Water and steam
injection.
Produced water: A major waste resulting from the oil production process is produced water.
Significant progress has been made to limit water production during the field production.
Water shut—off technology (such as diverting gels) can provide an efficient way of reducing the
quantities of water requiring treatment.
Reinjection of produced water, either into the reservoir, or into another formation, may
provide a practical and optimum solution if suitable geological formations are available.
Technologies applied for the treatment of produced water include: • Skimming/gas flotation;
• Static hydro cyclones; • Mechanical centrifugation; • Gas stripping.
Other processes are currently being examined for potential application onshore and include:
• Bio-oxidation and biological treatments; • Activated carbon filtration; • Solvent extraction;
• Wet oxidation and ozonation.
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Solid wastes: In the case of drilling fluid discharge, improved solids control equipment and new
technology can reduce the volumes discharged to the environment.
The development of more effective drill bits can reduce the need for chemical additions, whilst
gravel packs and screens may reduce the volume of formation solids/sludge produced.
Improved controls, procedures and maintenance can help minimize mud changes, engine oil
changes and solvent usage. Re—use, recycling and recovery of waste materials has also been
examined, for example: • The use of drill cuttings for brick manufacture and road bed material;
• The use of vent gas for fuel; • The use of produced or process water as wash water.
Several new technologies are being applied to waste treatment such as:
• Biological treatment (land spreading, com- posting, tank—based reactors); • Thermal
methods (thermal desorption and detoxification); • Chemical methods (precipitation,
extraction; neutralization); • Gravity separation, filtration, centrifugation.
In evaluating and introducing new practices, the industry examines techniques aimed at
minimizing and eliminating environmental effects.
Some drilling techniques that have been developed recently to minimize land take and
footprint, reduction in waste material, include:
• Horizontal drilling, heliport able rigs, and slim—hole drilling.
Write Advantages of Critical Path Method (CPM) as compare to others method.
Ans: 1. The CPM makes it easier to build a team and create human network to handle a multi-
tasked project efficiently.
2. Brings the entire team together and motivates the team (human resources) to finish tasks on
time.
3. Considers the requirements well in advance to complete a project in the most efficient way
possible.
4. With CPM project managers can determine the duration and estimate time and cost of the
project. Which helps to monitor human resources, and the project costs.
5. The CPM assists the project managers in planning schedules, monitoring tasks, and helps
control the project expenses.
6. The Critical Path Method also makes it convenient for the project managers to calculate the
time required to complete the tasks of the project. That helps them to predict completion date
of every phase, anticipate problems along the way, if any, and react accordingly.
7. Charting in a CPM makes it easier to evaluate parallel activities, handle delays and judge the
outcome of a task.
8. It enables the managers to minimize the project length by monitoring the critical path.
9. The Critical Path Method chart clearly identifies critical path/s of the project, which assists
the managers in decision making to address the issue quickly. It also enables the project head
to determine if the task is on schedule or needs boost to accelerate the process.
10. The charting in a CPM also enables the managers to determine start time, end time, slack
time and float time associated with each activity of the project.