CHAPTER Ⅱ

ORGANIZATION OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE CURRICULUM

Ⅰ．Types of Curriculum Organization
　The word curriculum includes in its scope all of the expriences pupils may
have while under the direction or supervision of the school, or all of those for
which the school is responsible. It includes extra-classroom activities, such as
Play Days, excursions, club work, and so on, as well as classroom activities.
　There are many types of curriculum plans, among which the fo11owing will be
discussed briefly here:
1. The subject matter curriculum
2. The correlated curriculum
3. The fusion curriculum
4. The core curriculum
5. The experience curriculum
　These will be summarized here, since curriculum organization is a topic of
wide discussion, and any discussion of the secondary school curriculum as a
whole necessarily involves the place of English language in the curriculum.
１. Subject Matter Curriculum
　Until recently the secondary schools of our country have used esentially the
subject matter approach in curriculum organization. The secondary education
course was divided in different compartments, called subject. The middle school
boy, for instance，might be taking as many as twenty subject at one time. There
was little if any planned relationship between the work in one subject and the
others. Each subject was generally taught in an isolated way, and the mastery of
subject matter in a certain narrow compartment was an aim in itself. The entire
secondary education program was divided into specific separate curriculums,
usually offered in different schools. The higher school preparatory curriculum
was offered in the boys' middle school, the preparation-for-home-life curriculum
in the girls' high school, and the separate agricultural, industrial and fishery
curriculums in four different types of vocational schools.
２. Correlated Curriculum
　The words correlation and interrelation mean practically the same thing.
Correlation is the recognition and establishment of relationships among the
various subject areas or fields. Sometimes the term correlation is used to indicate
planning a proper sequence of experiences in one subject field; for instance, in
planning relationships between 7th-grade National Language and 8th-grade
National Language. A better term for that is articulation, and it is of course
essential in every subject field under any type of curriculum organization, since
pupil experiences must follow a psychologically determined
sequence. Correlation refers to horizontal relationships―relationships on the
same grade level between two subjects, or among all the subjects. One may
correlate English with Music, Mathematics, History, and other subjects. Teachers
of Japanese Language and English Language in the first year of the lower
secondary school may attempt to correlate their work to some degree, as they
teach Romaji by taking up certain fundamental questions of writing and
punctuation. Another illustration may be found in the attempt to correlate the
material and activities in logic and English in the upper secondary school classes.
Correlation, in short, is our first logical step toward relating classroom activities
and topics to real life. The big handicap in Japan to the development of this
method has been the retention of too rigid subject matter division.
　The necessity for correlation is implied in the present arrangement of subjects.
This arrangement, or any other arrangement, was brought about because of the
necessity of organizing the curriculum, not because there is a natural or
inevitable way to divide pupil experiences among subjects. Subject organization
might be regarded as described below.
　The secondary schools have certain major aims. In order to achieve these aims
pupils should be provided an opportunity to engage in certain planned
experiences, designed specifically to achieve the aims. Let us assume that the
three major aims of the secondary schools are:
(1) To discover the needs, interests, and capacities of each individual, and on that
basis to seeK to develop the individuality of the pupil to the maximum degree
(2) To develop the individual as a desirable social being and a good citizen of the
home, school, community, prefecture, nation, and the world
(3) To discover vocational needs, interests, and aptitudes,tddo assist the pupil in
a wise choice based on these needs, interests, and aptitudes, and to help him
prepare for the vocation of his choice
Now suppose we broke each of these major aims down into several hundred
smaller and more manageable aims. The next step would be to list all of the
experiences that would help in the achievement of the aims. After listing the
hundreds or thousands of experiences, and trying to classify them, we would find
that some could be conveniently grouped together and called Mathematics.
Others would be so closely related that we might group them together and call
them Science. Others we could group loosely together and classify as National
Language, still others as English Language. But we would find, in trying to assign
experiences to one field or another, that there would be great overlappings. We
would often be troubled about whether to assign one certain experience to
Science or to Social Studies. If we were to go through this detailed experience, as
many educators have, we should find that the divisions between subject areas are
artificial, and that in many hundreds of instances there are no clear criteria as to
which subject field a certain experience should be assigned to. We should find
that the boundaries between subject fields are in fact very slight, and we should
decide that in order to be sure that pupils had all of the experiences considered
necessary, we should have to assign some types of experiences to several
different subject areas. What this means, in effect, is that there can be no rigid
inflexible boundaries between subjects. Education will be more realistic if, in
each subject, the borderlines between it and other subject are considered very
flexible, so that pupils' experiences in accordance with their needs can be
planned without undue attention being paid to whether or not the territory of
another field has been invaded. The implications of this philosophy for English
language curriculum are that materials for English should be drawn from
whatever fields that seem necessary. In other words, English language textbooks
and other curriculum materials may draw upon stories, poems, essays, articles,
and other types of presentations from History, Social Studies, Science, Art, Music,
or any other field.
　Correlation implies, indeed makes it essential, that teachers must work closely
together to plan pupil experiences designed to achieve the major aims of
education. English language teachers cannot set themselves apart, as a distinct
group, but must know what their pupils are doing in all of the other fields of
study. In order to secure really effective correlation, it is necessary to provide a
free period each day during which teachers may meet together to discuss the
work their classes have done, to plan and prepare future project, and to plan
correlation in every aspect of their teaching.
３. Fusion Curriculum
　Fusion implies disregard of subject matter lines. It involves the teaching of two
or more subject areas together in one class without special regard for the old
subject matter lines. The lower secondary school curriculum involves quite a lot
of fusion, when compared with the old curriculum. All of the separate subject in
the Social Studies field, with the exception of Japanese History, were fused
together into General Social Studies for grades 7-10. All of the separate science
subjects were fused into a course called General Science, grades 7-9. All of the
former subjects in the field of National Language were fused together into a
course colled National Language, grades 7-12. Separate subject in the field of
Mathematics were fused together into General Mathematics, offered in grades 7-
10. The former subjects titled History of the West and History of the Orient were
fused together recently into World History. At the 12th-grade level a subject
called Current Problems uses materials from the separate fields of Sociology,
Economics, Civics, History, and Geography.
　Fusion thus far has been carried out only in distinct subject fields, separately. It
is possible to carry this further by fusing subject in separate subject fields. For
instance, the teaching together of English and American History in one class, with
activities centered around the English-American History area, should be called
fusion. At Aoyama Gakuin Girls' High School, cooking is taught in English by an
American teacher. This cannot be done in every school, but it may well deserve
special mention as a case of fusion attempted in Japan. There might be fusion of
the National language and Social Studies areas, in some cases.
　If carried to its logical conclusion, the fusion of classes in the end amounts to
the pupils' fusing the areas of his interest. A pupil interested in English and
Mathematics would experience a great thrill in attempting to work out the
problems in English. Pieces of formal knowledge would thus becme pieces of
human experience.
　The fusion of English language study with other subject is difficult. At the time
when quite a lot of fusion took place, during the reorganization of the curriculum
in 1946-47, English was left as a separate subject for what were and are
considered good and educationally justifiable reasons. Suppose 7th-grade
English and Social Studies were fused. It is necessary in Social Studies to read
very widely about social problems. During one year pupils would read not only
the textbook, but they would search for data from pamphlets, library books,
newspapers, magazines, reference books, and community institutions, among
others. Since they do not, at the beginning of the 7th grade, have any knowledge
of English, they obviously could not do all of the necessary work in the foreign
language, or scarcely any of it. The learning of a foreign language, in its early
stages, must inevitably follow a rather fixed, more or less inflexible, sequence. It
becomes obvious that fusion of the two subjects would result in failure to achieve
the aims of education. Fusion might be attempted under circumstances such as
those cited(Aoyama Gakuin) where the teacher is very well qualified. Some
fusion might be attempted in the upper secondary school after pupils have
achieved a considerable degree of proficiency in speaking, reading, and writing
the language. Because, at both school levels, English is essentially a subject
requiring a carefully planned series of experiences arranged in a sequence and
form more inflexible than that in the case of subjects taught in the native
language, experience seems to indicate that better result are obtained in English
when it is not fused with other subjects, and better result are obtained in the
other subjects when they may go ahead and study materials freely in the native
language without being impeded by a foreign language. Where fusion has been
attempted in the United States, foreign languages have in almost all cases been
left separate.
４. Core Curriculum
　Spears defines the core curriculum“as a provision for children of a common
body of growth experiences, taking for granted that certain specific types of
learning experiences are fundamental for all pupils".1

　Core curriculum commonly refers to a type of curriculum organization in

which there is a core course which takes the place of two or more of the
traditional subject fields. However, the core course is not simply a fusion of
existing subjects. It is based upon an assumption that young people have certain
basic needs in common, and in addition to these each individual has certain
special needs. The core course or core is that part of the curriculum which takes
as its major task the meeting of the commonneeds. The subjects remaining
outside the core are intended primarily to serve special, individual needs.
　In the core curriculum organization, some of the subject matter fields, as
currently organized, disappear. The personal and social problems of young
people become the basis of the curriculum. The core course is organized to meet
the common needs that young people have in order to solve problems of social
living. Subject matter lines are ignored, and the materials are taken from many of
the traditional subject fields as necessary. A theme may be adopted for an entire
year of work, and around this theme are organized a number of resource units,
each using as its specific theme one of the major contemporary problems of the
community. Using these resource units as an outline, teachers and pupils draw
upon all of the curriculum materials available as necessary and desirable. Within
the core no subjects as such exist. In order to meet the special needs of students,
subject such as Music, Art, Homemaking, vocational subjects, and foreign
languages remain outside the core as special subject, organized more or less as
they now are.
　Organization of the core curriculum differs in various places, but a common
practice is to devote half of the school day to the core course in the 7th and 8th
grades, two to three continuous periods in the 9th and 10th grades, and one or
two class periods in the 11th and 12th grades. The area, in point of time, covered
by the core course becomes less and less with advancing grade levels, and the
special subjects occupy an increasingly larger amount of the total area of the
curriculum. The core class is a group of pupils meeting together every day for the
entire amount of time scheduled for the core course.
　No attempt can be made here to give the merits or demerits of the core
curriculum organization. Here it should be pointed out that wherever the core
organization exists, it includes only the experiences which are common to pupils.
Foreign languages are left out because they are electives, not taken by all pupils,
and also because they are considered a special subject, not meeting common
needs but special needs of pupils. Pupils may take their choice of foreign
languages offered by the school: English, French, German, Korean, Chinese,
Hindustani. Since learning of a foreign language meets special instead of common
needs, and there are differences in the language chosen because of different
needs, foreign language subjects do not fit easily or naturally into a core
curriculum organization.
５. Experience Curriculum
　A new term which has appeared fairly recently in educational circles is
the experience curriculum. This is not necessarily a distinct type of curriculum
organization, since almost all of the others mentioned have some elements of
the experience curriculum in them. However, the experience curriculum, as
presently discussed, differs from others in that it is based more directly upon the
pupil than any of the others. This curricular approach is based upon the
experiences which the pupils will be interested in, normally and naturally, during
his growth and development. It is in a sense the fusion idea carried to its natural
and normal extreme. It discards the idea that a pupil can be helped to grow most
effectively by treating him as one growing in Mathematics for one period a day, in
English for another period, in Japanese for another period, in History for another
period, etc. It takes into account, in other words, the growth of the whole
individual.
　As practiced in a few experimental schools, the pupil has great freedom in
selecting learning activities for the accomplishment of his own educational goals.
In the experience curriculum, the development of objectives and activities in
advance or trying to organize them is discarded. The student chooses his own
area of interest in which to work. He tells the teacher what he wants to do. The
teacher helps him work out the scope of his problem and goes over with him the
work that will need to be done in solving it. The pupil surveys the whole field of
materials available and tries to plan the selection and use of these materials. The
teacher helps in this, suggests important materials the pupil has overlooked, and
supplies materials. The pupil collects data, organization it, engages in activities,
formulates conclusions, and reports the results to the teacher and to the class.
The plan assumes that each teacher must have a very deep understanding of the
factors of pupils' growth and development and has had a broad preparation in
many subject fields.
　In the experience curriculum, the big problem for the teacher is one of helping
pupils individually in planning and providing the right situation which will
continue to stimulate and drive them forward to active participation and
learning. Sometimes the pupil may wish to take part in activities and experiences
which may not be most economical of time or wisest for him to do. Pupils in the
seventh grade, for instance, may propose to study American talkies as a part of
their experience in English. The stories might interest them, but the kind of
English they hear usually proves to be too difficult. The expert teacher, therefore,
surveys in advance the pupil's problems and interests and needs, so that he may
plan in advance to see that reasonable scope and sequence is maintained in the
pupil's learning process. He will thus avoid duplications and abnormal sequences
in the pupil's course of study.
　In the experience approach, the pupils select their activities and center of
interest as much as they can, and then under the proper guidance of the teacher
decide and plan their experiences. All subject matter fields which they need for
the solution of their problems are then brought to bear.
　There is some question whether the experience curriculum approach fits into
the ordinary classroom. Since each pupil's experiences are planned separately, a
very favorable pupil-teacher ratio is required. Some proponents feel that no
teacher can adequately guide more than 20 pupils in one class under this plan.
Furthermore, the experience curriculm, as advocated by some of its champions,
discards totally the idea of any planning in advance. There appears to be great
danger that the social aims of education may be entirely or largely neglected, and
important areas of social development overlooked.
６. Relationship of Types of Curriculum Organization to English Language
Program
　These various types of curriculum organization have been discussed briefly
because various movements are under way to apply them, sometimes without
understanding their nature and purpose, to the English language program. The
following comments are made, in summary，in regard to these various types of
organization, since they affect the English language program:
(1) So far as the correlated curriculum is concerned, certainly every attempt
should be made to correlate English with experiences in other subjects. This
correlation must be p1anned in such a way as to benefit the pupils in their
growth and development. Correlation for the sake of correlation should not be a
goal, but correlation to enable pupils to integrate their experiences more easily
and better into their whole pattern of growth.
(2) The fusion curriculum applies to English to the extent that all English
language experiences, at any given grade level, should be grouped into or
organized under one subject, and not be offered serarately in such different
subjects as English Grammar, English Composition，English Literature, etc. In
other words, at the 7th-grade and other grade levels, there should be one subject
offered titled English Language. Except under very exceptional circumstances, it
is not considered advisable to attempt to fuse English Language with some other
field.
(3) The core curriculum, as pointed out, has little application to the foreign
language field. Since the core includes only those areas common to all pupils, and
different pupils study different foreign languages, and all foreign language
courses are electives, it is impracticable to iuclude English in any core course.
(4) The experience curriculum has some application to all subjects, so far as its
philosophy is concerned. Certainly pupils should help determine aims and
experiences and participate in evaluation. Every educational activity ought to be
planned and carried out as a real pupil experience. But in a foreign language it is
impractical to attempt to plan each pupil's curriculum separately. The present
pupil-teacher ratios, for one thing, forbid this. For another, teaching a foreign
language is a highly technical process requiring a carefully planned series of
experiences arranged in a fairly definite sequence. Closer teacher guidance is
required in this field than in any other field. It is evident that a foreign language
is better taught as a saparately organized series of experiences under a subject
title, particularly in the early years.
Ⅱ．The Unit Method of Organization
１. What Is a Unit?
　Consideration should be given by educators interested and concerned with
English language curriculum to the possibility that the unit system of
organization may be of value in the field. Thus far the unit system has been
applied most commonly in the fields of National Language, Mathematics, Science,
and Social Studies, and to a much less extent in the field of English language.
However, possibility of its adaptation to the field of foreign languages should not
be overlooked.
　The unit system is an attempt to group related experiences together under one
central problem, theme, or topic. The usual procedure in teaching is to plan a
year's work as a whole, then plan each 1esson as a part of the year's work,
attempting to keep each day's lesson in line with the aims of year's work and to
keepthe lessons arranged in a desirable sequence. This is so difficult that many
teachers follow the path of least resistance, which is following the textbook
exactly in day-by-day procedure throughout the school year, without paying
much attention to aims, assuming that the textbook author has arranged the
lessons in such a way that the aims will more or less automatically be achieved.
　Morrison, who did much of thc early work in unit organization and was,
perhaps to a greater extent than any other individual, responsible for the
introduction of the unit method, defines the unit as“a comprehensive and
significant aspect of the environment, of an organized science, of an art, or of
conduct, which being learned results in adaptation in personality."2 W.C.
Ruediger defines it as“any division of subject matter, large or small, that, when
mastered, gives one an insight into, an appreciation of, or a mastery over some
aspect of life".3 Lorena B. Stretch suggests that“units are organized subject
matter and experiences brought together because of relationships, and presented
to the pupils in such a manner as to develop within them the right attitudes, and
skills..."4

　Discarding the idea that subject matter is an aim or an end in itself, we may
summarize various definitions and say that the unit method is an attempt to
group experiences so that they will be meaningful to the pupil, in terms of his
own needs or purposes. Under the unit system of organization some major pupil
need is made the basis of the unit, and is incorporated into its title. The unit title
often is stated in the form of a problem, and all of the experiences of the unit are
arranged and planned so that they are a part of an attempt to solve the problem.
Subject matter is not neglected; indeed, as much or more of it is used than under
the traditional method of organization. But under the unit approach, subject
matter is used as and when it is needed to solve the central problems which are
based upon pupil needs, and is not brought in in an unrelated way meaningless to
the pupil.
　Prior to the organization of work into units, materials followed one another
throughout a school year without any relationships to a central theme or
problem, so that pupils tended to learn or memorize materials in an isolated way
without seeing relationships which could lead to generalization and often
without seeing relationships between these materials and their own lives. The
introduction of the unit system gave impetus to a movement to relate the
materials of education directly to pupils' lives. Under the early approach to the
unit system of organization, the subject was broken down into a number of units,
and each unit was concerned with some central thought or problem. The
materials and subject matter were then all related to the central problem in a
given unit, which tended to motivate pupils to learn materials not for the sake of
the materials themselves but because they helped in understanding and solving a
problem. Subject matter is not learned indiscriminately, but is limited at any
given time to those materials related to the problem.
This approach was a considerable improvement over the straight subject matter
approach, but still had limitations in that it did not insure that the needs of pupils
would be met. In determining what units are to be taught, it is better, in the first
stages, to disregard subject matter as such, and determine titles and content of
units according to the needs, purposes, and experiences of the pupils. In other
words, the unit begins with the learner, and not with what is to be learned. The
individual has certain needs, which are determined largely by his own
individuality interacting with and conditioned by his physical and social
environment in which he lives. It may be said that all pupils of a certain degree of
maturity living in a given social and physical environment have many needs in
common, while at the same time each individual has special needs. Fulfi11ing
these needs, consciously or unconsciously, is a purpose of the individual. Thus if
learning experiences are definitely planned so that they fulfi11 the needs of the
individual, they will become his purposes and he will then consciously strive to
learn in order to fulfi11 his own needs. This works as a very powerful motivation
in learning. In order for the learner to accomplish his purposes, he will find that
he has a need for certain kinds of experiences. It is these experiences, chosen on
the basis of pupil needs, arranged in a desirable psychological sequence, that
constitute the unit. Thus a unit may be said to be the sum total of related
experiences which carry out the purposes of the learner in fulfi11ing one or
more of his own needs. In building units, rather than taking a subject and trying
to divide it into parts or units, the approach should be to build up units one by
one, all of the units planned for one year's work constituting a subject.
　Under the unit system of organization, related experiences are grouped
together under a central problem, theme, or topic, and the problem, theme, or
topic is based upon a need which is common to all of the pupils of the class. Each
unit has its aims, andd pupil experiences are planned specifically and directly to
enable each pupil to achieve the aims. Evaluation of the unit is conducted
specifically in accordance with the stated aims, to determine the degree of
achievement of the aims. Since the pupil experiences in a given unit will run for
two weeks, a month, or perhaps two months, the immediate aims are constantly
before the pupils and the teacher, instead of being remote. Units throughout a
year are arranged in a desirable psychological sequence, one unit merging into
another. The aims of all units are related to the aims of the year's work, and those
in turn to the aims of the subject, and those in turn to the major aims of the
secondary school.
２. The Resourse Unit and the Teaching Unit
　There are in general two types of units: (1) The resource unit and (2) the
teaching unit. The resource unit is a reservoir of ideas for the teacher; the pupils
never see it. It provides for the teacher, in a convenient form, suggestions in
regard to titles of units, and in connection with each title, suggested aims, content
of the unit, pupil experiences, methods of evaluation, and a bibliography of
reference materials for both pupils and teachers. The teaching unit is planned
cooperatively by the pupils and teacher. While the resource unit contains many
suggested aims, in the teaching unit the teacher and pupils list those they
consider desirable. The resource unit covers a considerable scope of content, the
teaching unit a much smaller one. The resource unit contains many suggestions
as to pupil experiences; the teaching unit those actually practicable and desirable
for the class. The resourse unit contains many suggestions as to methods of
evaluation; the teaching unit restricts evaluation techniques to those which are
useful in evaluating the specific aims selected by the class. Several teaching units
may be made from one resource unit. As an author has suggested in the
publication, General Methods of Teaching in the Lower and Upper Secondary
Schools,5 the resource unit is“the mother of teaching units". Resource units may
be developed by educators on the national level and printed in Courses of Study.
They may be developed by prefectural educators and made available for use by
teachers. They may be developed by groups of teachers in a local community or
in school. After development, they can be used by each teacher as a source of
ideas for the development of teaching units.

　There are several ways of organizing a resource unit. Perhaps the most
common way is to have (1) an overview of the unit; (2) a statement of objectives
or anticipated outcomes; (3) an analysis of the problem or scope and sequence
arragement; (4) a list of suggested pupil activities; (5) suggestions in regard to
evaluation; and (6) a list of references and materials which will be useful in the
unit.
　The overview is a statement of the significance of the problem or topic around
which the unit is centered. It states why the problem is important to the pupils of
the grade for which it is intended, and how the problem is related to the needs of
the pupils. It shows how the unit may contribute to the three major aims of the
secondary schools. Certain significant information about the problem is given
here.
　The section on objectives, or anticipated outcomes, lists objectives which the
compilers suggest. These need not be and should not be accepted by the class as
they are. Learning is the modification of behavior for the better, according to
standards set up by the society in which learning takes place. The pupil
experiences in any unit must be based on aims, which may be desirably stated as
changes in pupil behavior that are anticipated as a consequence of the
experiences provided by the unit. The term behavior, as used here, does not refer
merely to covert or outward forms or behavior, but to the thinking process, the
attitudes and the entire personality of the individual. The statement of aims
should be specific and be written in terms of knowledges, understandings, skills,
abilities, attitudes, appreciations, habits, and ideals.
　The scope and sequence section of the unit is the sum total of problems or
topics into which the major topic or problem is divided, or analyzed. The central
problem is likely to be too broad in its scope to be attacked as it is. Hence the
large problem must be analyzed into a number of basic problems which will be
useful to pupils in their study. The sequence is a suggested arrangement of these
subsidiary problems for studay, according to psychological principles of
organization, the nature of the learner, the nature of the learning process, and the
nature of the subject.
　The list of suggested pupil activities or experiences is usually, or often, the
largest part of the unit. Here are listed many possble type of pupil activities
which might serve to accomplish the aims of the unit. There are different ways of
listing these activities, but they often are listed as being initiatory,
developmenta1, and culminating. The purpose of the initiatory activities, of
course, is to introduce the unit in such a way as to challenge the interest of the
class and to get the unit activities organized. The developmental activities are
concerned with collecting data about the problem or the topic, analyzing it,
discussing, or considering it, or, in the case of language and some other subject,,
engaging in necessary study of the dataor drill in connection with it. The
culminating activities are those in which the pupils reach what conclusions they
can, apply the conclusions to their lives, sum up what they have learned, and
concentrate on sharpening the experiences they have had in the unit for long
retention. This section of the unit lists many more activities than any one class
could or should use.
　The evaluation section of the unit lists suggested techniques for evaluating the
achievement of the knowledges, understandings, attitudes, appreciations, skills,
abilities, and ideals which were listed as objectives. It is essential to evaluate the
degree of accomplishment of each of these aims in the case of each pupil.
Evaluation should always be based on the listed aims.
　The bibliography section contains lists of books, magazine articles, motion
pictures, newspapers, slides, recordings, community resourses, and other
materials which will be useful in developing the unit. This is usually a very
inclusive list, and more materials are likely to be listed than will be available to
any one class, or could be used by any one class even if they were available. These
references are of varying degrees of difficulty, in order to meet the needs of all
students. They are of many kinds, and locating them will teach pupils the
techniques of locating information. Separate lists of materials for use by the
teacher and the pupils may be included.
　There is no essential difference between the resource unit and the teaching
unit in organization. A teaching unit may have exactly the same sections as the
resource unit. The difference is that the teacher would use, from the resource
unit, only those items which were applicable to the local situation or which are
considered desirable.
３. Developing a Teaching Unit
　In developing a teaching unit, the following principles are pertinent:
(1) The teacher should engage in considerable amount of planning in advance. He
should, using the resource unit, tentatively plan the overview, scope and
sequence, objectives, pupil activities, and evaluation. He should prepare an
extensive list of all useful materials which are available. But this advance
planning is for the teacher's background, to aid him inguiding the experiences of
pupils. The teacher's plan should not be handed to the pupils as it is. In fact,
pupils should not see the resource unit at all.
(2) The teacher should work out a plan to introduce the unit skilfully to the class,
to make the pupils feel that the unit is a problem of their own, and to create in
them a desire to engage in the experiences or activities which are a part of the
unit. Pupils should recognize each of the problems of the unit as their own, and
be able to state it in their own terms. This should not be difficult if the unit
actually is based upon a careful study of pupil needs.
(3) The pupils and the teacher should set up the objectives cooperatively, through
discussion. The teacher has some aims in mind, gained from the resource unit or
his own work, but pupils should be encouraged first to suggest aims of theirown.
The teacher should ask questions which will stimulate pupils to make
suggestions as to aims. The teacher can make suggestions when important aims
have been overlooked. As aims are suggested, they should be listed on the
blackboard, be discussed, and when the list is complete, be consolidated and
arranged in a desirable sequence.
(4) The next step is to analyze the problem into its component parts. This also
should be done cooperatively by pupils and the teacher. Pupils can make
suggestions as to problems which are a part of the main problem or topic, and
the teacher can suggest those which the pupils have omitted. The teacher should
not arbitrarily announce that certain problems must be added, but make the
suggestion in some such way as this:“We may have forgotten an important
problem. What do yo think about listing this as a problem? (Give statement of
problem)"
(5) The pupils and the teacher cooperatively can and should plan the activities of
the unit. All of them should be related to the aims. Pupils should be asked to
suggest types of activities, and to discuss thoroughly all suggestions made.
The teacher can suggest certain important ones which seem to be omitted, and
point out reasons why some of the activities suggested are not practical or will
not achieve the aims of the unit. Pupils and teachers together should plan
interesting culminating activities.
(6) The teacher should conduct his own separate evaluation of the degree to
which each pupil has achieved the aims of the unit. The class as a whole can
conduct its evaluation, and each pupil can evaluate his own progress.
　This is only a brief discussion of unit organization. It is suggested that before
proceeding further each reader refer to Chapters Ⅲ and IV of the professional
book General Methods of Teaching in the Lower and Upper Secondary
Schools, published by the Ministry of Education in 1950 and the book The Course
of Study in Social Studies, I, to be published in 1951.
４. Applicability of the Unit System to Foreign Languages
　The structure of units varies according to subjects. In the Social Studies, for
instance, each unit is based on a major social problem which is of significance to
pupils because they are members of society. For example, a typical unit in the
Social Studies may be titled:“How Do We Cooperate through Government to
Provide for the General Welfare?" The Social Studies course would consist of a
number of such units, each based on a major social, economic, or political
problem, arranged in a desirable sequence. Science units are based on phases or
aspects of the physical environment of the pupil, and also are usually stated as
problems. For example, a typical Science unit might be titled:“How Are We
Helped By Plant and Animal Life?" It becomes immediately apparent that in the
field of foreign languages a basis for unit organization which is different from
that used in Science and Social Studies is required. In Social Studies and Science
the basis for the unit is a problem of the social environment or the physical
environment. In language the unit should be based upon a problem in the field of
language. In other words the unit should use as its basis a language function.
Obviously 7th grade pupils, who are just beginning to learn English, are not in a
position toundertake the solution of content problems in English, since as yet
they have, in the beginning, no knowledge of the language, no vocabulary, no
ability to use it in speaKing, reading, and writing. Therefore, units in the language
field should be based upon some subdivided function of hearing, speaking,
reading, and writing. The best approach is to go back and study the nature of
teaching a foreign language, and derive the type of units that would be useful
from that study.
　It has been noted that during the first few years of a language the primary aims
are functional in nature. The pupil may also accomplish cultural aims as he learns
the language, and especially after a certain degree of proficiency in using the
language is acquired. The cultural aims may be of great importance, but it is
evident that they cannot be accomplished at all without prior achievement of
some of the functional aims. From this we may gather that the organization of the
work in English language must be functional, and this in turn means that unit
organization must be functional.
　Below are given a number of sample units. No attempt is made to cover the
entire six grades of work by any means. Those schools and teachers which
choose to use the unit method of organization should work out their own units,
or perhaps they can be developed by a group of English teachers working
together in a community or area.
　In regard to the unit system of organization it is significant that there is little, if
any, material on the subject in the field of foreign language teaching that is
comprehensive. This is due in large measure to a lack of experimentation in this
field and apparently to an arbitrary assumption that the unit system of
organization is not suited to the field of foreign languages. This may mean that its
merits are doubted and or that the technical difficulties are considered as too
great to make the use of the system advisable. Wherever the unit system is used,
therefore, utmost attention must be paid to the problem of gradation and
progression and to all other factors pertinent to effective teaching. Any system is
good only if it produces good results.
５. Sample Units
　Ａ．Sample Unit-7th-Grade
Becoming Acquainted with the English Language
Ⅰ. OBJECTIVES
1. To develop an understanding of the position that English occupies in the world,
and to identify the peoples of the world to whom it is the native language.
2. To develop an understanding that in many ways English differs greatly from
the Japanese language, and to acquire a knowledge of some points of difference
which can be understood at this time.
3. To become acquainted with the kind of language English is by hearing it
spoken.
4. To develop interest in learning English for practical and cultural use.
5. To have pupils express, and so identify, their reasons for studying English. 6. To
develop the ability to listen to and understand simple expressions in English
spoken by the teacher.
7. To habituate pupils to the English language and to make them feel familiar
with it by hearing it spoken.
8. To develop the ability to respond to simple directions in English by physical
action without speech, and by action combined with speech.
Ⅱ. SCOPE AND SEQUENCE OF EXPERIENCES
1. Place English holds
a. Where and by whom English is used.
b. The importance of English to the pupil.
c. The importance of English to Japan, and the situations where it is used.
2. Silent assimilation of English intonation and pronunciation.
3. Responding by physical action without speech to directions given in spoken
English.
4. Responding by physical action combined with speech to directions given in
spoken English.
Ⅲ. SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES
1. The pupils listen to the teacher, who explains in Japanese the use and place of
English in the world today.
2. The pupils locate on a wall map of the world the places where English is
spoken as the native language.
3. The pupils recount the occasions on which they have heard English used, and
the occasions on which they have desired to use English.
4. The pupils and the teacher together make a list of the situations in which one
meets with the use of English in Japan.
5. The pupils and the teacher together develop, on the blackboard, a list of
common words adopted into the Japanese language from English.
6. The pupils suggest specific reasons why they want to study English. These are
listed on the blackboard by the teacher as they are suggested, and each item is
subsequently discussed by the class. The teacher may suggest for consideration
significant reasons which the pupils omit. Through this procedure the class
ultimately arrives at a joint declaration of its purposes, or aims, and these are
copied by each pupil.
(Note: The above is all done in Japanese. The activities listed below are done
mostly in English.)
7. The pupils listen to complete or elliptical simple expressions in English spoken
by the teacher. It is important that at this early stage they be introduced to the
language by hearing it spoken. They do not, at this time, react by any physical
action or speech. This may be called silent assimilation, and it must precede
active production. The teacher pronounces and the pupils silently listen to such
expressions as:
This is a door.
I'm opening the door.
I'm closing the door.
(For discussion of silent assimilation and further examples of expressions, see
Chapter IV, 7th Grade (1).)
8. The pupils listen to directions in English spoken by the teacher, and react by
performing the indicated action, without speaking. The teacher first gives out
commands and orders and carries them out himself. After this process has been
repeated with a number of commands, orders, or requests, till there is reason to
believe that there has been sufficient assimilation on the part of the pupils, the
teacher then asks his pupils to carry out his commands, orders, or requests.
Some of them may be carried out by the whole class or whole groups, and others
by individuals. Commands such as the following might be given:
Stand up.
Sit down.
Open your books.
Close your books.
(For further discussion of this sort of procedure and many examples, see Chapter
IV, 7th Grade (2).)
9. The pupils listen to directions in English spoken by the teacher, and react with
speech accompanied by action. In one form of this activity, the teacher may give
tips by telling the pupils what to do in the case of each action. In a later form, the
teacher withdraws his tips and allows the pupils to do things through
memorizing a chain of actions psychologically related to one another.
(For further information concerning this type of activity and numerous examples,
see Chapter Ⅳ, 7th Grade (3).)
10. The teacher makes a statement in English such as:“I am opening the window".
He then explains in Japanese that if what he is doing corresponds to what he is
saying, the pupils are to nod their heads, that otherwise they are to shake their
heads. He then performs a series of actions and the pupils react affirmatively or
negatively.
(Note: This might be an interesting variation in teaching procedures, but it
should not be used regularly.)
11. The pupils listen to directions in English spoken by the teacher, then react by
nodding or shaking their heads.
Sample: Open the door.
(Note: The teacher or an assistant either opens the door a does something else. If
the person does the correct thing, the pupils nod their heads; if he does the
wrong thing, they shake their heads.)
12. The teacher brings object into the classroom and relates his speech to the
object. This can be used in connection with many of the preceding activities.
13. Each pupil may be given an English name, and at times be expected to answer
when his English name is called.
14. The class listens to phonograph records prepared for beginners.
15. The class listens to radio broadcasts in English, not with any intention of
understanding what is said, but to get the feel of the rhythm and the sound flow
of the language.
16. A native English-speaking person is invited to the classroom to assist with the
pronunciation of the expressions taken up during this unit. Such a resource
person should be cautioned not to go beyond the scope of the, unit and its
aims.17. The class begins to create an English language atmosphere in the
classroom. The individual pupils start bringing to class pictures of scenes in
America or Britain or other English-speaking nations, and mount them on the
bulletin board. They begin to collect candy wrappers, labels, and other materials
in English. No attempt is made to learn to read them at this time.
IV. REFERENCES AND MATERIALS
1. References for the Teacher:
The First Six Weeks of English (Eigo Nyumon Kyoju-ho),
Institute for Research in Language Teaching, Kaitakusha，1948
Harold E. and Dorothee Palmer, English Through Actions, Institute for Research
in Foreign Language Teaching, Kaitaku-sha，1925
2. Materials for Use in the Classroom:
Phonograph records in beginning English and record player
Wire recorder
Picture cards
Object related to the words used by the teacher during the unit
Ｖ. EVALUATION
　Up to this point no elaborate system of evaluation is possible or desirable. The
aims should be taken up one by one, and some method of measuring the degree
of accomplishment of each pupil, in terms of the aims, should be adopted. The
following procedures are given by way of suggestion:
1. Each pupil lists in the left-hand column of a page the aims decided on by the
class at the beginning of the unit. He then indicates in the right-hand column,
opposite each aim (1) the degree to which he feels that he has accomplished it,
(2) the reasons for any failure to accomplish it as well as he would have liked, and
(3) measures he thinks he can take to improve himself. All of this is done, of
course, in Japanese.
2. There is a class evaluation of the unit based on the selfevaluation. This is done
orally in Japanese.
3. The teacher hands out blank, mimeographed outline maps of the world. Each
pupil colors in some selected shade those countries of the world where English is
spoken as a native language.
4. The pupils are tested, one at a time, on their ability to engage in action upon
hearing a spoken command, order, or request. If possible, each pupil should be
given the same number of commands, and of similar degree of difficulty. The
number of satisfactory responses out of the number given constitutes the score.
　Because of the great limitation in the matter learned at this stage, it would be
advisable to distribute this type of evaluation over a period, or else to test each
pupil individually in a separate room. Otherwise, those tested first would be
handicapped．A better way however, would be to evaluate the pupils without
their knowing about it, since nervousness and self-consciousness could easily
make the results of evaluation more unreliable than they might be.
5. At this time it is suggested that the teacher begin an anecdotal record for each
pupil. This is a great deal of trouble, but aconscientious teacher will take as much
trouble as is required. On this record is kept the teacher's observations of the
English language behavior of the pupil and his growth and development in the
use of the language, over a long period of time. The teacher notes down (1) areas
of weakness which have been observed, (2) what needs to be done to overcome
them, and (3) attitudes toward learning, degrees of enthusiasm and
participation, and (4) other factors which condition learning. These are not jotted
down simply for purposes of recording, but they are used for purposes of
improving instruction. For example, if the record shows that a certain pupil
participates infrequently, the teacher makes it a point to encourage him to
participate more frequently, not by lecturing him, but by specifically (and in a
friendly way) calling on him from time to time, being sure not to embarrass him.
Also, friendly, personal interviews may be held with the pupils from time to time
in an attempt to help them overcome their difficulties.
　Ｂ．Sample Unit-9th or 10th Grade
Developing Good Manners and Having Consideration for Other People in
Preparing for and Having a Party
Ⅰ. OVERVIEW
　In learning any language an indispensable criterion is to relate it to the social
life of which it is a part. Because language and social relationships are
inseparable, language behavior and social behavior of a people depend on and
influence each other for good or for bad. Consequently, it is possible to use the
English language, or for that matter any other language, in a disagreeable way to
antagonize and offend others, or in an agreeable way to gain friends and to
become efficiently functioning members of groups to which people may belong.
　It is, needless to say, essential that in the learning of English good language
manners are developed. For this reason the manners learned should not be
merely formal but should be based on a real consideration for the feelings,
opinions, and rights of others that is becoming to a democracy.
　The fundamental purpose of this unit is to help pupils learn and understand
what good manners are as recognized among an English-speaking community, to
help them develop the ability to apply their knowledge through vicarious
experiences, to develop among them an acceptable attitude of consideration, and
to help them behave in such a way as to cause both them and the English-
speaking people with whom they may associate feel perfectly at home.
Ⅱ．OBJECTIVES
１. Cultural and Genera1 Educational Objectives
a. To develop a sense of responsibility toward one's own language behavior.
b. To develop good manners in social life such as would be acceptable among
English-speaking people.
c. To develop tolerance and understanding in listening to others' opinions.
d. To develop the ability to express one's ideas and feelings in a pleasant manner.
e. To develop consideration for other people both in cooperative work and play.
２. Functional Language Objectives
a. To develop the ability to ask and answer simple questions.
b. To develop the ability to speak fluently with reasonable speed.
c. To develop the ability to use and to respond to simple greetings.
d. To develop the ability to carry on a simple conversation.
e. To develop the ability to perform introductions.
f. To develop the ability to make announcements.
g. To develop the ability to react orally to remarks and statements.
h. To help pupils attain proficiency in the use of relative pronouns in complex
sentences through and in life-like activities.
i. To help pupils understand and attain proficiency in using temporal and
conditional clauses in spoken and written language through and in life-like
activities.
j. To develop the ability to participate in a meeting in which simpl parliamentary
procedures are used.
k. To develop the ability to read silently matter in books and magazines
appropriate to the grade level.
l. To develop the ability to read silently for information in general, and to use
reference books.
m. To develop the ability to use a library.
n. To develop the ability to use the telephone for practical purposes.
o. To develop the ability to participate in games in which easy English is used.
p. To develop the ability to take part in memorized dialogues and plays.
q. To develop the ability to dramatize simple stories.
r. To develop the ability to entertain in English by using the kamishibai.
s. To develop the ability to sing songs.
t. To develop the ability to write invitations and letters in English, and to address
them.
u. To develop the ability to draw maps lettered in English.
v. To develop the ability to prepare place cards written in English.
w. To develop the ability to write out menus in English.
x. To develop the ability to write and contribute articles to magazines and
newspapers.
Ⅲ. SUGGESTED PUPIL ACTIVITIES AND EXPERIENCES
１. Let the class elect a president, vice-president, secretary, and a treasurer, using
parliamentary procedures.
２. Let the class select committees to plan a party. Much of this may have to be
done in the vernacular, but much will be gained if the teacher and the leaders will
use and encourage the use of English as far as it is possible. The class may want
to select the following committees:
a. Invitations Committee
b. Refreshments Committee
c. Games Committee
d. Drama Committee
e. Kamishibai Committee
f. Songs Committee
３. These committees would meet separately to plan their particular part of the
program. The vernacular might be used in the discussions when it is beyond the
capacity of the students to use English, but the program would be planned so that
at the party only English will be used.
４. The Invitations Committee prepares in English an invtation to the party,
making full use of the blackboard for this purpose. The class will be invited to
offer comments. When everything is in final form, the committee will address the
invitations and post them.
５. The Refreshments Committee works out a menu, all in English. Sample menus
can be obtained from first-class restaurants or shipping companies for a study of
the wording and form. The intended menu is written on the blackboard by the
committee, explained to the class, and the class is invited to make comments.
When it is in final shape, a sufficient number are prepared for the party.
６. The Games Committee reads from the available textbooks and other books
about games that may be played at the party. When a sufficient number of games
has been selected, the committee writes summaries of how the games are played
and reads these to the class. Those games accepted as being suitable are
practiced by the class, with the committee members acting as coaches.
７. The Drama Committee reads and selects a short story for dramatization. They
then get it into simple dramatic form, rehearse the drama, and give a preliminary
performance before the class for their suggestions and criticisms.
８. The Kamishibai Committee select a story suitable for presentation
as Kamishibai. This committee draws the appropriate panels and plans the
dialogue to go with each panel. A demonstration is presented before the entire
class, which is invited to offer comments and suggestions. The relative pronouns
and temporal and conditional clauses come in naturally in describing people and
incidents. For instance:
“John, who happened to be younger than Jim, came running down the road."
“If Eric had been there, what would he have done, do you think?"
“Well, when John reached the bottom of the road, he hid himself behind a tree."
９. The Songs Committee selects a number of appropriate songs for the entire
class to sing during the party. Copies of the words are placed on the bulletin
board and copied and memorized by all members of the class.
10. The plan is to invite members of another class to the party. In order to be able
to carry introductions properly, the entire class spends one or two periods
reading about how to perform introductions and in practicing the technique.
11. The entire class searches for information in the textbook and other available
books on table manners. The English of questions and answers and expressions
leading to and in the teaching of manners should be given full practice, and
simple discussions on the subject introduced.
12. A committee，probably the Invitations Committee, draws maps, lettered in
English, showing the route to the party. In order to help students who may find
difficulty in locating the place, the class has drill on asking for and giving
directions.
13. The entire class searches for materials in the textbook or other sources on the
subject of how to receive visitors, make a call, and oonversational etiquette. As
each student finds something that pertains to the subject, he reads it aloud to the
entire class. The class then practices receiving visitors, making social calls, and
carrying on conversation.
14. The class makes many arrangements for the party by telephone. It would be a
good thing for the entire class to reach any available materials on using the
telephone, then to practice using the telephone in turn. If possible, a
telephone,dummy or real, should be installed in the classroom.
15. The class members adopt English names for purposes of the party, and make
place cards listing the English names. Each person present will be expected to
find his place by means of the place cards.
16. The entire class reads any materials available on making announcements.
Each member writes out an announcement regarding the program, and reads it
to the class.
17. The class discusses the general order in which the various activities may be
carried out in the party and studies the amount of time it may take to carry them
out.
18. A rough program is worked out so that there may be no embarrassing breaks
or confusion in the course of entertainment.
19. Have the party that was planned. Carry out all the main proceedings in
English, remembering to pay particular attention to good manners and
consideration for other people throughout the activities.
20. In looking for information necessary to the conducting of the party, it would
be desirable to make full use of the library, which should be provided with
textbook. and other reading materials of the same grade level. Facility in locating
materials can be developed among studens as they have recourse to the library.
21. After the party is over, let the class as a whole write brief articles describing
the event and have them published in the English language newspaper or other
newspaper or magazine. Have each writer read his article to the assembled class,
and have them decide which should be presented for publication.
IV. REFERENCES AND MATERIALS
１. The textbook in use
２. Other textbooks for the same grade level, if available
３. Any library materials on the subject of manners and behavior that are on the
students' reading level
４. Glenn F. Baker, Western Manners and English Conversation, 3rd edition,
Sanseido, Tokyo, Copyright 1950. Japanese translation by Tatsukuchi
Naotaro Obei-jin no Shako Joshiki, Sanseido, Tokyo, Copyright 1946
５. Materials for making Kamishibai
Ｖ. EVALUATION
A few methods of evaluation are listed. The teachers, however, are expected to
develop additional methods.
１. Develop a brief check test to determine knowledge each pupil has gained of
good manners. This test may precede made as well as follow the unit to show the
amount of progress made as a result of the learning experience. The test may
consist of true and false statements, in simple English, concerning good manners.
The pupils are to enter the symbol T in blanks provided for the purpose in front
of the statement that are true, and the symbol F against statements that are not
true.
Sample:
1. A woman holds the door open for a man to proceed through first.
２. Develop a check-list, in simple English, of rules of good manners. Against each
item on the list, let each pupil rate his own manners as (1) Excellent (5 points),
(2) Above Average (4 points), (3) Average (3 points), (4) Below Average (2
points), and (5) Poor (l point) Then have each pupil total his score for all of the
points.
Sample:
　5　　4　　3　　2　　1
1. Performing introductions ○ 　 　 　 　
2. Saying“Thank you" when a favor ○
is done.
3. Etc. 　 　 　 　 　
３. The teacher may make a check-list of his own, similar to the above, and make
notes concerning pupil behavior in regard to good manners throughout the
weeks of the unit. Later a discussion is held concerning the good and bad aspects
of pupil behavior.
４. The best way to evaluate the achievement of the five aims listed
under“Cultural and General Educational objectives" is through an anecdotal
record. See the following publication for details concerning the use of the
cumulative record, Pupil Guidance in the Lower and Upper Secondary Schools,
Ministry of Education, 1949.
５. Use a multiple choice type test to check usage of relative pronouns and
syntactical knowledge acquired. See the chapter on Evaluation for a full
description of this technique.
６. Have each pupil in the class, at some time during the unit, perform an
introduction, and have the class evaluate the way in which it was done. The
teacher should give the class full guidance and assistance in all such activities.
Ｃ．Sample Unit-12th Grade
English in Experiences Preparatory to and in Getting out a Class English
Language Newspaper
Ⅰ. OVERVIEW
　The newspaper has become such an important means of communicating and
acquainting oneself with current affairs in one's community, the nation, and the
world at large, that it is impossible for anyone to keep in pace with the times
withoutrecourse a newspaper for any length of time. An English language
newspaper is an excellent means of keeping in touch with current affairs,
opinions, and problems through the medium of the English language. It is
particularly suitable for acquainting oneself with straightforward, colorless style
of English of an informative type. Its added suitability from the point of view of
teaching lies in the fact that the student is to an extent already familiar with tHe
matter because of his knowledge of its nature through radio broadcasts and
newspapers in the vernacular. Most students, after leaving school, will probably
read newspapers only in their own language, but there is an advantage in
learning to read an English language newspaper apart from the gain made in the
knowledge of the language. From English language newspapers, especially those
published abroad, students can get a slant on the news and expressions of
opinion and viewpoints which they could not obtain through the Japanese press.
For purposes of understanding English-speaking peoples, it is highly desirable
that they come in touch with their viewpoints through reading their newspapers.
　The purpose of this unit is principally to provide experiences necessary to the
getting up of a class English language newspaper including functional
experiences conducive to and related to understanding and expressing oueself in
English. This would mean that the students will on the one hand be provided
with opportunities for learning to co-operate with others, to behave in such a
way as is becoming to good citizens, and to do things efficiently, and on tne other
hand be taught how to read an English language newspaper with understanding,
discrimination, and appreciation, and to get up a paper of their own.
　Because of the large scope such an experience offers, the students will
necessarily engage in many types of hearing, speaking, reading, writing
experiences. The experiences should lead to a better ability to engage in
interesting and intelligent conversation on matters relating to the times and
result in greater proficiency in reading, and in writing clearly, intelligently, and in
an interesting manner.
　Newspapers are often accused of carelessness in grammar and style; but an
efficient teacher should be able to spot such faults. Because of the close
relationship between the essay and the newspaper, as evidenced by the history of
the essay and essayists, a study of a few essays whose style lends itself to
journalism should be of value in meeting this defect. The vocabulary of
newspapers is paricularly useful in that it is intended for the masses, and the
choice of words and expressions is therefore less likely to be onesided or
influenced by idiosyncrasies.
Ⅱ．OBJECTIVES
１. Cultural and General Educational Objectives
a. To develop the ability to plan a project efficiently.
b. To develop the ability to co-operate with others in a project.
c. To develop the habit of observing a press code.
d. To develop the ability to observe etiquette necessary to interviewing and
negotiating with others in obtaining matter for publication in a newspaper.
e. To acquaint the pupils with features that are similar or different between
English language and Japaness papers.
f. To develop the ability to find matter suitable for a newspaper.
g. To develop the ability to select matter for publication with discretion and
fairness.
h. To develop the habit of searching for different viewpoints and using critical
judgment in reading.
i. To develop the habit of utilizing newspapers for expression of opinion in
the“Letters from the People" column.
j. To acquaint the pupils with British and American differences in the get-up of
newspapers.
k. To develop the ability to discriminate between newspapers that treat news in a
sensational way and those that treat it in a conservative, factual way.
l. To develop the ability to observe parliamentary procedure.
２. Functional Language Objectives
a. To develop language skills of all types necessary to creating a readiness for
publishing a newspaper or to ensure that such skills are present.
b. To develop the ability to write letters asking for newspapers and other
reference materials.
c. To develop the ability to engage in language activities necessary to making
arrangements for a visit to an English language newspaper plant.
d. To develop language skills necessary to carrying out press interviews.
e. To develop the ability to read an English language newspaper intelligently
f. To develop the ability to read and write headlines.
g. To develop the ability to read news at a reasonable speed.
h. To develop the ability to write news so that its structure follows journalistic
practice, such as giving the gist of the news in the opening lines.
i. To develop the ability to expand on a news item.
j. To develop the ability to write a concise, accurate account of an event.
k. To develop the ability to discuss news.
l. To develop the ability to rewrite detached notes in smooth, readable English.
m. To develop the ability to detect repetitions in matter to be rewrittien for
publication and to correct such faults.
n. To develop the habit of enlarging one's vocabulary by familiarizing oneself
with the meanings of new words.
o. To develop the ability to summarize or to write a precis for purposes of
condensation.
p. To develop the ability to abridge matter for publication by eliminating the less
important parts.
q. To develop the ability to write on matter read in a newspaper.
r. To develop the ability to translate matter in Japanese into English for
publication in an English language newspaper.
s. To develop the ability to paraphrase matter so that the style may be suitable for
insertion in a newspaper.
t. To develop the abiiity to read editorials intelligently.
u. To develop the ability to write editorials of 12th-grade level through reading
editorials and through practice in writing.
v. To develop skills necessary to effective advertising.
w. To develop the ability to draw or to make use of cartoons with captions in
English.
x. To develop the ability to write letters to the Editor.
y. To develop the ability to do proof-reading.
Ⅲ. SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES
１. Secure copies of
Ａ．English language papers published in Japan, such as the Nippon Times,
the Mainichi, and the Japan News. Back numbers may be obtained, if they are
cheaper and just as serviceable. It is suggested that a considerable number of
copies of each edition be obtained, so that the students may be well supplied.
Divide the class into as many committees as there are kinds of papers and elect a
chairmnan for each committee. With the help of the teacher, the students read
and classify the newspapers into different parts. Colored pencils or numerals
might be used to mark the different types of materials read, the matter read
being classified into:
Editorials (British: Leading articles, or Leaders)
Foreign news
Domestic news
Local news (prefectural and community)
Society news
Economic news
Scientific news
Theater news
Feature articles
Women's activities
Sports news
Radio news and program
Comic strips
Cartoons
Illustrations (photographs)
Large advertisements
Want ads
Etc.
Determine the amount of space devoted in each newspaper to the different types
of matter.
Ｂ．English language newspapers from British and American sources, including
the New York Times and the London Times. Letters should be written to
publishing companies well in advance of working out the unit to allow sufficient
time for their arrival. When the copies are in hand, study them in the same way
as the local English language newspapers, noting down those features that are
similar and those that are different iu the get-up between British and American
newspapers.
Ｃ．School newspapers from schools in the United States, her territory, and the
British Commonwealth of Nations including the United Kingdom. These should
also be asked for well in advance of the time set for beginning the unit. Study
these also in the way suggested in 1. A. above, and make a comparadvi study
between ordinary and school newspapers.
Ｄ. English language school newspapers fram Japnese schools, where such
papers are published, in various parts of the country. Study these also in the way
suggested above.
２. Study differences between English language and Japanese newspapers, such
as carry-overs of news to another page, a feature strange to Japanese papers.
３. Try to arrange a visit to a plant where an English language newspaper is
published. Study
the organization of the plant,
the manner in which news is obtained,
the editorial work,
the making up of the newspaper,
the printing,
the circulation.
４. Prior to the visit, let the entire class discuss how to conduct an interview. List
on the blackboard things observe in making an appointment, and in conducting
the interview. Plan and arrange for an interview with a member of the editorial
or managerial staff, selecting a small committee to conduct the interview which
will take with them a prepared list of questions to be asked.
５. Study as a class the art of reading an English language newspaper and of
discussing and writing on what is read. Then choose and read by groups
selections in which the members are interested, and have each group read them
to other groups and share with them the results of what has been learned.
６. Make a study of headlines in regard to their style of language and the
technique used in attracting the attention of readers. Clip headlines from various
English newspapers, classify them, and post them on the bulletin board for study.
Have each member of the class attempt to write headlines concerning local evets.
７. Study news items and note how the gist of the news is given in the opening
lines and the details follow in such a way as to make it possible to delete lines,
beginning from the end, for reasons of space without causing the news to become
unreadable or unfinished. In short, note how a news story must be complete in
the newspaper sense at whatever point the reader may stop reading. Also,
aquaint the pupils with the who, when, where, what, why style of writing, and
with the manner in which all the main points are stated first in a nutshell.
８. Have the pupils select a local news event which they think is of interest and
(1) work together with one student at the blackboard in composing a news story,
and (2) select local news events of interest separately and work independently in
composing news stories.
　If it is thought that preparatory to such activities the students will profit by
engaging in work requiring translation or paraphrasing, have them (1) translate
Japanese news items of interest into English (a) together, (b) individually, or (2)
paraphrase news written in English into some other style.
９. Practice writing original news stories, selecting suitable topics from among
school events, (1) together, (2) by groups, and (3) individually.
10. After completion of the news stories, have some students read their work to
the class. Mimeograph selected stories and make them available as class reading
materials.
11. Have the studenra read selected editorials to the class. lf there are not enough
copies for everybody, mimeograph various types of these editorials so that there
might be enough Copies for everybody.
12. Read essays by modern essayists in which the style approaches that of the
editorial, since many of the essayists were engaged in journalism, and their fame
is the result of their superior style and their excellent treatment of a subject. The
activity should serve to acquaint the students with the very best models for
writing editorials and articles. Study the history of the essay in its relation to
journalism.
13. Practice writing editorials, choosing as topics those things that are closely
related to school or student life. It is a mistake to try and write on a subject which
would be difficult even in the vernacular, such as, Japan and the United Nations. It
would be much more suitable for English language students to write on a topic
such as, Let’s Put More Life into Our Club Activities,or How We Can Improve Our
School Grounds.
14. Clip advertisements of all types from newspapers, classify them, and post
them on the bulletin board for study by the entire class during an informal
period.
15. Have the students write want ads, read them to the class, and post them on
the bulletin board for study and discussion.
16. Divide the clss into committees, each of which includes one person who is
able to do illustrative work. Try to develop quarter-page advertisements with
suitable illustrations after the manner of the best samples studied. Post the
results on the bulletin board for oomment by all the class.
17. Find many samples of cartoons with captions in English and discuss the
purpose of cartoons in newspapers. Post the best ones on the bulletin board and
discuss the meaning of each cartoon by studying the relation between the
drawing and the caption.
18. Divide the class into groups and have each group draw cartoons with captions
in English.
19. Study differences between those papers that treat news in a conservative way
and those that treat it in a sensational way.
20. After all the basic activities have been completed the teacher, together with
the students, might make an interim evaluation of the work done according to
the methods suggested in chapter entitled,“Evaluation of Pupil Progress in
English Language." The teacher would do well to provide drills in written work
designed to overcome some of the weaknesses and errors discovered in the
course of evaluation.
21. Discuss and formulate a press code, including such points as:
a. strict adherence to the truth
b. non-disturbance of the public tranquility
c. exclusion of libelous matter
d. factual and objective treatment of news
e. balanced treatment of news stories so that false impressions might not result
because of undue stress on any single point
and discuss reasons for inclusion or omission of clauses.
22. Discuss and list on the blackboard qualifications necessary to the members of
a newspaper staff, the division of work being assigned to:
a. editor-in-chief
b. assistant editors
c. business manager
d. art editor
e. sports editor
f. society editor
g. advertising manager
h. reporters
and discuss their respective responsibilities.
23. Elect by parliamentary procedure members of the staff, and assign reporting
duties to all those not elected to staff positions, the fields of reporting being such
as: student council activities, club activites, sports activities, etc.
24. Develop definite plans for getting out the first edition of the paper. Decide in
class the kind and size of paper to be used, the number of pages, whether it is to
be mimeographed or printed, how much matter it can contain, and the amount of
space to be allotted to each type of matter.
25. Decide on the freuency of publication, the deadline date for the first edition,
and make definite assignments.
26. Provide training in interviews, such as the art of making appointments,
appropriate etiquette, and efficiency.
27. Provide training in taking notes, so as to allow for division of work in an
interview that will help a reporter engaged in conversation to proceed
uninterrupted in his talks while one or two jot down notes.
28. Provide practice in writing letters to the editor for publication in the column
set aside for this purpose. The students should learn that inclusion of any letter
in the column is left to the discretion of the editor and that there is no place in a
respectable paper for libelous or nasty letters.
29. Provide training and work in proof-reading. Consult a big dictionary or an
encyclopedia for symbols used by proofreaders and use the proper symbols.
30. In the preparation of a paper, check end-of-line syllabications, since proper
syllabication is very important in English.
31. Publish the first edition of the newspaper, after which, publication of the
paper once a month or so may be carried on as a side activity, while the class
goes on to some other unit.
Ⅳ．REFERENCES AND MATERIALS
１．English language newspapers published in Japan
２. English language newspapers from British and American sources abroad
３. School newspapers from British and American schools
４. English language school newspapers from Japanese schools
５．Japanese newspapers
６. Code for Japanese press (Nihon Shimbun Koryo)
Ｖ．EVALUATION
　A few methods of evaluation are given below by way of suggestion. To these
the teacher may add others which he may think necessary or valuable.
１. Prepare and give a multipe-choice type pre-test to determine the students'
knowledge and judgment in regard to (1) a press code, (2) manners to observe
when conducting an interview, (3) sensational and conservative treatment of
news, and (4) recent history and current events.
２. Prepare and give a pre-test to determine the students' proficiency in their use
of English by providing (1) a comprehension test on some matter of a nature and
standard similar to that of the matter contemplated in the class paper to be
published, (2) a ccmprehension test on some matter taken from an English
language newspaper, (3) tests involving completion, conversion, substitution, and
translation, and (4) a matching test with prepared written answers to fit
questions given orally by the teacher, against which the students are required to
enter figures corresponding to the order in which the questions are given.
３. Repeat tests of kind and standard given before beginning the unit after
completion of the unit to determine the amount of progress made in the things to
be tested.
４. Evaluate the students' ability to co-operate with others through observation,
and get the students to evaluate themselves, too, through the use of a check-list, a
sample of which appears in the section on Evaluation in the Sample Unit for the
9th or 10th grade.
５. Evaluate ability to read news or other matter in a newspaper at a reasonable
speed by setting a time limit for the actual reading and setting a few questions to
test ability to grasp matter during the reading.
６. Evaluate ability to write news from notes taken during an interview by
assessing the results. The method will necessarily be subjective, but the teacher
should be careful not to include handwriting, keeping of a reasonable margin,
etc., if these things are not pertinent. A teacher must plan what things are to be
evaluated and what not, and determine the exact weight to be given each aspect;
and the students should know what is expected of them.
７. Evaluate the students' ability to avoid repetitions and to exclude impertinent
matter in news writing by providing material full of repetitions and impertinent
matter to be rewritten in a presentable manner. Such material for improvement
may contain repeated names and things and the separating of what can be said in
one sentence into two or three sentences. The use of pronouns and participial
phrases and dependent clauses is one of the means of correcting faults of this
kind.