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VALVES IN INDUSTRIES

A valve is a device that regulates, directs or controls the flow of a fluid (gases,
liquids, fluidized solids, or slurries) by opening, closing, or partially obstructing
various passageways. Valves are technically fittings, but are usually discussed as
a separate category. In an open valve, fluid flows in a direction from higher
pressure to lower pressure. The word is derived from the Latin valva, the moving
part of a door, in turn from volvere, to turn, roll.

The simplest, and very ancient, valve is simply a freely hinged flap which drops
to obstruct fluid (gas or liquid) flow in one direction, but is pushed open by flow
in the opposite direction. This is called a check valve, as it prevents or "checks"
the flow in one direction. Modern control valves may regulate pressure or flow
downstream and operate on sophisticated automation systems.

Cross-sectional diagram of an open globe valve.

1. body

2. ports

3. seat

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4. stem

5. disc when valve is open

6. handle or handwheel when valve is open

7. bonnet

8. packing

9. gland nut

10. fluid flow when valve is open

11. position of disc if valve were shut

12. position of handle or handwheel if valve were shut

The main parts of the most usual type of valve are the body and the bonnet. These
two parts form the casing that holds the fluid going through the valve.

1. Body

The valve's body is the outer casing of most or all of the valve that contains the
internal parts or trim. The bonnet is the part of the encasing through which the
stem (see below) passes and that forms a guide and seal for the stem. The bonnet
typically screws into or is bolted to the valve body.

2.
3. Valve bodies are usually metallic or plastic. Brass, bronze, gunmetal, cast
iron, steel, alloy steels and stainless steels are very common.
4. Bonnet
5. A bonnet acts as a cover on the valve body. It is commonly semi-
permanently screwed into the valve body or bolted onto it. During
manufacture of the valve, the internal parts are put into the body and then
the bonnet is attached to hold everything together inside. To access
internal parts of a valve, a user would take off the bonnet, usually for
maintenance.

6. Duplex ball valve

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7. Three check valves in corrosion-resistant Hastelloy
8. Stainless steel gate valve
9. Valves can be categorized into the following types, based on their
operating mechanism.
10.
11. Ball valve, for on/off control without pressure drop. Ideal for quick shut-
off, since a 90° turn completely shuts-off, compared to multiple 360° turns
for other manual valves.
12. Butterfly valve, for on/off flow control in large diameter pipes.
13. Choke valve, raises or lowers a solid cylinder placed around or inside a
second cylinder with holes or slots. Used for high pressure drops found in
oil and gas wellheads, not to be confused with engine choke valve.
14. Diaphragm or Membrane valve, controls flow by movement of a
diaphragm. Used in pharmaceutical applications.
15. Gate valve, mainly for on/off control, with low pressure drop.
16. Globe valve, good for regulating flow. Uses a cylinder movement over a
seat.
17. Knife valve, similar to a gate valve, but usually more compact. Often used
for slurries or powders on/off control.
18. Needle valve for accurate flow control.
19. Pinch valve, for slurry flow regulation and control.
20. Piston valve, for regulating fluids that carry solids in suspension.
21. Plug valve, slim valve for on/off control but with some pressure drop.
22. Solenoid valve, an electrically actuated valve for hydraulic or pneumatic
fluid control
23. Spool Valve, for hydraulic control, similar to the choke valve
24. Basic Types - by function Edit
25.
26. Valves can be categorized also based on their function
27.
28. Check valve or non-return valve, allows the fluid to pass in one direction
only.
29. Flow control valve, to maintain and control a variable flow rate through
the valve
30. Poppet valve, commonly used in piston engines to regulate the fuel
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 mixture intake and exhaust
31. Pressure Reducing Valve, to regulate the pressure of the fluid.
32. Thermal expansion valve, used in refrigeration and air conditioning
systems.
33. Safety valve or relief valve: operates automatically at a set pressure to
correct a potentially dangerous situation, typically over-pressure
34. Sampling valve
35. Specific types Edit
36.
37. These are more specific types of valves, used only in particular fields or
applications. Often they are subcategories of the classification by
operating principle and by function.
38.
39. Aspin valve: a cone-shaped metal part fitted to the cylinder head of an
engine
40. Ball cock: often used as a water level controller (cistern)
41. Bibcock: provides a connection to a flexible hosepipe
42. Blast valve: prevents rapid overpressuring in a fallout shelter or a bunker
43. Boston valve: three-part two-port check valve used on inflatable boats, air
mattresses, airbeds etc.; available in two sizes, normal and small
44. Cock: colloquial term for a small valve or a stopcock
45. Ceramic Disc valve, used mainly in high duty cycle applications or on
abrasive fluids. Ceramic disc can also provide Class IV seat leakage
46. Choke valve, Butterfly valve used to limit air intake in internal
combustion engine. Not to be confused with choke valves used in
industrial flow control.
47. Clapper valve: a type of check valve used in the Siamese fire appliance to
allow only 1 hose to be connected instead of two (the clapper valve blocks
the other side from leaking out).
48. Demand valve: on a diving regulator
49. Double beat valve
50. Double check valve
51. Duckbill valve
52. Fill and drain valve: a valve used in space and missile industry which
achieves extremely tight leakage, while providing redundant inhibits
against external leakage[1]
53. Flapper valve
54. Flow divider valve: a valve providing a plurality of output flows from a
single fluid source[2]
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55. Heimlich valve: a specific one-way valve used on the end of chest drain
tubes to treat a pneumothorax
56. Foot valve: a check valve on the foot of a suction line to prevent backflow
57. Four-way valve: was used to control the flow of steam to the cylinder of
early double-acting steam engines
58. Freeze seal/Freeze plug: in which freezing and melting the fluid creates
and removes a plug of frozen material acting as the valve
59. Gas pressure regulator regulates the flow and pressure of a gas
60. Heart valve: regulates blood flow through the heart in many organisms
61. Hydrodynamic vortex valve: a passive flow control valve that uses
hydrodynamic forces to regulate flow
62. Larner–Johnson Valve: needle control valve often in large sizes used in
water supply systems
63. Leaf valve: one-way valve consisting of a diagonal obstruction with an
opening covered by a hinged flap
64. Pilot valve: regulates flow or pressure to other valves
65. Pinch valve, "beach ball valve": simple, single-part two-port check valve
made from soft plastic and molded on to inflatable units such as beach
balls, air mattresses, water wings; can be inflated by pump or by mouth.
66. Plunger valve: To regulate flow while lowering the pressure
67. Poppet valve and sleeve valve: commonly used in piston engines to
regulate the fuel mixture intake and exhaust
68. Pressure regulator or pressure reducing valve (PRV): reduces pressure to a
preset level downstream of the valve
69. Pressure sustaining valve, or back-pressure regulator: maintains pressure
at a preset level upstream of the valve
70. Presta, Schrader or Dunlop valves are used to hold the air in bicycle tires
71. Reed valve: consists of two or more flexible materials pressed together
along much of their length, but with the influx area open to allow one-way
flow, much like a heart valve
72. Regulator: used in SCUBA diving equipment and in gas cooking
equipment to reduce the high pressure gas supply to a lower working
pressure

73. Rocker valve

74. Rotolock valve
75. Rotary valves and piston valves: parts of brass instruments used to change
their pitch
76. Rupture disc: a one time use replaceable valve for rapid pressure relief,
used to protect piping systems from excessive pressure or vacuum; more
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 reliable than a safety valve
77. Saddle valve: where allowed, is used to tap a pipe for a low-flow need
78. Schrader valve: used to hold the air inside automobile tires
79. Slide valve: used in early steam engines to control admission and emission
of steam from the piston.
80. Stopcock: restricts or isolates flow through a pipe
81. Swirl valve: A specially designed Joule-Thompson pressure
reduction/expansion valve imparting a centrifugal force upon the
discharge stream for improving gas–liquid phase separation.

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 BEARINGS
A bearing is a machine element that constrains relative movement to the desired
motion and reduces friction between moving parts. The design of the bearing
may, for example, provide for free linear movement of the moving part or for free
rotation around a fixed axis; or, it may prevent a motion by controlling the vectors
of normal forces that bear on the moving parts. Most bearings facilitate the
desired motion by minimizing friction. Bearings are classified broadly according
to the type of operation, the motions allowed, or to the directions of the loads
(forces) applied to the parts.

Rotary bearings also known as deep groove bearings, hold rotating components
such as shafts or axles within mechanical systems, and transfer axial and radial
loads from the source of the load to the structure supporting it. The simplest form
of bearing, the plain bearing, consists of a shaft rotating in a hole. Lubrication is
used to reduce friction. In the ball bearing and roller bearing, to reduce sliding
friction, rolling elements such as rollers or balls with a circular cross-section are
located between the races or journals of the bearing assembly. A wide variety of
bearing designs exists to allow the demands of the application to be correctly met
for maximum efficiency, reliability, durability and performance.

The term "bearing" is derived from the verb "to bear";[1] a bearing being a
machine element that allows one part to support another. The simplest bearings
are bearing surfaces, cut or formed into a part, with varying degrees of control
over the form, size, roughness and location of the surface. Other bearings are
separate devices installed into a machine or machine part. The most sophisticated
bearings for the most demanding applications are very precise devices; their
manufacture requires some of the highest standards of current technology.

There are at least 8 common types of bearing, each of which operates on different
principles:

Plain bearing, consisting of a shaft rotating in a hole. There are several specific
styles: bushing, journal bearing, sleeve bearing, rifle bearing, composite bearing;

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Rolling-element bearing, in which rolling elements placed between the turning
and stationary races prevent sliding friction. There are two main types:

Ball bearing, in which the rolling elements are spherical balls;

Roller bearing, in which the rolling elements are cylindrical, taper, and spherical
rollers;

Jewel bearing, a plain bearing in which one of the bearing surfaces is made of an
ultrahard glassy jewel material such as sapphire to reduce friction and wear;

Fluid bearing, a noncontact bearing in which the load is supported by a gas or

liquid (i.e. air bearing);

Magnetic bearing, in which the load is supported by a magnetic field;

Flexure bearing, in which the motion is supported by a load element which bends.

Molded Plastic Bearings, which are lightweight and chemical resistant, while
providing high precision and smooth motion.

Many bearings require periodic maintenance to prevent premature failure, but

many others require little maintenance. The latter include various kinds of fluid
and magnetic bearings, as well as rolling-element bearings that are described with
terms including sealed bearing and sealed for life. These contain seals to keep the
dirt out and the grease in. They work successfully in many applications, providing
maintenance-free operation. Some applications cannot use them effectively.

Nonsealed bearings often have a grease fitting, for periodic lubrication with a
grease gun, or an oil cup for periodic filling with oil. Before the 1970s, sealed
bearings were not encountered on most machinery, and oiling and greasing were a
more common activity than they are today. For example, automotive chassis used
to require "lube jobs" nearly as often as engine oil changes, but today's car chassis
are mostly sealed for life. From the late 1700s through mid 1900s, industry relied
on many workers called oilers to lubricate machinery frequently with oil cans.

Factory machines today usually have lube systems, in which a central pump
serves periodic charges of oil or grease from a reservoir through lube lines to the
various lube points in the machine's bearing surfaces, bearing journals, pillow
blocks, and so on. The timing and number of such lube cycles is controlled by the
machine's computerized control, such as PLC or CNC, as well as by manual
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override functions when occasionally needed. This automated process is how all
modern CNC machine tools and many other modern factory machines are
lubricated. Similar lube systems are also used on nonautomated machines, in
which case there is a hand pump that a machine operator is supposed to pump
once daily (for machines in constant use) or once weekly. These are called one-
shot systems from their chief selling point: one pull on one handle to lube the
whole machine, instead of a dozen pumps of an alemite gun or oil can in a dozen
different positions around the machine.

The oiling system inside a modern automotive or truck engine is similar in

concept to the lube systems mentioned above, except that oil is pumped
continuously. Much of this oil flows through passages drilled or cast into the
engine block and cylinder heads, escaping through ports directly onto bearings,
and squirting elsewhere to provide an oil bath. The oil pump simply pumps
constantly, and any excess pumped oil continuously escapes through a relief valve
back into the sump.

Many bearings in high-cycle industrial operations need periodic lubrication and

cleaning, and many require occasional adjustment, such as pre-load adjustment, to
minimise the effects of wear.

Bearing life is often much better when the bearing is kept clean and well
lubricated. However, many applications make good maintenance difficult. For
example, bearings in the conveyor of a rock crusher are exposed continually to
hard abrasive particles. Cleaning is of little use, because cleaning is expensive yet
the bearing is contaminated again as soon as the conveyor resumes operation.
Thus, a good maintenance program might lubricate the bearings frequently but not
include any disassembly for cleaning. The frequent lubrication, by its nature,
provides a limited kind of cleaning action, by displacing older (grit-filled) oil or
grease with a fresh charge, which itself collects grit before being displaced by the
next cycle.

Rolling-element bearing outer race fault detection:-

This section does not cite any sources.

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Rolling-element bearings are widely used in the industries today, and hence
maintenance of these bearings becomes an important task for the maintenance
professionals. The rolling-element bearings wear out easily due to metal-to-metal
contact, which creates faults in the outer race, inner race and ball. It is also the
most vulnerable component of a machine because it is often under high load and
high running speed conditions. Regular diagnostics of rolling-element bearing
faults is critical for industrial safety and operations of the machines along with
reducing the maintenance costs or avoiding shutdown time. Among the outer race,
inner race and ball, the outer race tends to be more vulnerable to faults and
defects.

There is still room for discussion as to whether the rolling element excites the
natural frequencies of bearing component when it passes the fault on the outer
race. Hence we need to identify the bearing outer race natural frequency and its
harmonics. The bearing faults create impulses and results in strong harmonics of
the fault frequencies in the spectrum of vibration signals. These fault frequencies
are sometimes masked by adjacent frequencies in the spectra due to their little
energy. Hence, a very high spectral resolution is often needed to identify these
frequencies during a FFT analysis. The natural frequencies of a rolling element
bearing with the free boundary conditions are 3 kHz. Therefore, in order to use
the bearing component resonance bandwidth method to detect the bearing fault at
an initial stage a high frequency range accelerometer should be adopted, and data
obtained from a long duration needs to be acquired. A fault characteristic
frequency can only be identified when the fault extent is severe, such as that of a
presence of a hole in the outer race. The harmonics of fault frequency is a more
sensitive indicator of a bearing outer race fault. For a more serious detection of
defected bearing faults waveform, spectrum and envelope techniques will help
reveal these faults. However, if a high frequency demodulation is used in the
envelope analysis in order to detect bearing fault characteristic frequencies, the
maintenance professionals have to be more careful in the analysis because of
resonance, as it may or may not contain fault frequency components.

Using spectral analysis as a tool to identify the faults in the bearings faces
challenges due to issues like low energy, signal smearing, cyclostationarity etc.
High resolution is often desired to differentiate the fault frequency components
from the other high-amplitude adjacent frequencies. Hence, when the signal is
sampled for FFT analysis, the sample length should be large enough to give

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adequate frequency resolution in the spectrum. Also, keeping the computation
time and memory within limits and avoiding unwanted aliasing may be
demanding. However, a minimal frequency resolution required can be obtained by
estimating the bearing fault frequencies and other vibration frequency
components and its harmonics due to shaft speed, misalignment, line frequency,
gearbox etc.

Packing
Some bearings use a thick grease for lubrication, which is pushed into the gaps
between the bearing surfaces, also known as packing. The grease is held in place
by a plastic, leather, or rubber gasket (also called a gland) that covers the inside
and outside edges of the bearing race to keep the grease from escaping.

Bearings may also be packed with other materials. Historically, the wheels on
railroad cars used sleeve bearings packed with waste or loose scraps of cotton or
wool fiber soaked in oil, then later used solid pads of cotton.[18]

Ring oiler
Further information: Ring oiler

Bearings can be lubricated by a metal ring that rides loosely on the central
rotating shaft of the bearing. The ring hangs down into a chamber containing
lubricating oil. As the bearing rotates, viscous adhesion draws oil up the ring and
onto the shaft, where the oil migrates into the bearing to lubricate it. Excess oil is
flung off and collects in the pool again.[19]

Splash lubrication
Some machines contain a pool of lubricant in the bottom, with gears partially
immersed in the liquid, or crank rods that can swing down into the pool as the
device operates. The spinning wheels fling oil into the air around them, while the
crank rods slap at the surface of the oil, splashing it randomly on the interior
surfaces of the engine. Some small internal combustion engines specifically
contain special plastic flinger wheels which randomly scatter oil around the
interior of the mechanism.[20]

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Pressure lubrication
For high speed and high power machines, a loss of lubricant can result in rapid
bearing heating and damage due to friction. Also in dirty environments the oil can
become contaminated with dust or debris that increases friction. In these
applications, a fresh supply of lubricant can be continuously supplied to the
bearing and all other contact surfaces, and the excess can be collected for
filtration, cooling, and possibly reuse. Pressure oiling is commonly used in large
and complex internal combustion engines in parts of the engine where directly
splashed oil cannot reach, such as up into overhead valve assemblies.[21] High
speed turbochargers also typically require a pressurized oil system to cool the
bearings and keep them from burning up due to the heat from the turbine.

Composite bearings
Composite bearings are designed with a self-lubricating polytetrafluroethylene
(PTFE) liner with a laminated metal backing. The PTFE liner offers consistent,
controlled friction as well as durability whilst the metal backing ensures the
composite bearing is robust and capable of withstanding high loads and stresses
throughout its long life. Its design also makes it lightweight-one tenth the weight
of a traditional rolling element bearing.[22]

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