PHYSICS-I Dr.

Chandra

1.5 Position, Velocity and Acceleration Vector

1.6 Projectile Motion

Projectile motion is a form of motion experienced by an object or particle (a projectile) that is
thrown near the Earth's surface and moves along a curved path under the action of gravity only (in
particular, the effects of air resistance are assumed to be negligible). This curved path was shown by
Galileo to be a parabola. The study of such motions is called ballistics, and such a trajectory is a
ballistic trajectory. The only force of significance that acts on the object is gravity, which acts
downward, thus imparting to the object a downward acceleration.
Or
When a particle is thrown obliquely near the earth’s surface, it moves along a curved path under
constant acceleration that is directed towards the center of the earth (we assume that the particle
remains close to the surface of the earth). The path of such particle is called a projectile and the
motion is called as projectile motion. Air resistance to the motion of the body is to be assumed
absent in projectile motion.

Example:

a) a baseball that has been pitched, batted, or thrown

b) a bullet the instant it exits the barrel of a gun or rifle

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PHYSICS-I Dr. Chandra

c) a bus driven off an uncompleted bridge

d) a moving airplane in the air with its engines and wings disabled
e) a runner in mid stride (since they momentarily lose contact with the ground)
f) the space shuttle or any other spacecraft after main engine cut off (MECO)

(A). Horizontal Projection of a Particle

Let OX be a horizontal line parallel to ground and OY be a vertical line perpendicular to ground.
After projection, the object moves under the combined effect of two independent perpendicular
velocities.

i. Horizontal velocity = u, which is constant

ii. Vertical velocity which goes on increasing due to gravity.

1. Path of Projectile:

Let x = distance travelled by object in the horizontal direction in time t.

y = distance travelled by object in the vertical direction

The horizontal displacement x is governed by the equation

The horizontal displacement x is governed by the equation

x = u.t
𝑥
or t= (1)
𝑢

The vertical displacement y is governed

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1
y = uy.t + 2 ay . t2

But uy = 0 and ay = g
1
∴ y = (0).t + 2 g. t2

1
y= g. t2
2

From eq. (1)

1
y= g. (x/u)2
2

𝑔𝑥 2
y=
2𝑢2

y = K.x2 (2)
𝑔
where K = = constant. Eq. (2) represents the equation of parabola hence the path of a projectile
2𝑢2
is a parabola.

2. Time of Light (T): It is the total time for which the projectile is in flight. Let h be the vertical
height of point of projection O from C
1
y = uy.t + 2 ay.t2

Here y = h, uy = 0, ay = g and t = T
1
∴ h = (0).t + 2 g.T2

2ℎ
T2 =
𝑔

2h
T=√
g

3. Horizontal Range (R): It is the horizontal distance travelled by projectile during its flight.

The horizontal distance covered by object while going from O to C.

1
x = ux.t + 2 ax.t2

2h
Here x = R, ux = u, ax = 0 and t = T = √
g

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PHYSICS-I Dr. Chandra

2h 1
∴ R = u.√ + 2 (0) .T2
g

𝟐𝐡
R = u.√
𝐠

4. Velocity of the projectile at any instant:

At the instant t, the object be at P and it possesses two perpendicular velocities.

i. Horizontal velocity vx = u represented by PA

ii. Vertical velocity vy, represented by PB; which can be obtained from the following relation:

vy = uy + ay t

But uy = 0, ay = g

∴ vy = 0 + g t

The resultant velocity v = √ 𝒗𝟐 𝒙 + 𝒗𝟐 𝒚 = √ 𝒖 𝟐 + 𝒈 𝟐 𝒕𝟐

Let v make an angle β with the horizontal direction, then

𝑣𝑦 𝑔𝑡
T tan β = =
𝑣𝑥 𝑢

𝒈𝒕
or β = tan-1( 𝒖 )

(B). Angular Projection of a Projectile

Let us consider a ball projected at an angle θ with respect to horizontal x-axis with the initial
velocity u as shown in figure. The point O is called the point of projection; θ is the angle of
projection and OB = Horizontal Range or Simply Range. The total time taken by the particle from
reaching O to B is called the time of flight.

1. Path of Projectile

Suppose at any time t, the object reaches at P (x,y) clearly,

x = horizontal distance travelled by object in time t

y = vertical distance travelled by object in time t.

• Motion along horizontal direction:

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Since the velocity of the object in the horizontal direction is constant, so the acceleration ax is zero.
1
The position of object is x = uxt + 2 ax.t2 (1)

Here ux = u cos θ, ax = 0
1
∴ x = u cos θ. t + 2 (0).t2

x = u cos θ. t (2)
𝑥
or t=
𝑢 cos 𝜃

• Motion along vertical direction:

Since the vertical velocity of the object is decreasing from O to P due to gravity, hence acceleration
ay = - g.
1
The position of object is y = uyt + 2 ay.t2

Here uy = u sin θ, ay = - g
1
∴ y = u sin θ. t + 2 (- g).t2

1
y = u sin θ. t - 2 g.t2 (3)

From eqs. (2) & (3)

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PHYSICS-I Dr. Chandra

𝑥 𝑥 2
1
y = u sin θ. ( ) - 2 g. (𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)
𝑢 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

𝑔
y = x tan θ - (
2𝑢2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
) 𝑥2

y = a. x - b x2 (4)

𝑔
where a = tan θ and b = ( )
2𝑢2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃

Eq. (4) represents the equation of parabola hence the path of a projected at some angle is a parabola.

2. Time of Flight (T): It is the total time for which the object is in flight (in air), while going from
O to B.

The total time of flight consists of two parts:

i. Time taken by the object to go from the point O to highest point H. It is called time of ascent.

ii. Time taken by the object to go from highest point H to the point B. It is called time of descent.

∴ The total time (T) = time of ascent + time of descent = t + t = 2t

𝑇
Or t=
2

At the highest point H, the vertical component velocity of the object becomes zero. Taking vertical
upward motion of the object from O to H, we have uy = u sin θ, ay = - g, vy = 0
Since, vy = uy + ay t
𝑇
0 = u sin θ + (-g)
2

𝟐𝐮 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉
Or T= (5)
𝐠

Time of flight (T) depends upon the vertical component of velocity of projectile, initial velocity of
projection (u) and angle of projection (θ).

3. Maximum Height (h): It is the maximum vertical height attained by the object above the point
of projection during its flight.

Taking the vertical upward motion of the object from O to H, we have:

𝑇 u sin θ
uy = u sin θ, ay = - g, y0 = 0, y = h, t = =
2 g

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Using the relation, y = uyt + 2 ay.t2

u sin θ 1 u sin θ 2
h = u sin θ. +2.(-g)( )
g g

𝒖𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽
Or h=
𝟐𝒈

4. Horizontal Range (R): It is the horizontal distance covered by the object between its point of
projection and the point of hitting the ground.

Horizontal Range (R) = Horizontal velocity × Time of flight

2u sin θ
= u cos θ ×
g

2u2 sin θ cos θ

=
g

𝐮𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝛉
R=
𝐠

The horizontal range R will be maximum if sin 2θ = 1 = sin 90o

Or 2θ = 90o

θ = 45o

𝐮𝟐
∴ Maximum horizontal range Rm =
𝐠

1.7 Motion in Circle

When a body moves in circular path, its motion is called circular motion. Or circular motion is a
movement of an object along the circumference of a circle or rotation along a circular path. It can
be uniform, with constant angular rate of rotation and constant speed, or non-uniform with a
changing rate of rotation. The rotation around a fixed axis of a three-dimensional body involves
circular motion of its parts. The equations of motion describe the movement of the center of mass
of a body.
Examples:
• an artificial satellite orbiting the Earth at a constant height,
• a ceiling fan's blades rotating around a hub, a stone which is tied to a rope and is being
swung in circles,
• a car turning through a curve in a race track,

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• an electron moving perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field, and

• a gear turning inside a mechanism.

1. Uniform Circular Motion

Uniform motion can be defined as the motion of a body following a circular path at a constant
speed. The body has a fixed central point and remains equidistant from it at any given position.
When an object goes around in a circle, the description of its motion becomes interesting in many
ways.
2. Time period:

The time taken to complete one revolution of the circle is called time period (T).
1
T=
𝜈

3. Angular displacement

The angle subtended at the center in the given time interval. Its unit is radian (1 rad = 57.3 oC).

𝐴𝑟𝑐 ∆𝑆
Angular displacement (∆θ or θ) = =
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟

4. Angular velocity

The change in angular displacement with time is called angular velocity (). The angular speed ()
of an object is the angle (d) it moves through measured in radians (rad) divided by the time (dt)
taken to move through that angle. This means that the unit for angular speed is the radian per
second (rad s-1).

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𝒅𝜽
ω=
𝒅𝒕

v is the linear velocity measured in metres per second (ms-1).

r is the radius of the circle in metres (m).

f is the frequency of the rotation in hertz (Hz).
5. Angular acceleration
The rate of change of angular velocity with time is called angular acceleration (α).
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∆𝜔
Angular acceleration (α) = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 ∆𝑡

∆𝜔
∴ Instantaneous acceleration = lim ( ∆𝑡 )
∆𝑡→0
𝑑𝜔
∴ α = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜃
But ω =
𝑑𝑡

𝒅𝟐 𝜽
∴ α =
𝒅𝒕𝟐
6. Relation between angular velocity and linear velocity
∆𝜃 ∆𝑆
Angular velocity ω = and linear velocity v =
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
∆𝑆
But ∆θ = 𝑟
∆𝑆/𝑟 ∆𝑆
∴ ω= =
∆𝑡 𝑟 ∆𝑡
∆𝑆
= ωr
∆𝑡

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v = ωr

7. Centripetal Acceleration
Centripetal acceleration (a) is measure in metre per second per second (ms-2). It is always directed
towards the center of the circle.

𝒗𝟐
Centripetal acceleration a = = ω2.r
𝒓
8. Relation between angular acceleration and linear acceleration
The linear velocity v = ωr
𝑑𝑣 𝑑
∴ 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑡
(𝜔𝑟)

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝜔
𝑑𝑡
= 𝑟 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝜔
But the linear acceleration a = and angular acceleration α =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

∴ a = α.r

9. Centripetal Force
When an object moves in a circle the centripetal force (F) always acts towards the centre of the
circle. The centripetal force, measured in newtons (N) can be different forces in different settings it
can be gravity, friction, tension, lift, electrostatic attraction etc.
𝒎𝒗𝟐
Centripetal force Fc = = mω2r
𝒓

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1.8 Relative Velocity

1.9 Free Body Diagram

In physics and engineering, a free body diagram (force diagram or FBD) is a graphical illustration
used to visualize the applied forces, movements, and resulting reactions on a body in a given
condition. They depict a body or connected bodies with all the applied forces and moments, and
reactions, which act on the body(ies). The body may consist of multiple internal members (such as a
truss), or be a compact body (such as a beam). A series of free bodies and other diagrams may be
necessary to solve complex problems.
Free body diagrams consist of:
• A simplified version of the body (often a dot or a box)
• Forces shown as straight arrows pointing in the direction they act on the body
• Moments shown as curved arrows pointing in the direction they act on the body
• A coordinate system
• Frequently reaction to applied forces are shown with hash marks through the stem of the
arrow

Example 1 : A book on a table

In this example, there are two forces acting on a book at rest on a table:
1) The weight W exerted by the earth on the book
2) The normal force N exerted by the table on the book.

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Example 2 : A suspended block

In this example, there are two forces acting on the suspended block at rest:
1) The weight W exerted by the earth on the block
2) The tension force T exerted by the string (or rope) on the block.

Example 3 : A block on a floor with an acting force Fa to pull the block

In this example, the block is being pulled and therefore a force of friction acts on the block. So there
are four forces acting on the block.
1) The weight W exerted by the earth on the block
2) The normal force N exerted by floor on the block.
3) The acting force Fa to pull the block.
4) The force of friction Ff exerted by floor on the block in the direction opposite the motion due to
Fa.

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Example 5 : An box on an incline plane (with no frictions)

In this example, we assume that the inclined plane is frictionless; two forces act on the box:
1) The weight W exerted by the earth on the box.
2) The normal force N exerted by the inclined plane on the box. N is normal to the inclined plane.

Example 6 : An box on an incline plane with an acting force and friction considered

In this example, a force Fa pulls the box upward and frictions are not negligible. Four forces act on
the box:
1) The weight W exerted by the earth on the box.
2) The normal force N exerted by the inclined plane on the box. N is normal to the inclined plane.
3) The acting force Fa.
4) The force of friction Fs exerted by the inclined plane on the box in the direction opposite the

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motion due to Fa.

Example 7: A system with two blocks, an inclined plane and a pulley

A) free body diagram for block m1 (left of figure below)

1) The weight W1 exerted by the earth on the box.
2) The normal force N
3) The force of friction Fk
4) The tension force T exerted by the string on the block m1.
B) free body diagram of block m2 (right of figure below)
1) The weight of the block W2

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2) Tension T '.

Practice Questions
Apply the method described in the paragraph above to construct free-body diagrams for the various
situations described below.
1. A book is at rest on a tabletop. Diagram the forces acting on the book.
2. A gymnast holding onto a bar, is suspended motionless in mid-air. The bar is supported by
two ropes that attach to the ceiling. Diagram the forces acting on the combination of
gymnast and bar.
3. An egg is free-falling from a nest in a tree. Neglect air resistance. Diagram the forces acting
on the egg as it is falling.
4. A flying squirrel is gliding (no wing flaps) from a tree to the ground at constant velocity.
Consider air resistance. Diagram the forces acting on the squirrel.
5. A rightward force is applied to a book in order to move it across a desk with a rightward
acceleration. Consider frictional forces. Neglect air resistance. Diagram the forces acting on
the book.
6. A rightward force is applied to a book in order to move it across a desk at constant velocity.
Consider frictional forces. Neglect air resistance. Diagram the forces acting on the book.
7. A college student rests a backpack upon his shoulder. The pack is suspended motionless by
one strap from one shoulder. Diagram the vertical forces acting on the backpack.
8. A skydiver is descending with a constant velocity. Consider air resistance. Diagram the
forces acting upon the skydiver.

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9. A force is applied to the right to drag a sled across loosely packed snow with a rightward
acceleration. Neglect air resistance. Diagram the forces acting upon the sled.
10. A football is moving upwards towards its peak after having been booted by the punter.
Neglect air resistance. Diagram the forces acting upon the football as it rises upward towards
its peak.
11. A car is coasting to the right and slowing down. Neglect air resistance. Diagram the forces
acting upon the car.

Answers:
1. A book is at rest on a tabletop. A free-body diagram for this situation looks like this:

2. A gymnast holding onto a bar, is suspended motionless in mid-air. The bar is supported by two
ropes that attach to the ceiling. Diagram the forces acting on the combination of gymnast and bar. A
free-body diagram for this situation looks like this:

3. An egg is free-falling from a nest in a tree. Neglect air resistance. A free-body diagram for this
situation looks like this:

4. A flying squirrel is gliding (no wing flaps) from a tree to the ground at constant velocity.
Consider air resistance. A free-body diagram for this situation looks like this:

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5. A rightward force is applied to a book in order to move it across a desk with a rightward
acceleration. Consider frictional forces. Neglect air resistance. A free-body diagram for this
situation looks like this:

6. A rightward force is applied to a book in order to move it across a desk at constant velocity.
Consider frictional forces. Neglect air resistance. A free-body diagram for this situation looks like
this:

7. A college student rests a backpack upon his shoulder. The pack is suspended motionless by one
strap from one shoulder. A free-body diagram for this situation looks like this:

8. A skydiver is descending with a constant velocity. Consider air resistance. A free-body diagram
for this situation looks like this:

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9. A force is applied to the right to drag a sled across loosely packed snow with a rightward
acceleration. Neglect air resistance. A free-body diagram for this situation looks like this:

10. A football is moving upwards towards its peak after having been booted by the punter. Neglect
air resistance. A free-body diagram for this situation looks like this:

11. A car is coasting to the right and slowing down. Neglect air resistance. A free-body diagram for
this situation looks like this:

1.10 Conservative and Non-conservative Forces

The work a conservative force does on an object in moving it from A to B is path independent - it
depends only on the end points of the motion.

Examples: the force of gravity and the spring force are conservative forces.

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The work done by a conservative force is independent of the path; in other words, the work done by
a conservative force is the same for any path connecting two points:

WAB,path−1=∫AB,path−1 F⃗cons⋅ dr⃗ = WAB,path−2 = ∫AB,path−2 F⃗cons⋅ dr⃗

Non-conservative Force
For a non-conservative (or dissipative) force, the work done in going from A to B depends on the
path taken.

Examples: friction and air resistance.

The work done by a non-conservative force depends on the path taken.

Conservative Force Non-conservative Force

A force is said to be conservative if the work A force is said to be non-conservative if the

done by or against force is dependent only on work done by or against force is dependent on
the initial and the final position of the body and the path followed by the body.
not on the path followed by the body.
Work done by the conservative force in a closed Work done by the non-conservative force in a
path is zero. closed path is not zero.
Example: Gravitational force, magnetic force, Example: Friction, viscous force, induction force
electrostatic force etc. etc.

1.11 Central Force

Central forces are forces between two particles that depend only on the distance between the
particles and point from one particle to another.
Or

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If the force on a body is always towards a fixed point, it is called a central force. Central forces are
conservative.
Example:
1. Uniform circular motion.
2. Force due to gravitation.
3. Projectile motion.
4. Simple harmonic motion.
5. Nuclear forces
6. Planetary motion etc.

The magnitude of the central force depends only on the distance of the object and the center. The
Central Force Equation

F = F(r)𝑟̂
where,
• F: conservative central force

• r: vector magnitude |r| is the distance to the center of force

r
• 𝑟̂ =r
Central force is a conservative force which is expressed as follows:
dU
F (r) = -
dr
Where,
• F(r) is the magnitude of a central force
• U(r) is the time-independent potential energy
For a particle under central force to be in a uniform circular motion should have centripetal force as
follows:
mv2
= F (r)
r
Where,
• r is the initial radius
• v is the speed that satisfies the equation of centripetal force

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1.12 Non-inertial Frame of Reference

A non-inertial reference frame is a frame of reference that is undergoing acceleration with respect to an
inertial frame.
Some important points:
• A non-inertial frame of reference is a frame of reference with a changing velocity. The
velocity of a frame will change if the frame speeds up, or slows down, or travels in a curved
path.
• A non-inertial frame of reference is an accelerating frame of reference.
• A non-inertial frame of reference is a frame of reference in which the law of inertia does not
hold.
• In a non-inertial frame of reference fictitious forces
arise.

Earth as Non-inertial Frame:

The earth is rotating about the sun in an orbit of radius 1.5

× 108 km. Its period of revolution is 1 year. Therefore, the
orbital velocity of earth is

2πr 2×22×1.5 ×10 8

v= = = 30 km/sec
T 7×365×24×60×60

= 3 × 104 m/sec
The centripetal acceleration of the earth is

v2 (3×104 )2
aR = = = 6 × 10-3 m/s2
r 1.5 × 1011

This equation shows that the motion of earth around the sun is accelerated motion. Hence, the frame
attached to the surface of the earth is an accelerated frame. It is therefore a non-inertial frame.

Sample Problem A projectile is fired horizontally with a velocity of 98 ms-1 from a hill 490 m
high. Find (i) time taken to reach the ground (ii) the distance of the target from the hill and (ii) the
velocity with which the body strikes the ground.
Sol. Here, u = 98 m/s, y = 490 m, T=?, x =?, v = ?
1
(i) From y= gT2
2

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1 490
∴ 490 = x9.8xT2 = 4.9 T2 or or T = = 10s
2 4.9
(ii) From x = ut ∴ x = 98 x 10 = 980 m
(iii) Resultant Velocity, v = u 2 + g 2t 2 = 98 2 + (9.8 x10) 2
= 98 2 m/s
If β is the angle which ⎯
⎯→
v
makes with the horizontal direction,
gt 98
then tan β = = = 1 or β = 450 with the horizontal.
u 98

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