Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter contains the past studies of different authors which supports this

research. These will provide theories that will serve as guide for the study. It includes

studies regarding Plastic, Fiberboard, Plastic pollution, and Binding Agent.

Plastic

According to G. M. Kline, A. R. Martin, and W. A. Crouse. Proc. ASTM 40, 1273,

absorption of water by plastics were investigated in this study. It is stated that the

mechanical and electrical properties and dimensional stability of plastics are definitely

affected by water absorbed by them. Low water absorption is of considerable advantage in

a plastic material. The rates of absorption and desorption of water by 16 types of plastics

for periods up to two years and the concomitant dimensional changes have been

determined.

According to J. Hopewell , R. Dvorak and E. Kosior, Plastics are inexpensive,

lightweight and durable materials, which can readily be moulded into a variety of products

that find use in a wide range of applications. As a consequence, the production of plastics

has increased markedly over the last 60 years. However, current levels of their usage and

disposal generate several environmental problems. Around 4 per cent of world oil and gas

production, a non-renewable resource, is used as feedstock for plastics and a further 3–4%

is expended to provide energy for their manufacture. A major portion of plastic produced

each year is used to make disposable items of packaging or other short-lived products that
are discarded within a year of manufacture. These two observations alone indicate that our

current use of plastics is not sustainable. In addition, because of the durability of the

polymers involved, substantial quantities of discarded end-of-life plastics are accumulating

as debris in landfills and in natural habitats worldwide.

Recycling is one of the most important actions currently available to reduce these

impacts and represents one of the most dynamic areas in the plastics industry today.

Recycling provides opportunities to reduce oil usage, carbon dioxide emissions and the

quantities of waste requiring disposal. Here, we briefly set recycling into context against

other waste-reduction strategies, namely reduction in material use through down gauging

or product reuse, the use of alternative biodegradable materials and energy recovery as

fuel.

While plastics have been recycled since the 1970s, the quantities that are recycled

vary geographically, according to plastic type and application. Recycling of packaging

materials has seen rapid expansion over the last decades in a number of countries.

Advances in technologies and systems for the collection, sorting and reprocessing of

recyclable plastics are creating new opportunities for recycling, and with the combined

actions of the public, industry and governments it may be possible to divert the majority of

plastic waste from landfills to recycling over the next decades.

According to Rolf U. Halden, By 2010, the worldwide annual production of plastics

will surpass 300 million tons. Plastics are indispensable materials in modern society, and

many products manufactured from plastics are a boon to public health (e.g., disposable

syringes, intravenous bags). However, plastics also pose health risks. Of principal concern
are endocrine-disrupting properties, as triggered for example by bisphenol A and di-(2-

ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP). Opinions on the safety of plastics vary widely, and despite

more than five decades of research, scientific consensus on product safety is still elusive.

This literature review summarizes information from more than 120 peer-reviewed

publications on health effects of plastics and plasticizers in lab animals and humans. It

examines problematic exposures of susceptible populations and also briefly summarizes

adverse environmental impacts from plastic pollution. Ongoing efforts to steer human

society toward resource conservation and sustainable consumption are discussed, including

the concept of the 5 Rs—i.e., reduce, reuse, recycle, rethink, restrain—for minimizing pre-

and postnatal exposures to potentially harmful components of plastics.

As stated by W. F. Bartoe, D. S. Frederick the characteristics of plastics in

engineering materials is low density, ease of fabrication, low thermal conductivity,

available transparency, and low unit cost for mass-production items are characteristics of

organic plastic materials that make them attractive to the designer and the engineer.

Before full use of plastics can be made, however, it is necessary for both the designer and

the engineer to have an extensive practical tabulation of their chemical and physical

characteristics. Today's cut-and-try methods used with plastics must give way to theoretical

design considerations.

According to Sadanandam Anupoju the properties of plastics as a construction

material, each plastic material has its own peculiar properties to suit its particular uses. The

success of plastic as an engineering material will depends up on the selection of variety of

plastic. Following are the general properties of plastic. In the market there are so many
types of models of plastics are available such as transparent, colored etc. suitable pigments

are added in the process of manufacturing of plastic material to get these different

properties. So, these will give good appearance to the structure and makes it attractive.

Plastics offer great resistance against chemicals and solvents. Chemical

composition of plastics during manufacturing will decide the degree of chemical resistance.

Most of the plastics available in the market offer great corrosion resistance. So, corrosive

metals are replaced by plastic in the case of water carrying pipes, etc.Thermo-plastic types

of plastics can be easily reshaped and reused. But in the case of thermo-setting type plastics,

it is not possible to reshape or remold the material.Ductile nature of plastic is very low.

When tensile stress are acting on plastic member they may fail without any prior indication.

Plastics with sufficient surface hardness are having good durability. Sometimes, plastics

may affected by termites and rodents especially in the case of thermo-plastic types,

however it is not a serious problem because of no nutrition values in plastic. Plastics are

good electric insulators. So they are used as linings for electric cables and for electronics

tools. Any type of finishing treatment van be given to the plastics. Mass production of

plastic particles with uniformity of surface finish is done by having technical control during

manufacturing.The resistance to temperature or fire for varieties of plastics considerably

varies depending upon the structure. Plastics made of cellulose acetate are burnt slowly.

PVC made plastics do not catch fire easily. Plastics made of phenol formaldehyde and urea

formaldehyde are fire proof materials.

Fixing of plastic materials is so easy. We can bolt, drill or glued to fix plastic

material position.The plastics made up of cellulosic materials are affected by the presence
of moisture. The plastics made of poly vinyl chloride (PVC pipes) offers great resistance

against moisture.Maintaining of plastics are so simple. Because they do not need any

surface finishing coats or paints etc. Generally plastics have very low melting point. Some

plastics may melt at just 50oC. So, they cannot be used in the positions of high temperature.

Thermo setting type of plastics are having high melting point than thermo plastic type

plastics. However, thermo setting types are cannot used for recycling. To improve the heat

resistance of the plastics, glass fiber reinforcement is provided in its structure.There are so

many types of plastics. Some plastics are transparent which allows light in its original

direction and some are translucent nothing but semi-transparent which allows light but

changes light rays direction.Disposal of plastics in the environment causes severe pollution.

But it is not a serious problem because of its recycling property. We can use plastic waste

disposal conveniently to produce drainage pipes, fencing, hand rails, carpets, benches etc.

Practically we can say that plastic is strong material but ideal section of plastic

which is useful for structural component is not designed yet. Generally by reinforcing

fibrous material into plastic improves its strength. If the strength to weight ratio of plastic

is same as metals, then also we cannot give preference to plastics because of various

reasons like, heavy cost, creep failure may occur, poor stiffness and sensitive against

temperature. The thermal conductivity of plastics is very low and is similar to wood. So,

foamed and expanded plastics are used as thermal insulators.Most of the plastics except

some limited varieties are capable of resistance against weathering. But, major problem is

plastics when the plastics are exposed to sunlight, they are seriously affected by ultra violet

rays and gets brittle. To prevent this, plastics are incorporated by fillers and pigments which

helps to absorb or reflect the UV rays to surface. The Plastics have low specific gravity
generally ranges from 1.3 to 1.4. So they are light in weight and easily transportable to any

place in a large quantity.

Plastics are manufactured in different forms such as moulding pipes, sheets and

films. They are formed or expanded to produce materials of low density. Dissolved in

solvents or dispersed as emulsions, they are used in paints, varnishes and adhesives.

At present, plastics find use in buildings mainly in thin coverings, panels, sheets, foams,

pipes etc. skilful use of plastics will expand the usefulness and life of conventional building

materials and help them to function more efficiently and economically.

The above studies by Kline, Martin and Crouse is similar to the present study in

such a way where plastics have low water absorption that is a very suitable characteristic

in making a fibreboard.

Hopewell , Dvorak and Koiser discussed the characteristics of plastic. They said

that plastics are inexpensive, lightweight and durable material which only proves that

plastics is a versatile material which can readily be moulded into variety of products like

fibreboard.

Rolf Halden studied the rapid production of plastics and described it as a

indispensable material and also pose health risks to humans which makes the present study

eco-friendly because it helps in diminishing plastic wastes and turn it into a valuable

material which can also benefit the community.

Bartoe and Frederick studied that plastics have low density, ease of fabrication, low

thermal conductivity, available transparency and have low unit cost which proves that
plastic is good as an engineering material such as thermal insulating board which requires

low thermal conductivity.

The above study by Sadanandam Anupoju is similar to the present study in such a

way that plastics offers great resistance against solvents and chemical which is an important

factor in making fibreboards. Therefore, this study proves that plastic is a possible material

to the present study.

Binding Agent

According to Dziurka, Mirski, & Lecka (2005), properties of boards manufactured

from rape straw depending on the type of the binding agent and resination rate were

investigated in this study. Tests showed that lignocellulose boards with properties similar

to particle boards may be produced with the application of UF, PF, MUPF and PMDI resins

as agents binding straw particles, while mechanical properties of boards made from rape

straw are affected to a larger extent by resination rate than the type of the binding agent .

In contrast the application of isocyanate resin at lower resination rates (6%) makes it

possible to produce boards with higher water resistance and improved mechanical

properties in comparison to boards manufactured with the other resins and thus it may be

used in induatrial practice.

As stated by Pizzi, Roll, & Dombo (1996), a heat-curable, formaldehyde-free

binding agent comprising a polyflavonoid type tannin and as a curing catalyst, a compound

having a weak acid reaction curable at relatively high temperatures and compatible with

cellulose containing materials such as wood chips for the production of particle boards.
 In order to preserve the global market competitiveness, the particleboard industry

was affronted with challenges to reduce formaldehyde emission while maintining the

quality strength properties of particleboard. To counter the issue, particleboards with five

different surface-to-core ratio were fabricated by applying newly formulated UF and MUF

resins which were 30% surface: 70% core (3:7); 40% surface: 60% core (4:6); 50% surface:

50% core (5.5); 60% surface: 40% core (6.4) and 70% surface: 30% core (7.3) based on

dry particle weight respectively. Formaldehyde emission and strength properties of the

fabricated particleboard were investigated based on Japanese Industrial Standard, which

are JIS A 1460 and JIS A 1460 and JIS A 5908, respectively. (H'ng et. al. 2011)

All the MUF-bonded particle board complied with the type 18 standard, whereas

all the UF-bonded particleboard. The surface-to-core ratio applied in three layered particle

board for both resins exerted considerable influence on the strength properties and

formaldehyde emission of particle boards produced from both resins.

MUF-bonded particle board with 40% surface and 60% core recorded the lowest

formaldehyde emission (0.09 mg L-1) and the highest strength properties. For UF bonded

particleboard, ratio of 60% surface and 40% core showed the lowest formaldehyde

emission (0.28 mg L-1) with better strength properties. This study highlighted the potential

of MUF resin to replace UF resin due to its ability to produce particleboard with better

strength properties and lower formaldehyde emission according to JIS A 5908.

As explained by Shooshtari, Miele & Asrar (2013), provided is cellulosic

composite comprised of cellulosic material and a binder. The binder comprises an aldehyde
or ketone and amine salt of an inorganic acid. The composition when mixed with cellulosic

material and cured forms a cellulosic composite.

The study above discussed the properties of boards manufactured from rape straw

depending on the type of the binding agent and resination rate. This study proves that the

rate of the binder can affect the board.

Pizzi Roll & Dombo studied the heat-curable, formaldehyde-free binding agent

comprising polyflavonoid type tannin and as curing catalyst. This proves that plastics such

as Styrofoam is also heat-curable.

H’ng, Lee, Loh, Lum & Tan studied that in order to preserve the global market

competitiveness, the particleboard industry was affronted with challenges to reduce

formaldehyde emission while maintaining the quality strength properties of particleboard.

Formaldehyde affects the health of the people so it encourages this study to try an

alternative binding agent.

Fiber boards

According to Euring et al (2013) owing to the constant increase of prices of the

process for petrochemical resin and the possibility of harmful formaldehyde emissions

from industrial produced medium density fiberboards (MDF), enzymatic binder systems

are discussed as an environmentally friendly alternative for gluing lignocelluloses such as

wood fibers. In this work laccase-mediator system (LMSs) were used to activate the lignin

of the wood fiber surfaces.

Two different mediators were tested, vanillic acid (VAN) and 4-hydroxybenzoic acid

(HBA), of which HBA performed best. Carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonances (C-NMR)
and electron spin resonances (ESR) of LMS treated thermo mechanical pulp (TMP) fibers

were determined the qualitative and quantitative analysis of lignin activation. Analysis

outputs were transferred to produced MDF using dry process. C-NMR revealed more

structural changes in the wood fibers using LMS with HBA than LMS with VAN. ESR

spectroscopy indicated a higher amount of phenoxy radicals after treatment with LMS

containing HBA as a mediator. The data correlated well with the quality of MDF. The best

mechanical technological properties were achieved by using HBA within LMS, so that the

European norms could be fulfilled. But VAN also performed well, which showed a high

potential to produce ecofriendly MDF by using LMSs in the future.

According to N. Boeglin, P. Triboulot, D. Masson the mechanical tests show that

the resistance to static bending are close to those of commercial particleboards. The

dimensional stability of recycled wood-plastic composites appears to be particularly

encouraging compared to traditional boards. Furthermore, the thermoplastic nature of the

waste materials used allows the recycling of the resultant waste, or of the products once at

the end of their useful life: tests of runs of successive recycling without any additional

supply show a slight decrease in the mechanical properties of the boards obtained, when

compared to the original boards.

According to Wiyaratn & Watanapa (2012), this aimed to study the probability

about the production of fiberboards made of durian rind through latex with phenolic resin

as binding agent. The durian rind underwent the boiling process with NaOH, and then the

fiber from durian rind was formed into fiberboard through heat press. This means that
durian rind could be used as replacement for plywood in plywood industry by using durian

fibers as composite material with adhesive substance.

This research study the probability about the production of fiberboards made of durian rind

through latex with phenolic resin as binding agent. At first, durian rind was split, exposed

to light , boiled and steamed in order to gain durian fibers. Then , fiberboard was tested

with the density of 600 Kg/m3 and 800Kg/m3. In order to find a suitable ratio was known,

the test results would be compared with medium density fiberboard (MDF) and other

related research studies.

According to the results , fiberboard made of durian rind through latex with phenolic resin

at the density of 800 Kg/m3 at ratio of 1:1, the moisture was measured to be 5.05% with

specific gravity (ASTM D2395-07a) of 0.81, density (JIS A 5905-1994) of 0.88g/m3,

tensile strength , hardiness (ASTM D2240), flexibility or elongation at break yielded

similar values as the ones by medium density fiberboard (MDF).

According to Balcik Canbolat (2016) et. al., biological treatment processes are

often ineffective for the treatment of medium density fiberboard (MDF) wastewater due

the presence of non-biodegradable and refractory compounds. Fenton and Fenton

enhanced hydrodynamic cavitation (HC)process may be cost effective solutions for the

treatment of such wastewater.

Removal of COD, formaldehyde and color by Fenton and Fenton enhanced HC processes

were investigated in this study. The optimum H2O2/Fe2+ molar ratio at the initial pH of 3

for the optimum COM removal efficiency was 2.5/1 in 70 min reaction time. Furthermore,

faster removal rates pollutants were also observed with HC enhanced Fenton process. The
presence of various herbicides and fungicides in the wastewater were detected by gas

chromatography / mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The Fenton enhanced process resulted in

faster COD removal rates than those obtained in fenton alone. The Fenton enhanced HC

process appears to be a cost effective alternative for the treatment of highly toxic and non-

biodegradable MDF wastewater.

According to Boran. Usta, & Gumuskaya (2011), corn stalk pretreated with white-

rot fungus Trametes hirsute was used to produce fiberboard by hot pressing without

adhesive. The moduli of rupture and elasticity of the corn stalk based fiberboards were

increased 3.40- and 8.87-fold when bio-pretreated rather than untreated corn stalk was

used. Fournier transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, and chemical analysis

showed that bio-pretreated corn stalk increased he mechanical properties of the fiberboard

because it had more than twice the number of hydroxyl group, an 18% higher crystallinity,

and twice the polysaccharide content of untreated corn stalk. Its laccase content was 4.66±

0.38 U/g. Corn stalked base fiberboard production did not require adhesives, thus

eliminating a potential source of toxic emission such as formaldehyde gas.

According to Shi & Gardner (2006), temperature and relative humidity, on the

hygroscopic thickness swelling rate of wood fiberboard and wood fiber/polymer

composites. A swelling model describing the thickness swelling process of composites

exposed to water vapor conditions was developed, from which the parameter, KSR, can be

used to quantify the swelling rate. All the composites examined in this study were

manufactured using a compression molding method. The adhesive used to make the

composites was polymeric diphenylmethane diisocyanate (pMDI) resin. Polymers used in

the wood fiber/polymer composites were processed from reclaimed automobile polymer
mixtures, called polymer fluff. A polymer content of 30% was used to process the wood

fiber/polymer composites. Four different ambient temperatures (17, 40, 60, and 80 °C) and

four relative humidity (66%, 75%, 93%, and 100%) were examined in the experiment. The

results of this study indicated that the swelling model developed was a good predictor of

the hygroscopic swelling process of wood fiberboard and wood fiber/polymer composites.

The lower the composite swelling rate, the better the swelling prediction was obtained. The

standard errors of the swelling model were related to the temperature and relative humidity.

The higher the temperature, or the lower the relative humidity, the greater the prediction

error was obtained. Temperature had a significant effect on the hygroscopic thickness

swelling rate. The swelling rate increased as the temperature increased. From the activation

energy values calculated from Arrhenius plots, the temperature had less effect on the

swelling rate for wood fiber/polymer composites compared to the wood fiberboard. A poor

relationship was found between the relative humidity and the swelling rate.

According to Li (2004), the chemical, physical, and mechanical properties of the

bamboo species Phyllostachys pubescens and its utilization potential to manufacture

medium density fiberboard (MDF). The result showed holocellulose and alpha-cellulose

content increased from the base to the top portion. There was no significant variation in

Klason lignin content or ash content from the base to the top portion of the bamboo. The

outer layer had the highest holocellulose, alpha cellulose, and Klason lignin contents and

the lowest extractive and ash contents. The epidermis had the highest extractive and ash

contents and the lowest holocellulose and alpha-cellulose content. Specific gravity (SG)

and bending properties of bamboo varied with age and vertical height location as well as

horizontal layer.
 All mechanical properties increased from one year old to five year old bamboo. The

outer layer had significantly higher SG and bending properties than the inner layer. The

SG varied along the culm height. The top portions had consistently higher SG than the

base. Bending strength had a strong positive correlation with SG.

In order to industrially use bamboo strips efficiently, it is advisable to remove

minimal surface material to produce high strength bamboo composites. Compression

properties parallel to the longitudinal direction was significantly higher than perpendicular

to the longitudinal direction. As expected, at the same panel density level, the strength

properties of the fiberboard increased with the increasing of resin content. Age had a

significant effect on panel properties. Fiberboard made with one year old bamboo at 8%

resin content level had the highest modulus of rupture (MOR) and modulus of elasticity

(MOE) among the bamboo panels, which was largely attributed to a higher compaction

ratio as well as a higher percentage of larger fiber size. Fiberboard made with five year old

bamboo at 8% resin level had the highest internal bond strength.

According to Euring, Trajanowski & kharazipour, this study lessen the possibility

of harmful formaldehyde emissions from industrial produced medium-density fiberboards

(MDF), enzymatic binder systems are discussed as an environmentally friendly alternative

for gluing lignocelluloses such as wood fibers. In this work laccase-mediator systems

(LMSs) were used to activate the lignin on wood fiber surfaces. Two different mediators

were tested, vanillic acid (VAN) and 4-hydroxybenzoic acid (HBA), of which HBA

performed best. Carbon-13 nuclear magnetic resonances (13C-NMR) and electron spin

resonances (ESR) of LMS-treated thermomechanical pulp (TMP) fibers were determined

for qualitative and quantitative analysis of lignin activation. Analysis outputs were
 13
transferred to produce MDF using a dry process. C-NMR revealed more structural

changes in the wood fibers using LMS with HBA than LMS with VAN. ESR spectroscopy

indicated a higher amount of phenoxy radicals after treatment with LMS containing HBA

as a mediator. The data correlated well with the quality of MDF. The best mechanical

technological properties were achieved by using HBA within the LMS, so that the

European Norms could be fulfilled. But VAN also performed well, which showed a high

potential to produce eco-friendly MDF by using LMSs in the future

STYROFOAM

According to Hong et.al (2016), there is growing concern over plastic debris and

their fragments as a carrier for hazardous substances in marine ecosystem. The present

study was conducted to provide field evidence for the transfer of plastic-associated

chemicals to marine organism. Hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs), brominated flames

retardants, were recently detected in expanded polystyrene (styrofoam) marine debris.

There is growing concern over plastic debris and their fragments as a carrier for

hazardous substances in marine ecosystem. The present study was conducted to provide

field evidence for the transfer of plastic-associated chemicals to marine organisms.

Hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs), brominated flame retardants, were recently detected

in expanded polystyrene (styrofoam) marine debris. We hypothesized that if styrofoam

debris acts as a source of the additives in the marine environment, organisms inhabiting

such debris might be directly influenced by them. Here we investigated the characteristics

of HBCD accumulation by mussels inhabiting styrofoam. For comparison, mussels

inhabiting different substrates, such as high-density polyethylene (HDPE), metal, and rock,

were also studied. The high HBCD levels up to 5160 ng/g lipid weight and the γ-HBCD
dominated isomeric profiles in mussels inhabiting styrofoam strongly supports the transfer

of HBCDs from styrofoam substrate to mussels. Furthermore, microsized styrofoam

particles were identified inside mussels, probably originating from their substrates.

According to Setyowati, E (2014), Construction world is either directly or indirectly

contributed to the environmental degradation that has resulted in global warming and

climate change [1]. One of the examples is the use of cement in the construction of which

has been accounted for the second largest CO2 emissions after electricity generation,

which is around about 930 million tons/year or approximately 7% of the total CO2

emissions (data of Inter-Governmental Panel on climate Change/IPCC) .

In addressing this issue, the application of the sustainable development concept

that is now known as green construction has been done with concrete constituent

materials modification. Another issue about the rising price of oil has resulted in the

construction material products including material such as clay bricks and a number of

other construction materials. Therefore, research on Green-material products will meet

the challenges of economic and environmental aspects. Industrial waste of Styrofoam is

used in this study to generate concrete with a light weight and has a good resistance

against seepage. While the use of fly ash in this study is intended as a cement substitute

material, the use of cement in the concrete mix can be reduced. The use of fly ash from

sugar mills Trangkil-Pati, Central Java, Indonesia in previous research is a proof to

increase the compressive strength of lightweight concrete produced because it is similar

to fly ash . Then, the concept of Nano-technology development will improve the quality

of foam-brick performance.
 According to Werner, Rhodes, & Partain (1998), two studies supported the

hypothesis that signs designed to create a new polystyrene schema would be more

effective than signs that did not address patrons' existing schemata. Schema-sensitive

signs would (a) clearly define different types of polystyrene, (b) teach how clean

polystyrene needed to be, and (c) keep contaminants out of the recycling bin. Study 1

showed a substantial increase in volume (from .25 to 3.5 bins recycled per day) and

cleanliness (from major contamination to none), as well as corresponding increases in

cafeteria patrons' knowledge about polystyrene recycling. Study 2 replicated the

behavioral effects. Relative to the baseline, with schema-sensitive signs in place, weight

increased by 87% and cleanliness scores improved by 43%. Although recycling quantity

and quality improved during additional interventions, they were not significantly higher

than levels achieved with only the schema-sensitive signs. Discussion suggested using

schemasensitive interventions that are embedded in the total behavioral system.

According to Bektowska et al. (2014), The present paper falls within the trend of

research into interactions between various pollutants emitted anthropogenically into the

environment and focuses on mercury and styrofoam debris. The study covers part of the

Southern Baltic’s drainage area. Apart from styrofoam and beach sand, the research

involved mosses, which are bioindicators of atmospheric metal pollution. The research

has shown that mercury present in the environment becomes associated with styrofoam

debris. The median for mercury concentrations in virgin styrofoam samples (0.23 ng g−1

dry weight (d.w.)) and in beach sand samples (0.69 ng g−1 d.w.) was an order of

magnitude lower than in the styrofoam debris (5.20 ng g−1 d.w.). The highest mercury
content observed in styrofoam debris (3,863 ng g−1 d.w.) exceeded the standards for

bottom sediment and soil. The binding of mercury to styrofoam debris takes place in

water, and presumably also through contact with the ground.

A significant role in this process was played by biotic factors, such as the

presence of biofilm and abiotic ones, such as solar radiation and the transformations of

mercury forms related to it. As a result, mercury content in styrofoam debris underwent

seasonal changes, peaking in summertime. Furthermore, the regional changes of mercury

content in the studied debris seem to reflect the pollution levels of the environment.

According to Colak & Aydin (2013) Synthetic resins are widely used in wood

based composites manufacturing. Besides their many advantages, most of them contain

formaldehyde and a chemical agents that cause environmental problems. Styrofoam

known as expanded polystyrene, is used all over the world for various purposes including

thermal insulation, packing, coffee cups, fabrication of car parts etc.

This study investigated the evaluation possibilities of styrofoam wastes in

plywood production as a bonding material. Pine (Pinus pinea) and poplar (Populus

deltoides I-77/51) veneers were used to produce wood–styrofoam composite (WSC) and

traditional plywood. Urea-formaldehyde adhesive was used as bonding material for

traditional plywood panels. Two different types of styrofoam having high density (25

kg/m3) and low density (10 kg/m3) were used as binder in the manufacturing of WSC

panels. Bonding and bending strength, modulus of elasticity, density and thermal

conductivity of plywood and WSC panels were investigated. Experimental results

showed that mechanical properties of panels manufactured with low density styrofoam

type were higher than those of panels manufactured with high density styrofoam type.
The lowest thermal conductivity among the all panels was found for poplar panels

manufactured with high density styrofoam.

The Styrofoam was studied by different researchers, Jang, Shim, Han, Song and Hong,

presented a study on the study on the Styrofoam’s properties.

Setyowati, E interpreted the causes of different construction materials in the environment.

Thus, this research provides an additional information on making green products that will

meet the challenges of economic and environmental aspects.

Werner, Rhodes and Partian, discussedthe recycling of the Styrofoam which proves

that Styrofoam is a waste that cannot be eliminated easily.

Grace, Beldowska, Wrzesien and Zgrundo, studied the mercury content of the

Styrofoam which causes pollution to the environment. Thus, this study helps find another

use of Styrofoam which lessens the wastes.

Demirkir, Colak, and Aydin, investigated the evaluation possibilities of Styrofoam

wastes in plywood production as a binding material. This proves that Styrofoam can be

used as an adhesive.

Gasoline

According to Tessum, Marshall, & Hill (2012), the environmental health impacts of

transportation depend in part on where and when emissions occur during fuel production

and combustion. Here we describe spatially and temporally explicit life cycle inventories

(LCI) of air pollutants from gasoline, ethanol derived from corn grain, and ethanol from

corn stover. Previous modeling for the U.S. by Argonne National Laboratory (GREET:
Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Transportation) suggested

that life cycle emissions are generally higher for ethanol from corn grain or corn stover

than for gasoline.

Our results show that for ethanol, emissions are concentrated in the Midwestern

"Corn Belt". We find that life cycle emissions from ethanol exhibit different temporal

patterns than from gasoline, reflecting seasonal aspects of farming activities. Enhanced

chemical speciation beyond current GREET model capabilities is also described. Life cycle

fine particulate matter emissions are higher for ethanol from corn grain than for ethanol

from corn stover; for black carbon, the reverse holds. Overall, our results add to existing

state-of-the-science transportation fuel LCI by providing spatial and temporal

disaggregation and enhanced chemical speciation, thereby offering greater understanding

of the impacts of transportation fuels on human health and opening the door to advanced

air dispersion modeling of fuel life cycles.

According to Thornton & Wootan Jr. (1982), the utilization of a venting strategy to

remove gasoline vapors from contaminated soil strata was investigated in this exper‐ment.

A contained gasoline “leak”; was created in a large outdoor facility which simulated soil

strata and a static water table. An air flow was established, and vapor samples taken before,

during, and after venting were checked for hydrocarbon content. The effluent air was

regularly sampled for carbon dioxide and total hydrocarbons. Carbon dioxide data were

used to estimate the amount of microbiological activity, and total hydrocarbon data were

used to calculate the total amount of gasoline removed by venting. Hydrocarbon

condensates from the effluent air were collected periodically and the compositions of these
condensates were compared to the compositions of the starting gasoline and the residual

that remained in the soil.

During 11 days of continuous venting, 57% of the original 75 gallons of gasoline

was removed by venting. Carbon dioxide production indicates that microbes may have

consumed as much as 2%. The balance is consistent with the amount remaining in the soil

as determined by core sampling. As anticipated, venting appears to be most effective in

removing low molecular weight components, especially the paraffins and olefins.

According to Boot et al. (2013), styrene Styrene, or ethylbenzene, is mainly used

as a monomer for the production of polymers, most notably Styrofoam. In the synthetis of

styrene, the feedstock of benzene and ethylene is converted into aromatic oxygenates such

as benzaldehyde, 2-phenyl ethanol and acetophenone. Benzaldehyde and phenyl ethanol

are low value side streams, while acetophenone is a high value intermediate product. The

side streams are now principally rejected from the process and burnt for process heat.

Previous in-house research has shown that such aromatic oxygenates are suitable as diesel

fuel additives and can in some cases improve the soot-NOx trade-off.

In this study acetophenone, benzaldehyde and 2-phenyl ethanol are each added to

commercial EN590 diesel at a ratio of 1:9, with the goal to ascertain whether or not the

lower value benzaldehyde and 2-phenyl ethanol can perform on par with the higher value

acetophenone. These compounds are now used in pure form. In future work, real streams,

which are rich of these compounds, but contain various other chemicals as well, will be
used. Experiments have been performed on a heavy duty (12.6L) diesel engine, of which

one cylinder is a dedicated test cylinder.

The results demonstrate that the emissions and efficiencies are more or less

comparable for all aromatic oxygenates. Afterwards, the results are compared against neat

diesel. It was found that, depending on operation conditions, either the efficiency of the

oxygenates was higher, while the emissions where comparable to diesel or the emissions

decreased dramatically with comparable efficiencies as diesel. Accordingly, compared to

neat diesel, both the high- and low-value styrene streams yield overall positive engine

behavior in all measured operating conditions.

According to Abdulrasheed, Aroke, & Ibrahim (2008), briquettes were produced

from sawdust at different compression pressure using Styrofoam (Polystyrene foam)

adhesive as binding material. The effects of changing the compression pressure used in

moulding of briquettes on its combustion and mechanical properties were investigated. In

evaluating Combustion properties, 0.940kg of water was boiled using oven-dried sample

of briquette in the combustion chamber with air flow velocity supplied to the combustion

chamber at 10.2m/s. Combustion properties investigated were afterglow time, burning rate,

specific fuel consumption, power output, percentage heatutilized, flame propagation rate

and percentage ash content.

The mechanical properties investigated included density, compressive strength,

impact resistance, water resistance and abrasion resistance. The blends of sieved sawdust

and binder were prepared in the ratio of 4:1 and compacted at pressures ranging from 40–

90 kN/m2 at 10 kN/m2 interval in a hydraulic press machine with a dwell time of 5minutes.

The pressures of moulding were varied to evaluate the range that gives the best quality in
terms of combustion and mechanical properties of the briquette produced. The potential

use of Polystyrene foam adhesive as a binder in production of briquettes was found

promising

According to Bello et al. (2005), polymer concrete (P.C) composites posses a

unique combination of properties the depend upon the formulation. The use of Styrofoam

for the manufacture of polyster has been found useful as replacement for cement binder as

it also posseses the adhesive properties that make it bind the aggregates together, This

polyster+ is used together with aggregates for the manufacture of the polymer concrete

used in this research work. Using fibers of various forms has reinforcement in this concrete

has been found useful in enhancing many engineering properties of concrete. Several fibers

such as asbestos, coconut fibres, and wood fibers have been tested on this polymer concrete

with each improving the engineering properties of the polymer concrete in one way or the

other. For this research work asbestos fibre, rice husks fibre and cellulose (sponge) wood

were impregnated separately into the polymer matrix as fibres and it was observed that the

percentage variation from 1% , 2% to 3% had effect on the compressive strength of the

polymer concrete respectively when tested for after 28 days.

For the rice husks, there was a continuous increase in the compressive strength as

the fibres where increased while a drop in the compressive strength at 3% was observed

for the sponge wood which also shows the latest strength when compared to the asbestos

and rice husk fibre at 3%. When subjected to open air curing for this period. From the

result, it shows that the rice husk when used as a fibre in the matrix showed the highest

strength.
 Gasoline was studied by different researchers. Tessum, Marshall, and Hill,

discussed the environmental health impacts of the fuel production and combustion.

Thornton and Wootan Jr., studied the utilization of a venting strategy to remove gasoline

vapors from contaminated soil strata. This proves that, the gasoline used in this study can

be possibly removed.

Reijnders, Boot, de Goey and Johansson, studied the properties of Styrofoam.

Abdulrasheed, Arode and Ibrahim, produced briquettes from sawdust using Styrofoam and

gasoline adhesive as binding material. Raji, Bello, Abdulraheem and Adeyanju, also used

Styrofoam and gasoline in manufacturing polymer concrete. This proves that gasoline is a

possible solvent to produce a binding material.