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What comes into your mind when you hear the word “Nervous System” probably you are
just thinking a picture of a brain inside the cranium and the spinal cord and its extensions
within the vertebral column, if that so then that suggests that the main organs of the
Nervous system are probably the brain and the spinal cord-but the Nervous system of
different living creature are very complex, they may be different and unique from each
other but one thing for sure is that their Nervous system works together to perform tasks
in everyday lives. Within the brain, many different and separate regions are responsible
for many different and separate functions. In addition the other parts of our Nervous
system like spinal cord and nerves performs other functions too.
Glia Cell
Glial cells or neuroglia, are non-neuronal cells located
in central nervous system and the peripheral nervous
system. They maintain homeostasis, form lipid
substance called myelin, and provide support and
protection for neurons. Glial cells from Central
Nervous System
include oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, ependymal
cells, and microglia. Glial cells from Peripheral
nervous system include Schwann cells and satellite
cells. The main functions of Glial cells are:
Glial cells surround neurons and hold them in place.
Glial cells supplies nutrients and oxygen to neurons
Glial cells insulate one neuron from another
Glial cells are destroy pathogens and remove dead neurons.
Glial cells they also play a role in
neurotransmission and synaptic
connections, and in physiological
processes like breathing.
NEURONS
NERVE IMPLUSES
Nerves conducts and initiate signal that are said to be Nerve impulses. Each neuron
receives an impulse and must pass it on to the next neuron and make sure the correct
impulse continues on its path. It happens when the dendrites pick up an impulse that’s
shuttled through the axon and transmitted to the next neuron. The entire impulse passes
through a neuron in about seven milliseconds.
SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION
Synaptic transmission is the process wherein a neuron communicates with other neurons
or effectors. Neuron has a soma, branching processes specialized to receive incoming
signals that carries electrical signals away from the neuron toward other neurons or
effectors. Electrical signals carried by axons are said to be the action potentials. Axons
are compose of thousands of terminal branches: a bulbous enlargement, the synaptic
knob or synaptic terminal. The action potential is converted into a chemical message
synaptic knob which interacts with the recipient neuron or effector. This process is called
as synaptic transmission. Synapses are have two types: Electrical synapses and Chemical
synapses.
NEUROTRANSMITTERS
Neurotransmitters are endogenous chemicals that aids neurotransmission. It is a type of
chemical messenger which transmits signals across a chemical synapse, such as
a neuromuscular junction, from one neuron to another "target" neuron, muscle cell,
or gland cell. The two major functional classifications of neuro transmitters are: excitatory
neuro transmitters and inhibitory neuro transmitters thus neurotransmitter can be also
divide into small molecule transmitters and large molecule transmitters.
Small molecule neurotransmitter are molecules or amino acids who are smaller in size
while large molecule neurotransmitter re made up to chains of 2-40 amino acids.
Main chemical classes of small molecule transmitter
Acetylcholine
Amines
Amino acids
Other small molecules.
THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. The brain plays a central
role in the control of most bodily functions, including awareness, movements, sensations,
thoughts, speech, and memory. Some reflex movements can occur via spinal cord
pathways without the participation of brain structures. The spinal cord is connected to a
section of the brain called the brainstem and runs through the spinal canal. Cranial nerves
exit the brainstem. Nerve roots exit the spinal cord to both sides of the body. The spinal
cord carries signals (messages) back and forth between the brain and the peripheral
nerves.
Cerebrospinal fluid surrounds the brain and the spinal cord and also circulates within the
cavities (called ventricles) of the central nervous system. The leptomeninges surround
the brain and the spinal cord. The cerebrospinal fluid circulates between 2 meningeal
layers called the pia matter and the arachnoid (or pia-arachnoid membranes). The outer,
thicker layer serves the role of a protective shield and is called the dura matter. The basic
unit of the central nervous system is the neuron (nerve cell). Billions of neurons allow the
different parts of the body to communicate with each other via the brain and the spinal
cord. A fatty material called myelin coats nerve cells to insulate them and to allow nerves
to communicate quickly.
PROTECTIVE COVERING OF THE BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD
The brain and spinal cord are protected by bony structures: the skull and spinal column.
Meninges are membranes that cover and protect the brain and spinal cord.
MENINGES
The BRAIN
Anatomy and Physiology
The human brain is a complex
organ that holds the most
importance in the entire human
body. The objective of this article
is to give you an introduction
about the brain parts and their
functions rather than a detailed
review of the research that has
been done on the brain. The brain
weighs just 3 pounds but is
responsible for controlling
behavior, interpreting the senses and initiating body movement. It is the source of
intelligence in our body and is located in a bony shell that is protected by brain fluid. The
brain is the reason for all of the qualities we possess that make us human beings.
THE MAIN PARTS OF THE BRAIN
Cerebrum
The cerebrum constitutes the
largest part of the human
brain. It is also known as the
cortex and is responsible for
performing a great number of
important brain functions,
including action and thought
processing. The cerebrum is
further subdivided into four
different sections that have
their own respective functions
and are termed as lobes. The
names of these lobes are;
frontal lobe, occipital lobe,
parietal lobe and temporal
lobe.
Frontal Lobe: The frontal
lobe is tasked with the duty of performing functions like expressive language,
reasoning, higher level cognition and motor skills. It is positioned at the front
portion of the brain. Any damage to it can lead to changes of socialization,
attention, sexual habits, etc.
Parietal Lobe: The parietal lobe is responsible for processing the information sent
to the brain by the tactile senses like pain, pressure and touch. It is placed in the
center of the brain. Any damage to it can cause problems with language, ability of
controlling eye gaze and verbal memory.
Occipital Lobe: The occipital lobe is tasked with the duty of interpreting the
information being sent to the brain by the eyes. It is positioned at the back of the
Brain. If it is damaged, your visual ability will be affected, like unable to recognize
colors, words and objects.
Temporal Lobe: The temporal lobe is responsible for forming memories and
processing the sounds being recorded by the ears. It is placed at the bottom of
the brain. Any damage to it can cause problem with language skills, speech
perception and memory.
Cerebellum
This is commonly referred to as
"the little brain," and is considered
to be older than the cerebrum on
the evolutionary scale. The
cerebellum controls essential body
functions such as balance, posture
and coordination, allowing humans
to move properly and maintain
their structure.
Limbic System
The limbic system contains glands
which help relay emotions. Many hormonal responses that the body generates are
initiated in this area. The limbic system includes the amygdala, hippocampus,
hypothalamus and thalamus.
Amygdala: The amygdala helps the body responds to emotions, memories and
fear. It is a large portion of the telencephalon, located within the temporal lobe
which can be seen from the surface of the brain. This visible bulge is known as
the uncus.
Hippocampus: This portion of the brain is used for learning memory, specifically
converting temporary memories into permanent memories which can be stored
within the brain. The hippocampus also helps people analyze and remember spatial
relationships, allowing for accurate movements. This portion of the brain is located
in the cerebral hemisphere.
Thalamus: The Thalamus is located in the center of the brain. It helps to control
the attention span, sensing pain and monitors input that moves in and out of the
brain to keep track of the sensations the body is feeling.
Brain Stem
All basic life functions originate in the brain stem, including heartbeat, blood pressure and
breathing. In humans, this area contains the medulla, midbrain and pons. This is
commonly referred to as the simplest part of the brain, as most creatures on the
evolutionary scale have some form of brain creation that resembles the brain stem. The
brain stem consists of midbrain, pons and medulla.
Pons: This portion of the metencephalon is located in the hindbrain, and links to
the cerebellum to help with posture and movement. It interprets information that
is used in sensory analysis or motor control. The pons also creates the level of
consciousness necessary for sleep.
Cranial Nerves
The cranial nerves in nervous system are pairs of nerves that connect the brain to
different parts of your body. These nerves are divide into twelve groups. They are
categorized by their functions
either of sensory or motor.
Wherein the sensory nerves
are responsible with the
senses: smell, hearing, touch
and etc. On the other hand
Motor nerves are the one who
controls the movement and
function of muscles and
glands.
Classification Cranial
Nerves
Olfactory nerve
Olfactory nerve is responsible
in transmitting sensory
information to your brain
regarding smells that you encounter.
Whenever you inhale aromas, moist lining at the roof of your nasal cavity or the olfactory
epithelium dissolves the aroma. This rouses receptors that create nerve impulses then
forward it in olfactory bulb. Olfactory bulb contains specialized groups of nerve cells. From
the olfactory bulb, nerves go into your olfactory tract, which is located below the frontal
lobe of the brain. Nerve signals are then sent to areas of your brain concerned with
memory and recognition of smells.
Optic nerve
The optic nerve is the sensory nerve that involves vision.
When light enters your eye, it comes into contact with special receptors in
your retina called rods and cones. Rods are found in large numbers and are highly
sensitive to light. They’re more specialized for black and white or night vision.
Cones are present in smaller numbers. They have a lower light sensitivity than rods and
are more involved with color vision.
The information received by your rods and cones is transmitted from your retina to your
optic nerve. Once inside your skull, both of your optic nerves meet to form something
called the optic chiasm. At the optic chiasm, nerve fibers from half of each retina form
two separate optic tracts.
Through each optic tract, the nerve impulses eventually reach your visual cortex, which
then processes the information. Your visual cortex is located in the back part of your
brain.
Oculomotor nerve
The oculomotor nerve has two different motor functions: muscle function and pupil
response.
Muscle function. Your oculomotor nerve provides motor function to four of the six muscles
around your eyes. These muscles help your eyes move and focus on objects.
Pupil response. It also helps to control the size of your pupil as it responds to light.
This nerve originates in the front part of your midbrain, which is a part of your brainstem.
It moves forward from that area until it reaches the area of your eye sockets.
Trochlear nerve
The trochlear nerve controls your superior oblique muscle. This is the muscle that’s
responsible for downward, outward, and inward eye movements.
It emerges from the back part of your midbrain. Like your oculomotor nerve, it moves
forward until it reaches your eye sockets, where it stimulates the superior oblique muscle.
Trigeminal nerve
The trigeminal nerve is the largest of your cranial nerves and has both sensory and motor
functions.
The trigeminal nerve has three divisions, which are:
Ophthalmic. The ophthalmic division sends sensory information from the upper part of
your face, including your forehead, scalp, and upper eyelids.
Maxillary. This division communicates sensory information from the middle part of your
face, including your cheeks, upper lip, and nasal cavity.
Mandibular. The mandibular division has both a sensory and a motor function. It sends
sensory information from your ears, lower lip, and chin. It also controls the movement of
muscles within your jaw and ear.
The trigeminal nerve originates from a group of nuclei — which is a collection of nerve
cells — in the midbrain and medulla regions of your brainstem. Eventually, these nuclei
form a separate sensory root and motor root.
The sensory root of your trigeminal nerve branches into the ophthalmic, maxillary, and
mandibular divisions. The motor root of your trigeminal nerve passes below the sensory
root and is only distributed into the mandibular division.
Abducens nerve
The abducens nerve controls another muscle that’s associated with eye movement, called
the lateral rectus muscle. This muscle is involved in outward eye movement. For example,
you would use it to look to the side.
This nerve, also called the abducent nerve, starts in the pons region of your brainstem.
It eventually enters your eye socket, where it controls the lateral rectus muscle.
Facial nerve
The facial nerve provides both sensory and motor functions, including:
-moving muscles used for facial expressions as well as some muscles in your jaw
-providing a sense of taste for most of your tongue
-supplying glands in your head or neck area, such as salivary glands and tear-producing
glands
-communicating sensations from the outer parts of your ear
Your facial nerve has a very complex path. It originates in the pons area of your
brainstem, where it has both a motor and sensory root. Eventually, the two nerves fuse
together to form the facial nerve.
Both within and outside of your skull, the facial nerve branches further into smaller nerve
fibers that stimulate muscles and glands or provide sensory information.
Vestibulocochlear nerve
Your vestibulocochlear nerve has sensory functions involving hearing and balance. It
consists of two parts, the cochlear portion and vestibular portion:
Cochlear portion. Specialized cells within your ear detect vibrations from sound based off
of the sound’s loudness and pitch. This generates nerve impulses that are transmitted to
the cochlear nerve.
Vestibular portion. Another set of special cells in this portion can track both linear and
rotational movements of your head. This information is transmitted to the vestibular nerve
and used to adjust your balance and equilibrium.
The cochlear and vestibular portions of your vestibulocochlear nerve originate in separate
areas of the brain.
The cochlear portion starts in an area of your brain called the inferior cerebellar peduncle.
The vestibular portion begins in your pons and medulla. Both portions combine to form
the vestibulocochlear nerve.
Glossopharyngeal nerve
The glossopharyngeal nerve has both motor and sensory functions, including:
-sending sensory information from your sinuses, the back of your throat, parts of your
inner ear, and the back part of your tongue
-providing a sense of taste for the back part of your tongue
-stimulating voluntary movement of a muscle in the back of your throat called the
stylopharyngeus
The glossopharyngeal nerve originates in a part of your brainstem called the medulla
oblongata. It eventually extends into your neck and throat region.
Vagus nerve
The vagus nerve is a very diverse nerve. It has both sensory and motor functions,
including:
-communicating sensation information from your ear canal and parts of your throat
sending sensory information from organs in your chest and trunk, such as your heart and
intestines
-allowing motor control of muscles in your throat
-stimulating the muscles of organs in your chest and trunk, including those that move
food through your digestive tract (peristalsis)
providing a sense of taste near the root of your tongue
Out of all of the cranial nerves, the vagus nerve has the longest pathway. It extends from
your head all the way into your abdomen. It originates in the part of your brainstem
called the medulla.
Accessory nerve
Your accessory nerve is a motor nerve that controls the muscles in your neck. These
muscles allow you to rotate, flex, and extend your neck and shoulders.
It’s divided into two parts: spinal and cranial. The spinal portion originates in the upper
part of your spinal cord. The cranial part starts in your medulla oblongata.
These parts meet briefly before the spinal part of the nerve moves to supply the muscles
of your neck while the cranial part follows the vagus nerve.
Hypoglossal nerve
Your hypoglossal nerve is the 12th cranial nerve which is responsible for the movement
of most of the muscles in your tongue. It starts in the medulla oblongata and moves
down into the jaw, where it reaches the tongue.
Afferent
Afferent or sensory division transmits impulses from peripheral organs to the CNS.
The efferent or motor division transmits impulses from the CNS out to the peripheral
organs to cause an effect or action.
Efferent
Efferent pathways carry signals away from the central nervous system. Essentially, they
are signals that your brain sends to tell your body to do something, like blinking.
Afferent signals come from outside stimuli and tell your brain what they are sensing,
such as temperature. Afferent neurons bring stimuli to the brain, where the signal is
integrated and processed. The brain then coordinates a response via efferent signals
back to the rest of the body.
Efferent or motor division is again subdivided into the Somatic nervous system and
the Autonomic nervous system.
The Somatic Nervous system, are also known as voluntary nervous system, it is a part of
Peripheral Nervous System and it is responsible in controlling the voluntary muscular
movements of the body. It controls the skeletal muscles in the body according to the
stimuli obtained from the sensory receptors of the body. On that account, the somatic
nervous system is composed of both afferent and efferent nerves. The afferent and
efferent neurons are connected by interneurons at the Central Nervous System. The
somatic nervous system is compose of two parts, the cranial nerves and spinal nerves.
The cranial nerves are
responsible in carrying
nerve impulses in and
out of the brain while the
spinal nerves carries the
nerve impulses in and
out of the spinal cord.
In addition, controlling
voluntary muscular
movements also
involves the somatic
nervous system they
help in other in
controlling involuntary
muscular movements
called reflex arcs. In
reflex arcs, the skeletal muscles work without coordinating with the central nervous
system. The nerve pathways of the reflex arcs are connected to the spinal cord.
REFLEX ARCS
There are two types of reflex arcs: First is the Autonomic reflex arcs and Somatic reflex
arcs. The Autonomic reflex arcs control the involuntary actions of organs while somatic
reflex arcs control that of skeletal muscle
REFLEXES
A.
Cranial Reflex is when the center of the reflex is the brain.
Spinal Reflex is when the center of the reflex is the spinal cord.
B.
Somatic reflex is the contraction of skeletal muscle
Autonomic is either the contraction of smooth or cardiac muscles or secretion by glands.
Knee jerk
The sharp tap on the tendon slightly stretches the quadriceps, the complex of muscles at
the front of the upper leg. In reaction these muscles contract, and the contraction tends
to straighten the leg in a kicking motion. Exaggeration or absence of the reaction suggests
that there may be damage to the central nervous system.
Ankle jerk
The Achilles reflex, also called the ankle jerk reflex, is an abrupt bending of the foot when
a doctor strikes a person's Achilles tendon, which is located just above the heel. In a
positive response, the foot moves as if the person is pointing his toes.
Babinski reflex
Reflex action of the toes, normal during infancy but abnormal after 12 to 18 months of
age; after locomotion begins, it isindicative of abnormalities in the motor control pathwa
ys leading from the cerebral cortex and is widely used as a diagnosticaid in disorders of
the central nervous system. It is elicited by a firm stimulus (usually scraping) on the sol
e of the foot, whichresults in dorsiflexion of the great toe and fanning of the smaller toe
s.
Plantar reflex
The plantar reflex is a reflex elicited when the sole of the foot is stimulated with a blunt
instrument. The reflex can take one of two forms. In healthy adults, the plantar reflex
causes a downward response of the hallux (flexion). An upward response (extension) of
the hallux is known as the Babinski response or Babinski sign
Corneal reflex
A reflex action of the eye resulting in automatic closing of the eyelid when the cornea is
stimulated. Thecorneal reflex can be elicited in a normal person by gently touching the
cornea with a wisp of cotton. Absence of thecorneal reflex indicates deep coma or injur
y of one of the nerves carrying the reflex arc.
Abdominal Reflex
Superficial neurological reflex obtained by firmly stroking the skin of the abdomen aroun
d the umbilicus. It normallyresults in a brisk contraction of abdominal muscles in which
the umbilicus moves toward the site of the stimulus. Thisreflex is often lost in diseases
of the pyramidal tract and can also be lost with age or abdominal surger.
Many organs are controlled primarily by either the sympathetic or the parasympathetic
division. Sometimes the two divisions have opposite effects on the same organ. For
example, the sympathetic division increases blood pressure, and the parasympathetic
division decreases it. Overall, the two divisions work together to ensure that the body
responds appropriately to different situations.
The autonomic nervous system has two main divisions:
Sympathetic
Parasympathetic
SYMPATHETIC DIVISION
Prepares the body for stressful or emergency situations—fight or flight. In addition
sympathetic division increases heart rate and the force of heart contractions and widens
(dilates) the airways to make breathing easier. It causes the body to release stored
energy. Muscular strength is increased. This division also causes palms to sweat, pupils
to dilate, and hair to stand on end. It slows body processes that are less important in
emergencies, such as digestion and urination.
PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION
Parasympathetic division Controls body process during ordinary situations it conserves
and restores. It slows the heart rate and decreases blood pressure. It stimulates the
digestive tract to process food and eliminate wastes. Energy from the processed food is
used to restore and build tissues.
Parasympathetic Innervation
Both the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions are involved in sexual activity, as are
the parts of the nervous system that control voluntary actions and transmit sensation
from the skin (somatic nervous system).
Two chemical messengers (neurotransmitters) are used to communicate within the
autonomic nervous system:
Acetylcholine
Norepinephrine
Nerve fibers that secrete acetylcholine are called cholinergic fibers. Fibers that
secrete norepinephrine are called adrenergic fibers. Generally, acetylcholine has
parasympathetic (inhibiting) effects and norepinephrine has sympathetic (stimulating)
effects. However, acetylcholine has some sympathetic effects. For example, it sometimes
stimulates sweating or makes the hair stand on end.
Infections
Degeneration
Structural defects
Tumors
Blood flow disruption
Autoimmune disorders
Trauma
The following are the most common general signs and symptoms of a nervous system
disorder. However, each individual may experience symptoms differently. Symptoms may
include:
Healthcare providers who treat nervous system disorders may have to spend a lot of time
working with the patient before making a probable diagnosis of the specific condition.
Many times, this involves performing numerous tests to eliminate other conditions, so
that the probable diagnosis can be made.
FROM BOOKS
Hibodeau, Gary A., and Patton Kevin T. “COMMUN ICATION CONTROL AND
INTEGRATION.” Anatomy and Physiology, 5th ed., pp. 341–483.
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Presented By:
Reinier Cabrera
Jane Adion
Jericho Santorce
Sean Andrei Uy
Cesar Salamanca
Kristian Carlo Hernandez
Denise Kristine Saure
Reggie Caugma
Presented To :
Rev. Fr. Ronillo B. Ordenes SVD, DMD MAN
Date Submitted :
September 2, 2019