PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 10CV763

UNIT - 4
BITUMINOUS MIXES: Mechanical properties, dense and open textured mixes, flexibility and
brittleness, (no Hveem Stabilometer & Hubbar - Field Tests) bituminous mix, design methods
using Rothfuch’s Method only and specification, Marshal mixed design criteria- voids in
mineral aggregates, voids in total mix, density, flow, stability, percentage voids filled with
bitumen. [6 Hours]

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Requirements of Bituminous Mixes

The aim of mix design is to obtain an economical blend or mix using proper gradation of
coarse aggregates, fine aggregates, filler and adequate amount of bituminous binder to fulfil the
desirable properties of mix.

Mechanical/Desirable Properties
Desirable properties of a good bituminous mix are:
a) Stability
b) Durability
c) Flexibility
d) Skid resistance
e) Workability

a) Stability
Stability is the resistance of the paving mix to deformation under the load. It is the stress
to which specified strain is produced (load at which specified deformation). Depending upon the
specification or field condition, it is influenced by density of the mix or percentage voids in the
compacted mix or viscosity of bituminous binder. If the voids are less, stability will be more and
strength will be more. But there must be minimum voids which would provide space on
necessary densification which takes place under the traffic movement and expansion of bitumen
at high temperature in the atmosphere. If there are no sufficient voids, the bituminous binder
bleeds over the surface and causes skidding.

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PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 10CV763

b) Durability
It is the resistance of the mix against weathering and abrasive actions. Due to weathering
bituminous mix gets harden which is due to loss of volatiles and oxidation. The tensile strain is
induced due to heavy wheel loads and excessive strain may be developed which may cause
cracks or plastic failure.

c) Flexibility
It is the property of the mix that measures the level bending strength.

d) Skid Resistance
It is the resistance of the finished pavement against skidding which depends upon the
surface texture and bitumen content of mix. If the bitumen content is more, the surface of the
pavement is smoothen or slippery. Therefore the bitumen content must be optimum to have
better skid resistance.

e) Workability
It is the ease with which the mix can be laid and compacted to maximum density. It is the
function of gradation of aggregates, their shape and texture, bitumen content and its type.

Requirements of Bituminous mixes

Stability
Stability is defined as the resistance of the paving mix to deformation under traffic load.
Two examples of failure are (i) shoving - a transverse rigid deformation which occurs at areas
subject to severe acceleration and (ii) grooving - longitudinal ridging due to channelization of
traffic. Stability depends on the inter-particle friction, primarily of the aggregates and the
cohesion offered by the bitumen. Sufficient binder must be available to coat all the particles at
the same time should offer enough liquid friction. However, the stability decreases when the
binder content is high and when the particles are kept apart.

Durability

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PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 10CV763

Durability is defined as the resistance of the mix against weathering and abrasive actions.
Weathering causes hardening due to loss of volatiles in the bitumen. Abrasion is due to wheel
loads which causes tensile strains. Typical examples of failure are (i) pot-holes, - deterioration of
pavements locally and (ii) stripping, lost of binder from the aggregates and aggregates are
exposed. Disintegration is minimized by high binder content since they cause the mix to be air
and waterproof and the bitumen film is more resistant to hardening.

Flexibility
Flexibility is a measure of the level of bending strength needed to counteract traffic load
and prevent cracking of surface. Fracture is the cracks formed on the surface (hairline-cracks,
alligator cracks), main reasons are shrinkage and brittleness of the binder. Shrinkage cracks are
due to volume change in the binder due to aging. Brittleness is due to repeated bending of the
surface due to traffic loads. Higher bitumen content will give better flexibility and less fracture.

Skid Resistance
It is the resistance of the finished pavement against skidding which depends on the
surface texture and bitumen content. It is an important factor in high speed traffic. Normally, an
open graded coarse surface texture is desirable.

Workability
Workability is the ease with which the mix can be laid and compacted, and formed to the
required condition and shape. This depends on the gradation of aggregates, their shape and
texture, bitumen content and its type. Angular, flaky and elongated aggregates workability. On
the other hand, rounded aggregates improve workability.

Desirable Properties

The desirable properties of a bituminous mix can be summarized as follows:

 Stability to meet traffic demand
 Bitumen content to ensure proper binding and water proofing
 Voids to accommodate compaction due to traffic
 Flexibility to meet traffic loads, especially in cold season

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 Sufficient workability for construction

 Economical mix

Aim of Mix Design Method

Any mix design methods should aim at determining the properties of aggregates and
bituminous material and combination of both which would give a mix having the following
properties:
a) Sufficient stability to satisfy the service requirements of the pavement and the traffic
conditions, without undue displacements.
b) Sufficient bitumen to ensure a durable pavement by coating the aggregate and bonding them
together and also by water-proofing the mix.
c) Sufficient voids in the compacted mix as to provide a reservoir space for a slight amount of
additional compaction due to traffic and to avoid flushing, bleeding and loss of stability.
d) Sufficient flexibility even in the coldest season to prevent cracking due to repeated application
of traffic loads.
e) Sufficient workability while placing and compacting the mix.
f) The mix should be the most economical one that would produce a stable, durable and skid
resistant pavement.

Objectives of Mix Design

The objective of the mix design is to produce a bituminous mix by proportionating
various components so as to have:
 Sufficient bitumen to ensure a durable pavement
 Sufficient strength to resist shear deformation under traffic at higher temperature
 Sufficient air voids in the compacted bitumen to allow for additional compaction by traffic
 Sufficient workability to permit easy placement without segregation
 Sufficient flexibility to avoid premature cracking due to repeated bending by traffic, and
 Sufficient flexibility at low temperature to prevent shrinkage cracks.

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 PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 10CV763

Constituents of a Mix

 Coarse aggregates: offer compressive and shear strength and shows good interlocking
properties. E.g.: Granite

 Fine aggregates: Fills the voids in the coarse aggregate and stiffens the binder. E.g. Sand,
Rock dust

 Filler: Fills the voids, stiffens the binder and offers permeability. E.g. Rock dust, cement,
lime

 Binder: Fills the voids, cause particle adhesion and offers impermeability. E.g. Bitumen,
Asphalt, Tar

Types of Mix

 Well-graded mix: Dense mix, bituminous concrete has good proportion of all constituents
and are called dense bituminous macadam, offers good compressive strength and some tensile
strength

 Gap-graded mix: Some large coarse aggregates are missing and has good fatigue and tensile
strength.

 Open-graded mix: Fine aggregate and filler are missing, it is porous and offers good friction,
low strength and for high speed.

 Unbounded: Binder is absent and behaves under loads as if its components were not linked
together, though good interlocking exists. Very low tensile strength and needs kerb protection.

Design of Bituminous Mixes/ Steps in Mix Design Method

The following steps may be followed for a rational design of a bituminous mix.
a) Selection of Aggregate

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PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 10CV763

Aggregates having sufficient strength, hardness, toughness, soundness are selected.

Crushed aggregates and sharp sands produce a mix of higher stability compare to natural gravel
and rounded sands.

b) Selection of Aggregate Grading

The density and stability of the mix depend on the gradation or grain size distribution of
aggregate. Generally densely textured aggregate (well graded) is specified instead of open
texture (poorly graded or gap graded). To attain higher stability, higher maximum size aggregate
is selected. However the max size of aggregate used depends on compacted thickness of
particular layer. Therefore gradation or max size is specified by the designer or user such as IRC.
For a proposed 40 mm thick bituminous concrete layer or bituminous concrete coarse. The
specified gradation of aggregate mix is shown in following table:
Percent passing, by weight
Sieve size, mm
Grade 1 Grade 2
20 - 100
12.5 100 80-100
10.0 80-100 70-90
4.75 55-75 50-70
2.36 35-50 35-50
0.6 18-29 18-29
0.3 13-23 13-23
0.15 8-16 8-16
0.075 4-10 4-10
Binder content, percent
5-7.5 5-7.5
by weight of mix

If the available gradation is not satisfying the specification or specified gradation proper
blending of different grades is to be adopted for this purpose, either by the method of trials or
Rothfuch’s method.

c) Determination of Specific Gravity

The specific gravity of aggregate mix is represented as bulk specific gravity or apparent
specific gravity or effective specific gravity of mix. If the overall volume of the aggregate mix is

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PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 10CV763

considered, the bulk specific gravity is obtained in the apparent or effective specific gravity. The
volume of capillary which are filled by the water on 21 hours of soaking or immersion is
excluded. When the different aggregate are mixed to obtain required gradation, the specific
gravity of combined mixture denoted as ‘Ga’ is determined using equation:

100
Ga = -----------------------------------------------------
W1/G1 + W2/G2 + W3/G3 + W4/G4 +.....
Where,

W1, W2, W3, W4, .... = percent by weight of aggregates

G1, G2, G3, G4, ..... = specific gravity of each material used in mix

In the above equation, the total weight of aggregate mix is considered which will be in
the numerator then this equation gets modified.
W1 + W2 + W3 +.....
Ga = ------------------------------------------
W1/a1 + W2/a2 + W3/a3 +.....
Where,
W1, W2, W3, ... = actual weight of component used in the mix.

d) Proportioning of Aggregates
As a first step the design grading is selected based on the type of construction, thickness
of the layer and its specification if any. Then the available aggregate are analysed for gradation.
Using the graphical method suggested by Rothfuch’s or method of trial. The required method of
each component is to be determined to satisfy the design gradation.

e) Preparation of Specimen or Sample

The preparation of specimen depends on the stability test method employed. Hence the
size of the specimen, compaction and other specification should be followed as specified in the
stability test method. The stability test methods which are in common use for the design mix are
Marshall, Hubbard-Field and Hveem. Hence after deciding the test methods, the specimens are
moulded as per specification.

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PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 10CV763

f) Determination of Specific Gravity of Compacted Specimen

Knowing specific gravity of aggregate mix ‘Ga’ and that of bituminous binder ‘Gb’, the
theoretical maximum specific gravity of the sample or specimen is determined using the
equation:
100
Gt = --------------------------------------
(100 – Wb)/Ga + Wb/Gb

g) Stability Tests on Compacted Specimens

One of the stability tests is carried out based on the design method selected.

h) Selection of Optimum Bitumen Content

The optimum bitumen content is selected based on the test method adopted and the
design requirements considered.

Marshall Stability Test

Bruce Marshall, formely Bituminous Engineer with Mississipi State Highway
Department formulated Marshall Method for designing bituminous mixes.

In the Marshall test, the resistance to plastic deformation of cylindrical specimen of

bituminous mixture is measured when the specimen is loaded at the periphery at a rate of 5cm
per minute. This test procedure is used in designing and evaluating bituminous mixes. There two
major features of the Marshall method of designing the mixes namely,
i. density – voids analysis
ii. stability – flow tests

The Marshall stability of the mix is defined as the maximum load carried by a compacted
specimen at a standard test temperature of 60° C. The flow is measured as the deformation in
units of 0.25 mm between no load and maximum load carried by the specimen during stability
test. In this test an attempt is made to obtain Optimum Bitumen Content (OBC) for the type of
aggregate mix and traffic intensity.

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PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 10CV763

Aim

To determine the Marshall stability and Optimum bitumen content of the given mix.

Apparatus

a) Mould assembly: cylindrical mould of 10.16cm diameter and 6.35 cm height, with a base
plate and collar.
b) Sample extractor
c) Compaction pedestal and hammer, weight 4.54 kg with 45.7 cm height of fall.
d) Proving ring
e) Breaking head, to apply a load on its periphery perpendicular to its axis in a loading machine
of 5 tonnes capacity at a rate of 5 cm per minute.
f) Loading machine
g) Flow meter (dial gauge)

Procedure

a) Select the aggregate gradation from the specified ranges in the table. ( IRC or MOST )
b) Take approximately 1200g of aggregate and filler, if any, and heat to a temperature of 175 to
190°C.
c) Heat the compaction mould assembly and the rammer to a temperature of 138 to 149° C.
d) Heat the given bitumen to a temperature of 121 to 145°C.
e) Add the required quantity of trial bitumen content (say 3.5 % by weight of mineral
aggregate) and thoroughly mix using a trowel, maintaining a mixing temperature of
154 to 160° C.
f) Keep the pre-heated mould and collar on the compaction pedestal.
g) Transfer the mix in the pre-heated mould and compact it 75 times using the specified
rammer.
h) Invert the specimen and again compact 75 times.
i) Repeat the procedure with specimens having other trial bitumen contents.
j) Allow the specimens to cool in air for a few hours.
k) Now extract the specimens from the moulds using the sample extractor.

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PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 10CV763

l) Measure the mean diameter and height of the specimens.

m) Find the weight of specimens in air and then in water.
n) Keep the specimens in a water bath maintained at a temperature of 60° C for about 40
minutes.
o) Keep the specimen in the breaking head assembly in the Marshall apparatus.
p) Set the proving ring dial and flow dial to zero.
q) Load the specimen until it fails and record the load applied and flow readings at failure.
r) Repeat the process for other specimens.
Results

Marshall Stability of given mix at bitumen content -------- % = --------------

Optimum bitumen content for the given mix = --------------- %

Observations

The Marshall Test properties of any specimen can be calculated using the following
formulae:

1) Bulk Density of Compacted Specimen (Gb)

Wt. in air
Gb = in gm/cc
Wt. in air - Wt. in water

2) Theoretical Density of Specimen (Gt)

100
Gt = in gm/cc
W1/G1 + W2/G2 + W3/G3 + W4/G4

3) Volume of Air Voids (Vv)

Gt - Gb
Vv= x 100 %
Gt

4) Volume of Bitumen (Vb)

Vb = Gb x W4 %
G4

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PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 10CV763

Where, W4 = % wt of bitumen
G4 = Sp. Gravity of bitumen

5) Voids in Mineral Aggregate (VMA)

VMA = Vv + Vb %

6) Voids Filled with Bitumen (VFB)

100 Vb
VFB = x 100 %
VMA
7) Determination of Marshall Stability
Marshall Stability = Proving ring dial gauge reading x Correction factor for thickness of
specimen x Proving ring dial gauge constant.

NOTE: To obtain OBC, plot the graphs as shown and find the bitumen content at which there
is maximum stability, maximum bulk density and 5 % voids. Take the average of these
three bitumen contents as OBC.

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PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 10CV763

1. Explain the constituents of a bituminous mix.

2. Explain in detail flexibility and brittleness.

3. List and explain the desirable properties of a bituminous mix.

4. Explain the procedure of determining the optimum bitumen content, for a bituminous

mix, by the Marshall test.

5. List various tests conducted on bitumen and write a detailed explanatory note on the

following tests i) Ductility test ii) Flash and fire point test iii) Specific gravity test iv) Softening
point test

6.Explain proportioning of materials by Rothfuch’s method with the help of a graph.

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PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION 10CV763

TEXT BOOKS:

1. Highway Engineering- Khanna, S.K., and Justo, C.E.G., : Nem Chand and Bros. Roorkee

2. Construction Equipment and its Management- Sharma, S.C. : Khanna Publishers.

3. Hot Mix Asphalt Materials, Mixture Design and Construction- Freddy L. Roberts, Kandhal,
P.S. : University of Texas Austin, Texas. NAPA Education Foundation Lanham, Maryland.

REFERENCES BOOKS:

1. RRL, DSIR, ‘Bituminous Materials in Road Construction’, HMSO Publication.

2. RRL, DSIR, ‘Soil Mechanics for Road Engineers’, HMSO Publication.

3. Relevant IRC codes and MoRT & H specifications.

Vinod.B.R, Asst.Professor Department of Civil Engg,BMSIT&M, Bangalore Page 13