THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

What comes into your mind when you hear the word “Nervous System” probably you are
just thinking a picture of a brain inside the cranium and the spinal cord and its extensions
within the vertebral column, if that so then that suggests that the main organs of the
Nervous system are probably the brain and the spinal cord-but the Nervous system of
different living creature are very complex, they may be different and unique from each
other but one thing for sure is that their Nervous system works together to perform tasks
in everyday lives. Within the brain, many different and separate regions are responsible
for many different and separate functions. In addition the other parts of our Nervous
system like spinal cord and nerves performs other functions too.

THE CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEMS

The Nervous System are divided into two parts: The Central nervous systems and
Peripheral nervous system. The Central nervous system or (CNS) are composed of the
brain and spinal cord, while the Peripheral nervous system or (PNS) includes all of the
nerves that branch out from the brain and spinal cord and extend to other parts of the
body including muscles and organs. The brain is contained within the cranial cavity of the
skull, and the spinal cord is located within the vertebral cavity of the vertebral column.
To understand it more simple, the Central nervous system are the organs that is inside
the two cavities such as cranial cavity and vertebral cavity and the Peripheral Nervous
System are the parts that is “Periphery” or just simply beyond the brain and spinal cord
but we should also consider that there are some parts of the Peripheral Nervous system
who are actually contained in the Cranial and Vertebral cavities. The nerves the Nervous
System are classified into two: the Cranial nerves or the nerves that originates from the
brain and the nerves from the spinal cord are referred as spinal nerves.
The terms Central and Peripheral may also use as directional terms in studying the
Nervous System. For example nerve fibers that extends from the cell body towards the
Central Nervous System can be called central fiber and the we call them Peripheral fibers
if they extend from the cell body outward the from Central Nervous System.
Afferent and Efferent
The Afferent division of the nervous system includes all of the incoming sensory or in
afferent pathways, the actual meaning of afferent is to carry toward. On the other hand
Efferent means carry away, this division includes all of the outgoing motor or efferent
pathway.
CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
The Nervous System have two group of cells, the Glial cells and Neurons. Glial cells work
to support, nourish, insulate neurons and eliminate waste products while Neurons are
responsible for sensing change and communicating with other neurons.

Glia Cell
Glial cells or neuroglia, are non-neuronal cells located
in central nervous system and the peripheral nervous
system. They maintain homeostasis, form lipid
substance called myelin, and provide support and
protection for neurons. Glial cells from Central
Nervous System
include oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, ependymal
cells, and microglia. Glial cells from Peripheral
nervous system include Schwann cells and satellite
cells. The main functions of Glial cells are:
 Glial cells surround neurons and hold them in place.
 Glial cells supplies nutrients and oxygen to neurons
 Glial cells insulate one neuron from another
 Glial cells are destroy pathogens and remove dead neurons.
 Glial cells they also play a role in
neurotransmission and synaptic
connections, and in physiological
processes like breathing.

TYPES OF GLIAL CELLS FROM CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYTEMS

Microglial cells are part of the immune system within brain tissue helping clear dead cells
and other debris.
Astrocytes help clear neurotransmitter chemicals so that the synapse can be ready to
react to the next signal that might arrive.
Oligodendrocytes produce and maintain the myelin sheath that coats and insulates the
axon making electrical conduction more efficient.
Ependymal cells produce Cerebrospinal fluid which is located within the ventricles of the
brain and in the subarachnoid space that surrounds the brain and spinal cord. Aside from
allowing the brain to float in the skull, CSF acts as a cushion against trauma and also
helps wash away some of the metabolic waster protects that are produced with brain
function.
Satellite cells function to provide nutrients and protection to neurons in the PNS. A
satellite glial cell wraps itself around the neuron’s cell body. The cell body is a rounded
section that contains the nucleus and other key organelles common to most somatic cells.
Schwann cells wrap themselves around the axons of neurons. The axon is the long, thin
part of the neuron, along which the electrical signal passes. The Schwann cell forms a
protective layer called the myelin sheath – this operates like the insulated coating on
electrical wiring. Without it, the electrical signal can be disrupted, slowed or stopped
altogether.

NEURONS

Neuron are also called nerve

cell or neuron is a cell that
carries electrical
impulses. Neurons are the
basic functional & structural
units of our nervous system.
There are about 86 billion
neurons in the human brain,
which comprises roughly 10%
of all brain cells. Human brain
has roughly 16
billion neurons in the cerebral
cortex. The neurons are
supported by glial cells and astrocytes. Every neuron are connected to one another and
tissues. They do not touch each other, instead they form tiny gaps called synapses. Gaps
or synapses can be classified as chemical synapses or electrical synapses this gaps or
synapses passes the signal from one neuron to the next.
MAJOR COMPONENTS OF NEURONS
The neuron is made up of:
 Cell body or Soma contains the nucleus, the neuron’s intracellular organelles like
Mitochondria and Golgi apparatus and it is the place for cellular metabolism. It is
 also contains the Nissl Substance, which contains rough endoplasmic reticulum
and free ribosomes, making it the site of protein synthesis.
 Dendrites originated from the soma and extend outwards. They are responsible in
transmitting signals they receive from other neurons to the soma.
 Axon ascends from the soma from an area called the axon hillock, where action
potentials are initiated. The action potentials are conducted through the axon to
the axon terminal.
 Schwann cells are insulate the axon which aids with rapid transmission of action
potentials through the axon.
 Axon terminal branches to form axon terminals. These make synaptic connection
with other neurons. They contain various neurotransmitters which is released into
the synapse to allow signals to be transmitted from one neuron to the next.

AFFERENT AND EFFERENT NEURON

The Nervous System directs all of body activities. Its major functions are body
communication and body control this is possible with the help of these two division of
neuron. The difference between afferent and efferent neuron is that the afferent neurons
carry nerve impulses from the sensory organs to the central nervous system while the
efferent neurons carry nerve impulses from the central nervous system to the muscles.
Literally afferent means to carry forward while efferent means carry away, this prefixes
may help you in understanding the Nervous System more simple.
In addition to this we say that, afferent neurons or sensory neurons are the neurons that
carry sensory information such as nerve impulse from sensory organs towards the central
nervous system. Sensory organs receive stimuli from the environment and then they send
this signals to the central nervous system with the use of sensory neurons. These neurons
are specialized cells, for they carry signals from the specific part of the body to the brain
and the spinal cord. To be specific, physical modalities such as light, sound, temperature
and other attributes activate the afferent neurons in our body. The sensory receptors
located on the cell membrane are capable of converting this stimuli into electrical nerve
impulses. On the other hand, Efferent neurons are also referred as motor neurons
wherein they are the nerves responsible for carrying signals away from the Central
Nervous System in order to initiate an action. When sensory input is brought to the brain,
it sends signals for a motor response to your muscles and glands with help of the efferent
neurons.
TYPES OF NEURONS
 MULTIPOLAR NEURONS
Multipolar neurons have only one axon but have several dendrites
 BIPOLAR NEURONS
Bipolar neurons have only one axon and has one highly branched dendrite.
 UNIPOLAR NEURON
Unipolar neuron have a single process extending from the cell body.

NERVE AND TRACTS

Nerves are located in Peripheral Nervous System, these are bundles of Peripheral nerve
fibers that are held together by several layers of connective tissue. In addition, Nerve
fibers are very thin, thread-like transmission lines that carry signals between nerves and
receptors in the skin, muscles, and internal organs. Their official job is to conduct nerve
impulses, which basically means that they are responsible for delivering signals and
sensations from the nerves to various parts of the body. The bundles of nerve fibers are
called as tracts.

NERVE IMPLUSES
Nerves conducts and initiate signal that are said to be Nerve impulses. Each neuron
receives an impulse and must pass it on to the next neuron and make sure the correct
impulse continues on its path. It happens when the dendrites pick up an impulse that’s
shuttled through the axon and transmitted to the next neuron. The entire impulse passes
through a neuron in about seven milliseconds.

SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION
Synaptic transmission is the process wherein a neuron communicates with other neurons
or effectors. Neuron has a soma, branching processes specialized to receive incoming
signals that carries electrical signals away from the neuron toward other neurons or
effectors. Electrical signals carried by axons are said to be the action potentials. Axons
are compose of thousands of terminal branches: a bulbous enlargement, the synaptic
knob or synaptic terminal. The action potential is converted into a chemical message
synaptic knob which interacts with the recipient neuron or effector. This process is called
as synaptic transmission. Synapses are have two types: Electrical synapses and Chemical
synapses.

NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Neurotransmitters are endogenous chemicals that aids neurotransmission. It is a type of
chemical messenger which transmits signals across a chemical synapse, such as
a neuromuscular junction, from one neuron to another "target" neuron, muscle cell,
or gland cell. The two major functional classifications of neuro transmitters are: excitatory
neuro transmitters and inhibitory neuro transmitters thus neurotransmitter can be also
divide into small molecule transmitters and large molecule transmitters.
Small molecule neurotransmitter are molecules or amino acids who are smaller in size
while large molecule neurotransmitter re made up to chains of 2-40 amino acids.
Main chemical classes of small molecule transmitter
 Acetylcholine
 Amines
 Amino acids
 Other small molecules.
THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. The brain plays a central
role in the control of most bodily functions, including awareness, movements, sensations,
thoughts, speech, and memory. Some reflex movements can occur via spinal cord
pathways without the participation of brain structures. The spinal cord is connected to a
section of the brain called the brainstem and runs through the spinal canal. Cranial nerves
exit the brainstem. Nerve roots exit the spinal cord to both sides of the body. The spinal
cord carries signals (messages) back and forth between the brain and the peripheral
nerves.
Cerebrospinal fluid surrounds the brain and the spinal cord and also circulates within the
cavities (called ventricles) of the central nervous system. The leptomeninges surround
the brain and the spinal cord. The cerebrospinal fluid circulates between 2 meningeal
layers called the pia matter and the arachnoid (or pia-arachnoid membranes). The outer,
thicker layer serves the role of a protective shield and is called the dura matter. The basic
unit of the central nervous system is the neuron (nerve cell). Billions of neurons allow the
different parts of the body to communicate with each other via the brain and the spinal
cord. A fatty material called myelin coats nerve cells to insulate them and to allow nerves
to communicate quickly.
PROTECTIVE COVERING OF THE BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD
The brain and spinal cord are protected by bony structures: the skull and spinal column.
Meninges are membranes that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord.
MENINGES

 Dura mater: The

outermost membrane, this
is the thickest of the three
layers and has both an
outer and inner layer. It is
one of the few structures of
the skull capable of feeling
pain. The brain itself
cannot.
 Arachnoid mater: Connected to the dura mater on the side closest to the CNS, this
middle layer includes a network of fibers and collagen that are part of the
suspension system that helps protect the brain and spinal cord from sudden
 impact. They also form a gap between the arachnoid and the pia maters called the
subarachnoid space. This is where the cerebrospinal fluid is found.
 Pia mater: The innermost layer, the pia mater hugs the spinal cord and brain like
a coat. It has blood vessels that deliver oxygen and nutrients to the spinal cord.

SPACES THAT EXIST BETWEEN AND AROUND THE MENINGES

 Epidural space
The epidural space is a potential space, as the majority of the dura is in contact with the
walls of the vertebral canal.
Subdural space
The subdural space is a potential space that exists between the meningeal layer of
the dura mater and the inner arachnoid mater of the leptomeninges which are adherent
to each other.
 Subarachnoid space
Subarachnoid space is the area in the brain between the arachnoid membrane, which is
the middle of three membranes covering the surface of the brain, and the pia mater,
which is the deepest protective membrane covering the brain. Strengthening rod-like
fibers known as fibrous trabeculae cross through the subarachnoid space to connect the
arachnoid membrane to the pia mater, and cerebrospinal fluid fills the cavity to flow
around the brain.
 Cerebrospinal Fluid
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) cushions the brain and spinal cord. It is a clear, water-like fluid,
also called spinal fluid, found between the arachnoid and pia mater. It is made within the
four ventricles of the brain. The area in the lateral ventricles that makes spinal fluid is
called the choroid plexus. About 20cc of spinal fluid is made but not absorbed each hour.
There is about 140 cc (about ½ can of soda) of spinal fluid that surrounds the brain and
spine. The brain and spinal cord are bathed and cushioned by this spinal fluid, which
flows and circulates around the brain and spine.
THE SPINAL CORD
Anatomy
The spinal cord is part of the central
nervous system (CNS), which
extends caudally and is protected by
the bony structures of the vertebral
column. It is covered by the three
membranes of the CNS, i.e., the
dura mater, arachnoid and the
innermost pia mater. In most adult
mammals it occupies only the upper
two-thirds of the vertebral canal as
the growth of the bones composing
the vertebral column is
proportionally more rapid than that
of the spinal cord. According to its
rostrocaudal location the spinal cord
can be divided into four parts:
cervical, thoracic, lumbar and sacral,
two of these are marked by an upper (cervical) and a lower (lumbar) enlargement.
Alongside the median sagittal plane the anterior and the posterior median fissures divide
the cord into two symmetrical portions, which are connected by the transverse anterior
and posterior commissures. On either side of the cord the anterior lateral and posterior
lateral fissures represent the points where the ventral and dorsal rootlets (later roots)
emerge from the cord to form the spinal nerves. Unlike the brain, in the spinal cord the
grey matter is surrounded by the white matter at its circumference. The white matter is
conventionally divided into the dorsal, dorsolateral, lateral, ventral and ventrolateral
funiculi. Each half of the spinal grey matter is crescent-shaped, although the arrangement
of the grey matter and its proportion to the white matter vary at different rostrocaudal
levels. The grey matter can be divided into the dorsal horn, intermediate grey, ventral
horn and a centromedial region surrounding the central canal (central grey matter) The
white matter gradually ceases towards the end of the spinal cord and the grey matter
blends into a single mass (conus terminalis) where parallel spinal roots form the so-called
cauda equina.
Physiology
The spinal cord is a highly organized and complex part of the central nervous system. Its
complexity is due to the role it plays in the 3 most important functions of the individual:
sensation, autonomic and motor control. If it was to simply report to the brain the
information that it receives from the large number and variety of afferent inputs and relay
back to the motoneurons and preganglionic neurons the outcome of processing
performed by the supraspinal centres the situation would be more straight forward.
However, as is well established, this is not the case and the spinal cord has, in addition
to relaying information from the rest of the body to the brain and receiving efferent
commands from varied portions of the brain the ability to integrate and modify both
afferent signals from the periphery, and efferent signals from segmental afferents and
supraspinal centers. Thus there is a complicated network of neurons that normally
operates in conjunction with the rest of the CNS to allow perfect control of sensory,
autonomic and motor functions. This complex circuitry is critically dependent on its
connections with the brain and it cannot function appropriately when it is either
completely or even partially disconnected from it. It is rather regrettable, that we
understand so little of the potential of the complex intrinsic circuitry of the spinal cord
that when it loses connection with the brain we are unable to exploit its' potential function
and restore deficits caused by spinal cord lesions.
In spite of the fact that the physiology of the spinal cord has been intensively investigated
for at least a century it keeps revealing new surprising phenomena.
In this chapter only a brief account will be given of its main functions.
 Sensory Processing
In an oversimplified manner it can be stated that the somatic afferent functions that are
processed in the spinal cord constitute the following: (a) pain and temperature, (b) touch,
and (c) proprioception. Different sense organs in the peripheral structures initiate these
sensory modalities, but the processing of them is usually carried out by a network of
neurons in the spinal cord that are common to several of these different modalities of
sensation.
 Pain and Temperature
The peripheral receptors for various modalities of sensation are specialized sense organs
that are contacted by axons from dorsal root ganglion neurons. These neurons have a
peripheral process and a central branch that enters the spinal cord where they branch.
These neurons that are directly linked with the peripheral structures are called first order
neurons, and their role in processing of sensory information is largely determined by their
branching pattern. Figure 4a illustrates some of the sense organs of the first order
neurons that are involved in pain and temperature sensation and also shows that the
main target of the branches of the central portion of this first order neuron terminates
and synapses on neurons in the substantia gelatinosa. It is from this part of the dorsal
horn where the second order neurons give rise to their processes which convey the
information to other parts of the spinal cord and brain. However, there are ascending and
descending branches of the second order neurons that synapse on cells in different
segments of the spinal cord and on more ventral interneurons that are concerned with
control of movement and integration of somatic afferent inputs with those from other
parts of the central nervous system.52 Thus these second order neurons play a crucial
role in the processing of sensory information within the spinal cord. Not only somatic
afferent fibers converge into the neurons in the substantial gelatinosa, but visceral
sensation and pain also converges onto this group of second order neurons. In addition
there is a strong input from various structures of the brain that impinge upon neurons in
the substantia gelatinosa modify the input from the periphery and in this way the outcome
of sensation (for further reading see Brown 1991,53 Schomburg 199054). It is partly
because of this convergence of inputs to this part of the spinal cord that sensation is not
simply the result of particular peripheral inputs.
 Motor Control
Reflexes
Our understanding of spinal cord physiology has until recently been dominated by
observations of Sherrington56(1910) and his colleagues that the structures of the spinal
cord are able to produce stereotyped responses to external stimuli. These responses were
referred to as reflexes and carefully defined and observed. The simplest of these reflexes
is the monosynaptic stretch reflex, elicited by activation of the IA afferent fibers that
originate from the muscle spindle, and when activated produces contraction of the
synonymous muscle. However even the study of this simple reflex revealed a great
degree of complexity in the spinal cord circuitry. The strength of muscle contraction in
response to the same stimulus was not always the same and was influenced by preceding
activity of the spinal cord. In order to explain some of the findings associated with the
variability of reflex activity it was necessary to consider events such as temporal and
spatial summation of excitatory inputs, and inhibitory influences from other sources. Thus
even the simplest “reflex” turned out to display considerable variability.56 Nevertheless
the information about the behavior of the structures that mediate the responses to
various stimuli in the spinal cord obtained by the study of reflex activity was of immense
importance. It taught us that the observation of temporal and spatial summation of
excitatory inputs is caused by the ability of neurons to add up excitatory postsynaptic
potentials (EPSPs) and therefore when 2 inputs, each of which is too weak to produce a
response on its own, impinge upon a neuron simultaneously, or with a slight delay, they
can produce a response since the depolarization of the cell reaches a threshold level
which fires off an action potential. These rules apply even in the case of the simplest
reflex response such as the stretch reflex, which is monosynaptic and the integration is
carried out by only one cell, the motoneuron. All other reflexes are polysynaptic, and
therefore each neuron involved in the response can contribute to the final outcome i.e.,
the motor response to a particular stimulus (see fig. 5). The study of these relatively
simple spinal reflexes revealed other features of the system, i.e., that neurons are not
only excited, but can be inhibited by particular inputs. Such inhibition is either
postsynaptic so that the membrane potential of the postsynaptic neuron increases and
thus the same excitatory input fails to depolarize the neuron sufficiently to initiate an
action potential, or inhibition can be presynaptic, by which the amount of excitatory
transmitter released from the presynaptic terminal is reduced.
There are important structures within the mammalian spinal cord that regulate various
autonomic functions of the body and can be severely affected when the spinal cord is
disconnected from the brain. Generally the autonomic nervous system is divided into
sympathetic and parasympathetic components. The cells that control these two separate
divisions occupy a typical position within the spinal cord of mammals. The preganglionic
neurons of the sympathetic system are localised in the thoracic and lumbar part of the
spinal cord, while neurons that control the parasympathetic ganglia originate in the sacral
region. These cells that regulate important autonomic functions are closely controlled and
integrated by segmental afferent inputs, and by supraspinal inputs. Following disruption
of these the autonomic control of functions such as bladder control, or control of
defecation as well as sexual arousal can be seriously altered and it is an important
consideration that these bodily functions be restored. Much of the information on the
control mechanisms exerted by the spinal cord centers over these functions is concerned
with those involved in micturition. The central pathways controlling lower urinary tract
function are organized as simple on-off switch circuits summarized in Figure 8. The main
control is concerned with the switch from the storage of urine mode to the micturition
mode.

The BRAIN
Anatomy and Physiology
The human brain is a complex
organ that holds the most
importance in the entire human
body. The objective of this article
is to give you an introduction
about the brain parts and their
functions rather than a detailed
review of the research that has
been done on the brain. The brain
weighs just 3 pounds but is
responsible for controlling
behavior, interpreting the senses and initiating body movement. It is the source of
intelligence in our body and is located in a bony shell that is protected by brain fluid. The
brain is the reason for all of the qualities we possess that make us human beings.
THE MAIN PARTS OF THE BRAIN
 Cerebrum
The cerebrum constitutes the
largest part of the human
brain. It is also known as the
cortex and is responsible for
performing a great number of
important brain functions,
including action and thought
processing. The cerebrum is
further subdivided into four
different sections that have
their own respective functions
and are termed as lobes. The
names of these lobes are;
frontal lobe, occipital lobe,
parietal lobe and temporal
lobe.
 Frontal Lobe: The frontal
lobe is tasked with the duty of performing functions like expressive language,
reasoning, higher level cognition and motor skills. It is positioned at the front
portion of the brain. Any damage to it can lead to changes of socialization,
attention, sexual habits, etc.
 Parietal Lobe: The parietal lobe is responsible for processing the information sent
to the brain by the tactile senses like pain, pressure and touch. It is placed in the
center of the brain. Any damage to it can cause problems with language, ability of
controlling eye gaze and verbal memory.
 Occipital Lobe: The occipital lobe is tasked with the duty of interpreting the
information being sent to the brain by the eyes. It is positioned at the back of the
 Brain. If it is damaged, your visual ability will be affected, like unable to recognize
colors, words and objects.
 Temporal Lobe: The temporal lobe is responsible for forming memories and
processing the sounds being recorded by the ears. It is placed at the bottom of
the brain. Any damage to it can cause problem with language skills, speech
perception and memory.
  Cerebellum
This is commonly referred to as
"the little brain," and is considered
to be older than the cerebrum on
the evolutionary scale. The
cerebellum controls essential body
functions such as balance, posture
and coordination, allowing humans
to move properly and maintain
their structure.

 Limbic System
The limbic system contains glands
which help relay emotions. Many hormonal responses that the body generates are
initiated in this area. The limbic system includes the amygdala, hippocampus,
hypothalamus and thalamus.

 Amygdala: The amygdala helps the body responds to emotions, memories and
fear. It is a large portion of the telencephalon, located within the temporal lobe
which can be seen from the surface of the brain. This visible bulge is known as
the uncus.

 Hippocampus: This portion of the brain is used for learning memory, specifically
converting temporary memories into permanent memories which can be stored
within the brain. The hippocampus also helps people analyze and remember spatial
relationships, allowing for accurate movements. This portion of the brain is located
in the cerebral hemisphere.

 Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus region of the brain controls mood, thirst,

hunger and temperature. It also contains glands which control the hormonal
processes throughout the body.

 Thalamus: The Thalamus is located in the center of the brain. It helps to control
the attention span, sensing pain and monitors input that moves in and out of the
brain to keep track of the sensations the body is feeling.
  Brain Stem
All basic life functions originate in the brain stem, including heartbeat, blood pressure and
breathing. In humans, this area contains the medulla, midbrain and pons. This is
commonly referred to as the simplest part of the brain, as most creatures on the
evolutionary scale have some form of brain creation that resembles the brain stem. The
brain stem consists of midbrain, pons and medulla.

 Midbrain: The midbrain, also known as the mesencephalon is made up of the

tegmentum and tectum. These parts of the brain help regulate body movement,
vision and hearing. The anterior portion of the midbrain contains the cerebral
peduncle which contains the axons that transfer messages from the cerebral cortex
down the brain stem, which allows voluntary motor function to take place.

 Pons: This portion of the metencephalon is located in the hindbrain, and links to
the cerebellum to help with posture and movement. It interprets information that
is used in sensory analysis or motor control. The pons also creates the level of
consciousness necessary for sleep.

 Medulla: The medulla or medulla oblongata is an essential portion of the brain

stem which maintains vital body functions such as the heart rate and breathing.
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
The Peripheral nervous system (PNS) is one of the two major divisions of the nervous
system. In anatomy and medicine “Peripheral” use to describe the opposite of "central”,
it means situated away from the center. The nerves in the peripheral nervous system
(PNS) connect the central nervous system (CNS) to sensory organs (such as the eye and
ear), other organs of the body, muscles, blood vessels and glands. The peripheral nerves
include the twelve of the cranial nerves, the spinal nerves and roots, and what are called
the autonomic nerves.
SPINAL NERVES
There are thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves connected with the Spinal cord. They are not
named but our can classify them according to the level of the vertebral column in which
they emerged from the spinal cavity.
THE 31 PAIRS OF SPINAL NERVES

 There are eight Cervical nerves from C1-

C8 it comes from the cervical spine; cervical
means of the neck. In fact there are eight
cervical nerves, but only there are only seven
cervical vertebra from CNS.
 Thoracic nerves have twelve nerves from
T1-T12 and it is located in the thoracic spine;
thoracic means of the chest.
 Lumbar nerves have five nerves from L1-
L5 it emerge from the lumbar spine; lumbar
means from the lower back region.
 There are five sacral nerves from S1-S5
it comes from the sacral bone; sacral means of
the sacrum, the bony plate at the base of the
vertebral column.
 Coccygeal nerve from the coccygeal bone
are only one.
Every spinal nerve is attached to the spinal cord
by two roots: ventral sensory root from the back
and a ventral motor root in front. The fibers of
the sensory root carry sensory impulses to the
spinal cord from different parts of the body and
body surfaces.
NERVE PLEXUSES
System of connected nerve fibers that link spinal nerves with specific areas of the body
are called Nerve plexus. The fibers in a plexus connect them in a part of Central nervous
system in spinal cord and the body by being a larger nerve. The Nervous system are of
consists of several nerve plexuses: brachial plexus, cervical plexus, coccygeal plexus,
lumbar plexus, sacral plexus, and solar plexus. Its main function is to ensure that all areas
of the body are supplied by nerves, it also ensures every region can send and receive
messages from the peripheral nervous system. The different plexuses are responsible in
ensuring different portions of the body innervated and it also responsible in controlling
every functions unique to each portion. A nerve plexus is formed during development and
growth.

Cranial Nerves
The cranial nerves in nervous system are pairs of nerves that connect the brain to
different parts of your body. These nerves are divide into twelve groups. They are
categorized by their functions
either of sensory or motor.
Wherein the sensory nerves
are responsible with the
senses: smell, hearing, touch
and etc. On the other hand
Motor nerves are the one who
controls the movement and
function of muscles and
glands.
Classification Cranial
Nerves

 Olfactory nerve
Olfactory nerve is responsible
in transmitting sensory
information to your brain
regarding smells that you encounter.
Whenever you inhale aromas, moist lining at the roof of your nasal cavity or the olfactory
epithelium dissolves the aroma. This rouses receptors that create nerve impulses then
forward it in olfactory bulb. Olfactory bulb contains specialized groups of nerve cells. From
the olfactory bulb, nerves go into your olfactory tract, which is located below the frontal
lobe of the brain. Nerve signals are then sent to areas of your brain concerned with
memory and recognition of smells.
 Optic nerve
The optic nerve is the sensory nerve that involves vision.
When light enters your eye, it comes into contact with special receptors in
your retina called rods and cones. Rods are found in large numbers and are highly
sensitive to light. They’re more specialized for black and white or night vision.
Cones are present in smaller numbers. They have a lower light sensitivity than rods and
are more involved with color vision.
The information received by your rods and cones is transmitted from your retina to your
optic nerve. Once inside your skull, both of your optic nerves meet to form something
called the optic chiasm. At the optic chiasm, nerve fibers from half of each retina form
two separate optic tracts.
Through each optic tract, the nerve impulses eventually reach your visual cortex, which
then processes the information. Your visual cortex is located in the back part of your
brain.
 Oculomotor nerve
The oculomotor nerve has two different motor functions: muscle function and pupil
response.
Muscle function. Your oculomotor nerve provides motor function to four of the six muscles
around your eyes. These muscles help your eyes move and focus on objects.
Pupil response. It also helps to control the size of your pupil as it responds to light.
This nerve originates in the front part of your midbrain, which is a part of your brainstem.
It moves forward from that area until it reaches the area of your eye sockets.
 Trochlear nerve
The trochlear nerve controls your superior oblique muscle. This is the muscle that’s
responsible for downward, outward, and inward eye movements.
It emerges from the back part of your midbrain. Like your oculomotor nerve, it moves
forward until it reaches your eye sockets, where it stimulates the superior oblique muscle.
  Trigeminal nerve
The trigeminal nerve is the largest of your cranial nerves and has both sensory and motor
functions.
The trigeminal nerve has three divisions, which are:
Ophthalmic. The ophthalmic division sends sensory information from the upper part of
your face, including your forehead, scalp, and upper eyelids.
Maxillary. This division communicates sensory information from the middle part of your
face, including your cheeks, upper lip, and nasal cavity.
Mandibular. The mandibular division has both a sensory and a motor function. It sends
sensory information from your ears, lower lip, and chin. It also controls the movement of
muscles within your jaw and ear.
The trigeminal nerve originates from a group of nuclei — which is a collection of nerve
cells — in the midbrain and medulla regions of your brainstem. Eventually, these nuclei
form a separate sensory root and motor root.
The sensory root of your trigeminal nerve branches into the ophthalmic, maxillary, and
mandibular divisions. The motor root of your trigeminal nerve passes below the sensory
root and is only distributed into the mandibular division.
 Abducens nerve
The abducens nerve controls another muscle that’s associated with eye movement, called
the lateral rectus muscle. This muscle is involved in outward eye movement. For example,
you would use it to look to the side.
This nerve, also called the abducent nerve, starts in the pons region of your brainstem.
It eventually enters your eye socket, where it controls the lateral rectus muscle.
 Facial nerve
The facial nerve provides both sensory and motor functions, including:
-moving muscles used for facial expressions as well as some muscles in your jaw
-providing a sense of taste for most of your tongue
-supplying glands in your head or neck area, such as salivary glands and tear-producing
glands
-communicating sensations from the outer parts of your ear
Your facial nerve has a very complex path. It originates in the pons area of your
brainstem, where it has both a motor and sensory root. Eventually, the two nerves fuse
together to form the facial nerve.
Both within and outside of your skull, the facial nerve branches further into smaller nerve
fibers that stimulate muscles and glands or provide sensory information.
 Vestibulocochlear nerve
Your vestibulocochlear nerve has sensory functions involving hearing and balance. It
consists of two parts, the cochlear portion and vestibular portion:
Cochlear portion. Specialized cells within your ear detect vibrations from sound based off
of the sound’s loudness and pitch. This generates nerve impulses that are transmitted to
the cochlear nerve.
Vestibular portion. Another set of special cells in this portion can track both linear and
rotational movements of your head. This information is transmitted to the vestibular nerve
and used to adjust your balance and equilibrium.
The cochlear and vestibular portions of your vestibulocochlear nerve originate in separate
areas of the brain.
The cochlear portion starts in an area of your brain called the inferior cerebellar peduncle.
The vestibular portion begins in your pons and medulla. Both portions combine to form
the vestibulocochlear nerve.
 Glossopharyngeal nerve
The glossopharyngeal nerve has both motor and sensory functions, including:
-sending sensory information from your sinuses, the back of your throat, parts of your
inner ear, and the back part of your tongue
-providing a sense of taste for the back part of your tongue
-stimulating voluntary movement of a muscle in the back of your throat called the
stylopharyngeus
The glossopharyngeal nerve originates in a part of your brainstem called the medulla
oblongata. It eventually extends into your neck and throat region.
 Vagus nerve
The vagus nerve is a very diverse nerve. It has both sensory and motor functions,
including:
-communicating sensation information from your ear canal and parts of your throat
sending sensory information from organs in your chest and trunk, such as your heart and
intestines
-allowing motor control of muscles in your throat
-stimulating the muscles of organs in your chest and trunk, including those that move
food through your digestive tract (peristalsis)
providing a sense of taste near the root of your tongue
Out of all of the cranial nerves, the vagus nerve has the longest pathway. It extends from
your head all the way into your abdomen. It originates in the part of your brainstem
called the medulla.
 Accessory nerve
Your accessory nerve is a motor nerve that controls the muscles in your neck. These
muscles allow you to rotate, flex, and extend your neck and shoulders.
It’s divided into two parts: spinal and cranial. The spinal portion originates in the upper
part of your spinal cord. The cranial part starts in your medulla oblongata.
These parts meet briefly before the spinal part of the nerve moves to supply the muscles
of your neck while the cranial part follows the vagus nerve.
 Hypoglossal nerve
Your hypoglossal nerve is the 12th cranial nerve which is responsible for the movement
of most of the muscles in your tongue. It starts in the medulla oblongata and moves
down into the jaw, where it reaches the tongue.

Afferent
Afferent or sensory division transmits impulses from peripheral organs to the CNS.
The efferent or motor division transmits impulses from the CNS out to the peripheral
organs to cause an effect or action.

Efferent
Efferent pathways carry signals away from the central nervous system. Essentially, they
are signals that your brain sends to tell your body to do something, like blinking.
Afferent signals come from outside stimuli and tell your brain what they are sensing,
such as temperature. Afferent neurons bring stimuli to the brain, where the signal is
integrated and processed. The brain then coordinates a response via efferent signals
back to the rest of the body.
 Efferent or motor division is again subdivided into the Somatic nervous system and
the Autonomic nervous system.

SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

The Somatic Nervous system, are also known as voluntary nervous system, it is a part of
Peripheral Nervous System and it is responsible in controlling the voluntary muscular
movements of the body. It controls the skeletal muscles in the body according to the
stimuli obtained from the sensory receptors of the body. On that account, the somatic
nervous system is composed of both afferent and efferent nerves. The afferent and
efferent neurons are connected by interneurons at the Central Nervous System. The
somatic nervous system is compose of two parts, the cranial nerves and spinal nerves.
The cranial nerves are
responsible in carrying
nerve impulses in and
out of the brain while the
spinal nerves carries the
nerve impulses in and
out of the spinal cord.

In addition, controlling
voluntary muscular
movements also
involves the somatic
nervous system they
help in other in
controlling involuntary
muscular movements
called reflex arcs. In
reflex arcs, the skeletal muscles work without coordinating with the central nervous
system. The nerve pathways of the reflex arcs are connected to the spinal cord.

REFLEX ARCS
There are two types of reflex arcs: First is the Autonomic reflex arcs and Somatic reflex
arcs. The Autonomic reflex arcs control the involuntary actions of organs while somatic
reflex arcs control that of skeletal muscle

REFLEXES
A.
Cranial Reflex is when the center of the reflex is the brain.
Spinal Reflex is when the center of the reflex is the spinal cord.
B.
Somatic reflex is the contraction of skeletal muscle
Autonomic is either the contraction of smooth or cardiac muscles or secretion by glands.
 Knee jerk
The sharp tap on the tendon slightly stretches the quadriceps, the complex of muscles at
the front of the upper leg. In reaction these muscles contract, and the contraction tends
to straighten the leg in a kicking motion. Exaggeration or absence of the reaction suggests
that there may be damage to the central nervous system.
 Ankle jerk
The Achilles reflex, also called the ankle jerk reflex, is an abrupt bending of the foot when
a doctor strikes a person's Achilles tendon, which is located just above the heel. In a
positive response, the foot moves as if the person is pointing his toes.
 Babinski reflex
Reflex action of the toes, normal during infancy but abnormal after 12 to 18 months of
age; after locomotion begins, it isindicative of abnormalities in the motor control pathwa
ys leading from the cerebral cortex and is widely used as a diagnosticaid in disorders of
the central nervous system. It is elicited by a firm stimulus (usually scraping) on the sol
e of the foot, whichresults in dorsiflexion of the great toe and fanning of the smaller toe
s.
 Plantar reflex
The plantar reflex is a reflex elicited when the sole of the foot is stimulated with a blunt
instrument. The reflex can take one of two forms. In healthy adults, the plantar reflex
causes a downward response of the hallux (flexion). An upward response (extension) of
the hallux is known as the Babinski response or Babinski sign
 Corneal reflex
A reflex action of the eye resulting in automatic closing of the eyelid when the cornea is
stimulated. Thecorneal reflex can be elicited in a normal person by gently touching the
cornea with a wisp of cotton. Absence of thecorneal reflex indicates deep coma or injur
y of one of the nerves carrying the reflex arc.
 Abdominal Reflex
Superficial neurological reflex obtained by firmly stroking the skin of the abdomen aroun
d the umbilicus. It normallyresults in a brisk contraction of abdominal muscles in which
the umbilicus moves toward the site of the stimulus. Thisreflex is often lost in diseases
of the pyramidal tract and can also be lost with age or abdominal surger.

 AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

The autonomic nervous system regulates certain body processes, such as blood pressure
and the rate of breathing. This system works automatically (autonomously), without a
person’s conscious effort.
Disorders of the autonomic nervous system can affect any body part or process.
Autonomic disorders may be reversible or progressive.
Anatomy of the autonomic nervous system
The autonomic nervous system is the part of the nervous system that supplies the
internal organs, including the blood vessels, stomach, intestine, liver, kidneys, bladder,
genitals, lungs, pupils, heart, and sweat, salivary, and digestive glands.
After the autonomic nervous system receives information about the body and external
environment, it responds by stimulating body processes, usually through the sympathetic
division, or inhibiting them, usually through the parasympathetic division.
An autonomic nerve pathway involves two nerve cells. One cell is located in the brain
stem or spinal cord. It is connected by nerve fibers to the other cell, which is located in
a cluster of nerve cells (called an autonomic ganglion). Nerve fibers from these ganglia
connect with internal organs. Most of the ganglia for the sympathetic division are located
just outside the spinal cord on both sides of it. The ganglia for the parasympathetic
division are located near or in the organs they connect with.
Function of the Autonomic nervous system
The autonomic nervous system controls internal body processes such as the following:
 Blood pressure
 Heart and breathing rates
 Body temperature
 Digestion
 Metabolism (thus affecting body weight)
 Balance of water and electrolytes (such as sodium and calcium)
 Production of body fluids (saliva, sweat, and tears)
 Urination
 Defecation
  Sexual response

Many organs are controlled primarily by either the sympathetic or the parasympathetic
division. Sometimes the two divisions have opposite effects on the same organ. For
example, the sympathetic division increases blood pressure, and the parasympathetic
division decreases it. Overall, the two divisions work together to ensure that the body
responds appropriately to different situations.
The autonomic nervous system has two main divisions:
 Sympathetic
 Parasympathetic

SYMPATHETIC DIVISION
Prepares the body for stressful or emergency situations—fight or flight. In addition
sympathetic division increases heart rate and the force of heart contractions and widens
(dilates) the airways to make breathing easier. It causes the body to release stored
energy. Muscular strength is increased. This division also causes palms to sweat, pupils
to dilate, and hair to stand on end. It slows body processes that are less important in
emergencies, such as digestion and urination.
PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION
Parasympathetic division Controls body process during ordinary situations it conserves
and restores. It slows the heart rate and decreases blood pressure. It stimulates the
digestive tract to process food and eliminate wastes. Energy from the processed food is
used to restore and build tissues.
Parasympathetic Innervation
Both the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions are involved in sexual activity, as are
the parts of the nervous system that control voluntary actions and transmit sensation
from the skin (somatic nervous system).
Two chemical messengers (neurotransmitters) are used to communicate within the
autonomic nervous system:
 Acetylcholine
 Norepinephrine
Nerve fibers that secrete acetylcholine are called cholinergic fibers. Fibers that
secrete norepinephrine are called adrenergic fibers. Generally, acetylcholine has
parasympathetic (inhibiting) effects and norepinephrine has sympathetic (stimulating)
effects. However, acetylcholine has some sympathetic effects. For example, it sometimes
stimulates sweating or makes the hair stand on end.

FACTORS THAT MAY DAMAGE THE NERVOUS SYSYTEM

 Infections
 Degeneration
 Structural defects
 Tumors
 Blood flow disruption
 Autoimmune disorders
 Trauma

DISORDERS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Disorders of the nervous system may involve the following:

 Vascular disorders, such as stroke, transient ischemic attack (TIA),

subarachnoid hemorrhage, subdural hemorrhage and hematoma, and extradural
hemorrhage
 Infections, such as meningitis, encephalitis, polio, and epidural abscess
 Structural disorders, such as brain or spinal cord injury, Bell's palsy, cervical
spondylosis, carpal tunnel syndrome, brain or spinal cord tumors, peripheral
neuropathy, and Guillain-Barré syndrome
 Functional disorders, such as headache, epilepsy, dizziness, and neuralgia
 Degeneration, such as Parkinson disease, multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral
sclerosis (ALS), Huntington chorea, and Alzheimer disease
 SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM DISORDERS

The following are the most common general signs and symptoms of a nervous system
disorder. However, each individual may experience symptoms differently. Symptoms may
include:

 Persistent or sudden onset of a headache

 A headache that changes or is different
 Loss of feeling or tingling
 Weakness or loss of muscle strength
 Loss of sight or double vision
 Memory loss
 Impaired mental ability
 Lack of coordination
 Muscle rigidity
 Tremors and seizures
 Back pain which radiates to the feet, toes, or other parts of the body
 Muscle wasting and slurred speech
 New language impairment (expression or comprehension)

HEALTHCARE PROVIDERS WHO TREAT NERVOUS SYSTEM DISORDERS

Healthcare providers who treat nervous system disorders may have to spend a lot of time
working with the patient before making a probable diagnosis of the specific condition.
Many times, this involves performing numerous tests to eliminate other conditions, so
that the probable diagnosis can be made.

 Neurology. The branch of medicine that manages nervous system disorders is

called neurology. The medical healthcare providers who treat nervous system
disorders are called neurologists. Some neurologists treat acute strokes and
cerebral aneurysms using endovascular techniques.

 Neurological surgery. The branch of medicine that provides surgical

intervention for nervous system disorders is called neurosurgery, or neurological
surgery. Surgeons who operate as a treatment team for nervous system disorders
are called neurological surgeons or neurosurgeons.
 Neuroradiologists and interventional radiologists. Radiologists that
specialize in the diagnosis of neurological conditions using imaging and in the
treatment of certain neurologic conditions such as cerebral aneurysms, acute
strokes, and vertebral fractures, as well as biopsies of certain tumors
.
 Rehabilitation for neurological disorders. The branch of medicine that
provides rehabilitative care for patients with nervous system disorders is called
physical medicine and rehabilitation. Healthcare providers who work with patients in the
rehabilitation process are called physiatrists
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

FROM BOOKS
Hibodeau, Gary A., and Patton Kevin T. “COMMUN ICATION CONTROL AND
INTEGRATION.” Anatomy and Physiology, 5th ed., pp. 341–483.

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 Divine Word College of San Jose
San Jose, Occidental Mindoro
Republic of the Philippines

Anatomy and Physiology XII

Anatomy and Physiology Of The Human Nrvous System

Presented By:
Reinier Cabrera
Jane Adion
Jericho Santorce
Sean Andrei Uy
Cesar Salamanca
Kristian Carlo Hernandez
Denise Kristine Saure
Reggie Caugma

Presented To :
Rev. Fr. Ronillo B. Ordenes SVD, DMD MAN
Date Submitted :
September 2, 2019