Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 215 (2018) 185–198

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Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science

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Hydrochemistry and hydrodynamics of a Mexican Caribbean Lagoon: T

Nichupté Lagoon System
P. Romero-Sierraa, D. Rivasb, A. Almazán-Becerrila, L. Hernández-Terronesa,∗,1
a
Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán, A.C., Unidad de Ciencias del Agua, Calle 8, No. 39, L1, Mz 29, SM 64, 77524, Cancún, Quintana Roo, Mexico
b
Departamento de Oceanografía Biológica, CICESE, Carretera Ensenada-Tijuana No. 3918, Zona Playitas, 22860, Ensenada, B.C, Mexico

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The study results describe the hydrogeochemical and the hydrodynamic characterization, and the evolution
Coastal lagoon compounds in the water in the Nichupté Lagoon System (NLS). This is the most representative lagoon of
Circulation model Quintana Roo State and hosts the Natural Protected Area “Manglares de Nichupté” and borders the Punta
Hydrochemistry Cancún-Punta Nizuc National Park. Sampling was performed during rainy and cold-front seasons to asses the
Nutrients
distribution and variability of temperature, pH, dissolved axygen salinity, nutrients and major elements.
Significant differences were detected for temperature and salinity but not for dissolved oxygen between the
seasons. The dissolved oxygen values have considerably diminished in a decade. NOx and PO4 concentrations
were high, and did not show significant differences between seasons. NH4+ concentration was an order of
magnitude higher in the rainy season. Two types of water occur in the study area (Cl) and (Cl-SO4-Na-Ca-Mg). A
strong predominance of Na-Cl, classifies the lagoon system as a brackish lake. Evaporation was the dominant
process and the lagoon behaves like a salty lake, with an evolution in the chemical composition of the water,
which became enriched in calcium during the cold-front season, and in sulfates during the rainy season. No
precipitation of calcite or gypsum was identified, but this could occur during the cold fronts due to the geo-
chemical evolution observed in the Spencer diagram. Nutrient concentrations have increased in ten years, but
some are still below Mexican water quality criteria (CE-CCA-001/89). Some sites present high nutrients con-
centrations like Bojorquez lagoon sites. The results obtained underline: a) high temperature records vis-à-vis of
previous studies measurements (historical records), b) decreasing dissolved oxygen concentrations, c) increasing
NO3− and PO43− concentrations. These factors combination shows eutrophication signs that should already be
taken as an alert. The circulation of the water in the two analyzed periods was qualitatively similar but the
magnitudes of the currents were remarkably different between each other. The rainy season (August 2015)
showed near-coastal mean currents of magnitude ∼2–3 cm s−1, while the cold-front season (March 2016)
showed mean currents about twice stronger (∼5–6 cm s−1). The circulation pattern result in relatively short
residence times of the water bodies of the Lagoon System, with values from 3 to 6 weeks in the rainy season;
these values can be decreased by 30–50% in the cold-front season.

1. Introduction
Tropical coastal lagoons are highly productive ecosystems that
function like nursery and shelter areas for a variety of fishes and in-
vertebrates during juvenile or larval stages (Kennish and Paerl, 2010).
These water bodies are closely related with the meteorological and
oceanographic regimes, so that, variables like precipitation, evapora-
tion, salinity, tides, upwellings, and seasonal cycles, affect the behavior
of these systems with differential effects on them, depending of their
local features (Lara-Lara and Álvarez-Borrego, 1975; Acosta Ruiz et al.,
1978; Álvarez Borrego and Álvarez Borrego, 1982; Millan-Nuñez et al.,
1982). The coastal lagoons are poorly studied ecosystems (Esteves
et al., 2008), there is evidence that their structure and functioning have
been strongly modified by human activities (Sikora and Kjerfve, 1985)
which make them extremely vulnerables.
Mexico has more than 100 coastal lagoons (Lankford, 1977;
Contreras, 1993); 31 in the Pacific Ocean, 52 in the Gulf of California,
32 in the Gulf of Mexico and eight in the Caribbean Sea (De la Lanza
and Hernández, 2011). The coastal margin of the Campeche and Yu-
catan states limits with the Gulf of Mexico, the Quintana Roo coast

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: lmhernandez@ucaribe.edu.mx (L. Hernández-Terrones).
1
Present address: Universidad del Caribe. L 1, Mz 1, Esq. Fracc. Tabachines SM 78, CP 77528 Cancún, Quintana Roo, México.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecss.2018.10.012
Received 10 May 2018; Received in revised form 11 October 2018; Accepted 15 October 2018
Available online 18 October 2018
0272-7714/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
P. Romero-Sierra et al.
belongs to the Caribbean Sea. Along the north coast of Quintana Roo,
there are three coastal lagoons: Yalahau, Chacmochuch and Nichupté.
They share common characteristics like the karstic substrate, ground-
water discharges regime and seasonal meteorological influence, also
experiences local conditions that have a specific role on their hydro-
logical behavior, for example, circulation of water inside the lagoon,
the residence time, water volume, bathymetry, etc., which influence
hydrochemistry dynamics in the water body (Herrera-Silveira and
Morales-Ojeda, 2010). A key factor for understand the hydrochemical
features of the coastal lagoons, is the analysis of the variability and
distribution of non-conservative compounds wich can be assessed by
conservative freshwater or marine elements (Smith, 1984). Therefore,
the quantification of major elements is indispensable.
Nichupté Lagoon System (NLS) is the most representative coastal
lagoon from the Mexican Caribbean. During the 70's the touristic pro-
ject of Cancun was built on the sandy block that separates the NLS from
the sea. Since then, the lagoon has experienced a continuous decrease of
the water quality due to several factors including dredging and point
sources of pollution (Merino et al., 1993). Along its occidental side, NLS
receives continental water discharges round year although the volume
is higher during rainy season (Pedrozo-Acuña, 2008). The incoming
water carries out substances produced by land-based activities that
have the potential to impact negatively the water quality and ecosystem
function. The increase of the nutrient loads, mainly nitrogen may
change the trophic status of the NLS to an eutrophic state as can be
documented by the 15N content and %N in the seagrass Thalassia tes-
tudinum. Sánchez et al. (2013) based on their results and those from
Carruthers et al. (2005) reported that in the period from 1991 to 2012
the N content increased 58% due to the increment of N load in water.
Bojorquez lagoon is the most impacted basin of the NLS. It is a semi-
enclosed, shallow water body with symptoms of eutrophication. Since
1980's organic carbon load produced by sewage discharge and dredging
has increased (Merino and Gallegos, 1986). This condition makes in-
sufficient the external inputs of oxygen to satisfy the demand of re-
spiration of the sediments in the lagoon (Valdés-Lozano et al., 2006).
A great vulnerability of the lagoon is the high residence time of the
water. According to De la Lanza et al. (1998), the water movement in
tropical coastal lagoons is highly related to continental and marine
inputs. NLS only have two narrow inlets located as the only ways to
communication with the sea. In fact, estimations made by Merino et al.
(1990) determined that takes from one to three years the water turn-
over in the NLS. This implies a restricted circulation pattern which al-
lows the accumulation of organic carbon, nutrients and some other
potentially harmful substances. These observations suggest that,
without a proper management and restoration programs, the lagoon
previously classified as oligotrophic, could become into an eutrophic
system with the concomitant lost of biodiversity and functionality.
Since updated technical information is necessary for the manage-
ment of the NLS, the aim of this contribution is to assess the current
state of the hydrochemistry and hydrodynamics of this water body,
through the quantifications of dissolved substances (major elements
and nutrients), the assessment of hydrologic parameters variability (pH,
temperature, salinity) and the modeling of the water circulation pattern
during two climatic seasons (rainy and cold-fronts).
2. Methodology
2.1. Study site description
The Nichupté Lagoon System (NLS) is located at the northeastern of
Quintana Roo State (86° 46′and 86° 50′ West and 21°02′ to 21°06′
North) (Fig. 1a). The climate is warm and sub-humid, with mean annual
temperature of 26 °C (García, 1998). Five interconnected water bodies
are part of the Nichupté Lagoon System (surface 48 km2): the Nichupté
Lagoon (the biggest one, constituted by three basins), Bojorquez at the
northeast, Río Inglés in the southwest, two small lagoons, Somosaya or
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Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 215 (2018) 185–198
Amor at the west in the central part; and the Caleta at the southwest
(Espinosa-Bouchot, 2010; De la Lanza and Hernández, 2011). The depth
of the system lagoon ranging from 0.3 m to 4.5 m (De la Lanza and
Hernández, 2011), connect with the sea with two channels (north and
south), salinity values ranging 21–32 (Carbajal-Pérez, 2008), and a
mixed semidiurnal tidal cycle (Vega et al., 1997) from Caribbean Sea
tides. The hydrological information suggests that the lagoon system has
a very poor exchange with the sea, due to the lack of river discharges
and the slight tides variation (Merino and Ruiz, 1989). The high per-
meability of the rock and the undefined morphology of the north of the
Yucatan Peninsula allow a rapid infiltration during and after pre-
cipitation, which results in no surface runoff (López- Ramos, 1974). The
Nichupte Lagoon System is higly vulnerable to the contamination
(Espinosa-Bouchot, 2010). Mangrove species like Rhizophora mangle,
Avicennia germinans, Laguncularia racemosa y Conocarpus erectus are
present in the lagoon system, listed under “threatened” category of the
Mexican Norm NOM-059-SEMARNAT-20102 (SEMARNAT, 2010). The
NLS is a Flore and Faune Protected Area (Área de Protección Manglares
de Nichupté) from the Mexican National Commission of Protected Areas
(CONANP), a Ramsar site (Ramsar, 2007), and borders with the Na-
tional Park Costa Occidental de Isla Mujeres, Punta Cancún y Punta
Nizuc (part of Measoamerican Reef Barrier System).
2.2. Water sampling
Water samples were collected at the surface and bottom (< 0.5 m
and maximal depth) in 13 stations (Fig. 1b) in two fieldwork campaigns
performed at the rainy (August 2015) and cold-fronts (March 2016)
seasons. For water sample collection was used a 3-L Van Dorn hor-
izontal bottle. Temperature, salinity and dissolved oxygen profiles were
determined in situ at 28 sites using a Sea Bird CTD profiler, model
SBE19plus. Water samples were collected in Nalgene® bottles previously
acid washed and rinsed with MilliQ water. The samples were im-
mediately filtered through a type HA, Millipore®TM nitrocellulose filter
of 0.45 μm of pore size diameter. The samples were kept frozen until
analysis at lab. Quantification of nutrients (nitrate, nitrite, phosphates),
sulfates and chlorides was done in the laboratory of the Water Sciences
Unit of CICY according to Standard Methods for the Examination of
Water and Wastewater (APHA, 1998) by ion chromatography
(®Metrohm 882 Compact IC plus). Ammonia was quantified by spec-
trophotometry (LaMotte®). The analysis error was < 5% for nutrient
concentration. Samples for chloride and sulfate analysis were collected
in Nalgene® 125 ml bottles. Samples for other elements were collected
in 30-ml Nalgene® bottles and filtered immediately through a 0.22 μm
(MilliporeTM type HA) nitrocellulose membrane, HNO3 (3%) was
added for preservation and were kept in refrigeration until analysis. For
alkalinity analysis, 250 ml were collected at each site and analyzed by
tritation (®HACH 16900), and pHmeter (®Fisher Scientific XL60).
2.3. Data analysis
To test significant differences between surface and bottom samples
and between seasons, the non-parametric Mann-Whitney and Wilcoxon
test were performed with STATISTICA 10.1 (α = 0.05). To verify the
association between parameters was used the Spearmann rank corre-
lation test.
2.4. Circulation numerical model
Numerical model simulations of the three dimensional water-velo-
city field were used as an alternative to the lack of in situ measurements
of the currents within the Lagoon. For these simulations, a hydrostatic
primitive equation model with a terrain-following vertical coordinate
was used, namely, version 3.6 of the Regional Ocean Modeling System
(ROMS; e.g., Haidvogel et al., 2008). The model was configured on a
spherical-coordinate domain extending from 21° 02′ 07.0800″ N to 21°
P. Romero-Sierra et al.
Fig. 1. (a) Map of the study area: Nichupté Lagoon at the easternmost portion of the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. (b) Numerical model's domain of the Nichupté
Lagoon and its bathymetry (m). Observation sites are indicated: 28 sites for salinity/temperature casts (T/S) and 13 sites for water samples (W.S.). Relevant zones
within the Lagoon are indicated.
09′ 07.9468″ N and from 86° 49′ 06.9600″ W to 86° 44′ 56.9357” W,
with the Coriolis parameter varying with latitude (Fig. 1b). The hor-
izontal resolution was ∼50 m, resulting in a horizontal grid of
259 × 144 points. The vertical resolution consisted of 5 sigma levels
with enhanced resolution near the lower and upper boundaries. The
model grid was prepared by using software described by Penven et al.
(2008), replacing the original coarse-resolution topography (2’ gridded
elevations-bathymetry for the world, ETOPO2; Smith and Sandwell,
1997) by a high-resolution gridded bathymetry. This gridded product,
openly available for subsequent studies like this paper, was originally
prepared by digitizing a historical 1:5000-scale plane of isobaths every
0.50 m (León Vizcaíno and Escalante Estrada, unpublished manuscript).
This bathymetry was used also in a previous numerical-modeling study
of the NLS (Pedrozo-Acuña, 2008).
Along the coast, the minimum water depth was fixed at 50 cm.
Bottom slopes were smoothed to meet the r-factor criterion of 0.20 to
prevent horizontal pressure gradient errors (Beckmann and Haidvogel,
1993).
This model includes a splined density Jacobian scheme for pressure
gradient calculations (Shchepetkin and McWilliams, 2003). Subgrid-
scale mixing is parameterized by the Mellor-Yamada level 2.5 model
(Mellor and Yamada, 1982) in the vertical direction, and by harmonic
diffusivity of 1 m2 s−1 in the horizontal direction. Lateral diffusion of
momentum is restricted to geopotential (constant depth) surfaces.
There were no open boundaries in the model but the coast delimits the
whole domain. At the coast no-normal flow and free-slip conditions are
applied. The simulation was carried out keeping constant and uniform
values of 20 °C and 35 for temperature and salinity, respectively.
The model was forced at the surface by 3-hourly 32 km-resolution
wind stress calculated from the wind vector at 10-m height from the
North America Regional Reanalysis (NARR; Mesinger et al., 2006) using
parameterizations proposed by Smith (1988). This dataset was avail-
able at the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
Earth System Research Laboratory website (ESRL; https://www.esrl.
noaa.gov/psd/data).
The last output from a 2 year-long climatological simulation was
used to initialize the model. A simulation for the period from January
2015 to June 2016 was carried out, from which two periods were
analyzed for this paper: August 2015 (rainy season) and March 2016
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Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 215 (2018) 185–198
(cold-front season). Thus, the model's circulation results for these two
periods complement the observational results described in the previous
sections.
2.5. Kinematic analysis of the model currents
A kinematic description of the model velocity field was carried out
in order to complement the results provided by the velocity statistics.
Advection of a passive tracer field (“dye”) was used for the kinematic
analysis. Two 28 days-long advection experiments were carried out for
the two analyzed periods. A different value of the passive tracer was
assigned to each basin within the NLS, hence the exchanges and mixing
of the tracer through the advection time provides information about
how isolated the basins are. In order to evaluate these exchanges, the
mean absolute deviation from the initial state was calculated. For each
basin within the NLS, at any time t, this quantity is defined as
N
1
σI (t ) =
N
∑ I (t )i − I0, i ,
i=1 (1)
where I(t)i and I0,i are the instantaneous (at any time t) and the initial
(at t = 0) dye (passive tracer) concentrations at the i-esime grid point in
the basin's interior, and N is the number of grid points (in the three-
dimensional grid) forming the basin. This illustrative calculation σI
provides information of the degree of modification of the initial dye
concentration in each basin and it is useful for comparison among the
basins.
2.6. Transports and residence times
A qualitative complement to the passive-tracer advection described
above is the calculation of the mean volume transports into each basin
forming the NLS. An incoming transport must be compensated by an
outgoing transport to maintain the basin's water volume constant.
Then, high incoming transports imply a more vigorous renewal of the
basin's waters, hence a residence time of these waters can be also es-
timated. Thus, for each basin within the NLS, the mean incoming
transport is defined as
P. Romero-Sierra et al.
Fig. 2. Water temperature variability (boxes and whiskers diagram) in 28 sampling sites. Temperature variability during a) rainy and, b) cold-front season cam-
paigns.
n ¯
τ= ∑ ∫Aj vj (x , y, z ) dAj ,
j=1 (2)
where Aj is the cross-sectional area of the basin's j-esime entrance
(transition to other basins), vj (x,y,z) is the incoming velocity (three-
dimensional and positive towards the basin's interior) normal to the
area elements forming Aj, n is the number of the basin's entrances, and
the overbar represents an average over the analyzed period (August
2015 for the rainy season and March 2016 for the cold-front season).
Finally, the basin's time residence was calculated dividing its volume by
τ, expressed in days.
3. Results
3.1. Variability and distribution of hydrographic parameters
3.1.1. Temperature
During the rainy campaign temperature values ranged from 30 °C to
34 °C (Fig. 2a) while in the cold-front season temperature was lower
and its variation also was smaller (26 °C–28 °C, Fig. 2b). This represents
a striking difference of this parameter due to the cold-front events.
Surface distribution of temperature during rainy season showed a
nearly longitudinal gradient whit higher temperatures located at the
northeast side of the NLS. Laguna Bojorquez and the zone around this
water body presented the higher temperature (∼34 °C) whereas in the
west and south areas of the NLS temperature decreased almost 2–3 °C
(Fig. 3a). In the cold-front season there was a clear latitudinal gradient
with higher temperature values located in the north portion of the NLS
(Fig. 3d).
3.1.2. Salinity
Fig. 4 shows the variability and (Fig. 3b,e) distribution of salinity in
the NLS. A clear difference between seasons was exhibited in the 28
sites. In the rainy season salinity values varied between 22 and 38
(Fig. 4a). The north and south basins showed higher values near the
inlets (north and south). In the cold-fronts season salinity was very
different in all sites, ranging from 2 to 36 (Fig. 4b). Several sampling
stations displayed a large salinity ranges varying more than 10 units. In
the north and central basins the salinity values were between 1 and 35.
The major differences in salinity were measured in cold-front campaign.
The distribution of salinity during the rainy season showed clearly
that the flux of freshwater comes from the western side of the lagoon
where the lowest values were registered (∼26, Fig. 3b). The salinity
where detected at the southern basin (32–34), as well as the north-
eastern region. During the cold-front season there was a remarkable
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Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 215 (2018) 185–198
decrease of salinity. The lower values decreased almost 15 units respect
to the rainy season at the west side of the central basin. At the north
extreme of the system, including Bojorquez lagoon, the salinity also
decreased at least 15 units (Fig. 3e). In both seasons, the higher sali-
nities were located in the central and southern zones of the east side of
the NLS.
3.1.3. Dissolved oxygen
Dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations varied between 2.6 and
5.6 mg l−1 in the rainy season (Fig. 5a). The lowest concentration was
detected at SH site (2.6 mg l−1 to 3.1 mg l−1) near the Nizuc channel. In
contrast, the highest concentrations were measured at Flam site
(4.8 mg l−1 to 5.6 mg l−1). During the cold-front season, dissolved
oxygen concentrations ranging between 2.8 and 6.8 mg l−1 (Fig. 5b).
The lowest concentration was recorded at the LN7 site (2.8 mg l−1), and
the highest concentration was located at the LN5 site (6.8 mg l−1). The
distribution of DO was nearly homogenous in the rainy season. Only at
the southern tip of the system and in the southern portion if the north
basin the values of DO were in lower concentrations (Fig. 3c). During
the cold-front season the NLS showed a latitudinal gradient in the DO
concentration with the lower values located in the south (2–4.5 mg l−1)
and the higher values at the north (Fig. 3f).
3.1.4. pH
The pH values showed more variability and lower values in the
rainy season (8.0–8.5) than cold-front season (8.7–8.8). However, the
values of both seasons are within the range of seawater levels (Fig. 6).
3.2. Nutrients
Nitrate concentrations (NO3−) were higher in the rainy season
(values ranged between 2 and 65 mg l−1) than in the cold-front season
(concentrations were between 0.01 and 46 mg l−1). However, no sig-
nificant differences were found between seasons (p = 0.84). No nitrite
concentrations were detected in rainy season, and in the cold-front
season this nutrient was detected only in five of the thirteen sampled
sites. Then, the nitrite was summed to NO3−, and hereafter this sume
will be referred as NOx− (Fig. 7a). The PO43− concentrations in cold-
front season ranged from 0.01 mg l−1 to 4.3 mg l−1, and in the rainy
season. This nutriente varied from 0.01 to 1.5 mg l−1 (Fig. 7b). In spite
that in the cold-front season the PO43− concentration exhibited higher
values, no significant differences were detected (p = 0.18). Ammonium
concentrations ranged from 0.04 to 3.7 mg l−1 in rainy season (Fig. 7c).
In the cold-front season ammonium concentrations were an order of
magnitude lower (0.08 and 0.75 mg l−1). The differences between
P. Romero-Sierra et al. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 215 (2018) 185–198

Fig. 3. Surface hydrographic fields in NLS: temperature (a, d), salinity (b, e), and dissolved oxygen (c, f). Upper row (a–c) corresponds to the rainy season, bottom
row (d–f) corresponds to the cold-front season. Dots correspond to the data-collection sites (some sites were not visited in the cold-front campaign because of bad
weather conditions).

Fig. 4. Salinity distribution in water column (boxes and whiskers diagram) at 28 sites. a) Rainy season campaign and, b) cold-front season campaign.

189
P. Romero-Sierra et al. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 215 (2018) 185–198

Fig. 5. Dissolved oxygen distribution in water column (boxes and whiskers diagram), at 13 sampling sites during the a) rainy season and b) cold-front season
campaigns. (Note: some data points were not collected because bad weather conditions during cold fronts fieldwork).

seasons were highly significant (p < 0.001).

The distribution of NOx− during rainy season was very clear. The
highest concentration was located at the northwest of the NLS and
comprises the north and part of the central basin (Fig. 8a). In contrast,
eastern edge of the lagoon presented the lower values, although these
were also high (15–20 mg l−1). In the cold-frot season, the higher
concentration was centered in the central basin with values near to
30 mg l−1 (Fig. 8b). In this season, the eastern edge of the NLS increases
slightly its concentration. The phosphates distribution presented a quite
different pattern between seasons. In the rainy season the Bojorquez
lagoon reached the highest value (0.8 mg l−1, Fig. 8c). In the rest of the
system the distribution was homogeneous and low (∼0.2 mg l−1). At
the cold-front season the concentration increased in one order of
magnitude practically in the whole lagoon (Fig. 8d). Central basin
presented the higher values (3 mg l−1). Even when phosphates in-
creased at Bojorquez lagoon from 0.8 to ∼1.5 mg l−1 this site presented
the minimum concentration. Finally, the ammonium distribution was
entirely different between seasons. The distribution of this nutrient
during rainy season divides two zones. The zone of high ammonium
Fig. 6. Water pH variability (boxes and whiskers diagram), in rainy and cold-
was located along a wide band located in the central and north region
front season campaigns.
of the east side of the system where the nutrient reached levels near to
3 mg l−1 (Fig. 8e). On the contrary, the lower concentration zone was
located along the opposite edge and in the couth basin (Fig. 8f).

Fig. 7. Variability of nutrient concentration during rainy (R) and cold-front seasons (CF) in the NLS. a) NOx− (NO3− + NO2−), b) PO4−3 and; c) NH4+.

190
P. Romero-Sierra et al.
Fig. 8. Surface hydochemical fields in NLS: nitrates (a, d), phosphate (b, e), and ammonium (c, f). Upper row (a–c) corresponds to the rainy season, bottom row (d–f)
corresponds to the cold-front season. Dots correspond to the data-collection sites.
3.3. Hydrochemistry
Using the Eugster and Hardie (1978) diagram, a water classification
was obtained for main anions (Cl−, SO42−, HCO3− + CO3−) and ca-
tions (Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+). Fig. 9a-b shows the hydrochemistry classi-
fication for both fieldwork campaigns, the anions were in section 1: Cl;
and the cations into section 6: Na-Ca-Mg.
The NLS has a strong Na-Cl dominance for both seasons, close to
seawater signature. In order to determine the water chemistry varia-
tions, discerning groundwater and marine inputs, a Spencer triangular
diagram (Ca-SO4-HCO3) (Fig. 10a), and a triangular diagram Ca-Mg-
HCO3 (Fig. 10b) were developed. The Spencer diagram shows in 1A
area the cold-front data, and in 1B area the rainy season ones (Fig. 10a).
The triangular diagram Ca-Mg-HCO3-, shows all data in zone 1
(Fig. 10b). A mixing process occur in the lagoon system, due to pro-
cesses involved in both seasons, producing a water chemical composi-
tion transformation: 1A = SO4 > Ca; 1B = Ca > SO4; 1 = Mg > Ca;
1 = Mg > SO4
3.4. Correlation matrix
Table 1 shows the Spearman correlation matrix for nutrients and
major elements. A significant and high correlation between Mg2+ and
Ca2+, as well as between Mg2+, Cl− with SO42− was found (p < 0.05),
showing the dominance of these elements in water. A relatively high
and positive correlation between Na+ and SO42− was also established.
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Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 215 (2018) 185–198
Finally, a negative correlation between alkalinity and Cl− was ob-
served.
3.5. Numerical simulations
3.5.1. Circulation
Fig. 11 shows the mean and standard deviation of the Nichupté
Lagoon's circulation during rainy and cold-front seasons. In both cases,
it is evident that the currents are not only driven by the winds but also
by the bottom topography; by continuity of the flow, the shallower
regions present intensification of the currents. The flow is mostly
northwestward, result of the persistent winds in this direction, which
are influenced by the easterly trade winds typical in these latitudes. The
Lagoon's deeper basins (south, central, and north) show gyres that are
modulated by the intensity and direction of the near-coastal currents.
The two analyzed periods are qualitatively similar but the magni-
tudes of the currents are remarkably different between each other. The
rainy season shows near-coastal mean currents of magnitude
∼2–3 cm s−1 (Fig. 11a), while the cold-front season shows mean cur-
rents about twice stronger (∼5–6 cm s−1) (Fig. 11b). The standard
deviations are comparable to the mean values (Fig. 11c and d), which
imply the existence of episodes when the currents intensify doubling
their magnitude, and other episodes when they get inverted but with
weaker magnitudes. These differences between the two periods occur
because the wind stress is roughly four times stronger in the cold-front
season than that in the rainy season (Fig. 11a and b).
P. Romero-Sierra et al.
Fig. 9. Water classification from a) Eugster and Hardie (1978) diagram for anions (Cl-, SO42-, HCO3- + CO3-) and cations (Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+), b) results otained
in the NLS. (AQUACHEM, 2011.1).
3.5.2. Passive tracer and residence times
As mentioned in Section 2.5, in addition to the Eulerian water-ve-
locity field described above, a kinematic description based on the ad-
vection of a passive tracer distributed in the whole Lagoon (Fig. 12). At
the start of the advections, each basin within the lagoon was “filled”
with a different “dye concentration” (different value of the passive
tracer) in order to differentiate the origin of the waters (Fig. 12a). The
mean absolute deviation from the initial state, σI, is used to evaluate the
degree of modification of each basin's original dye concentration (by
exchanges with adjacent basins), which is shown in Fig. 12b. In all cases
the exchanges are more vigorous in the cold-front season than in the
rainy season, result from the higher velocities in the NLS's interior
(Fig. 11). The southeastern minor basin (Number 6 in Fig. 12a) is the
one that shows the strongest exchanges, followed by the northwestern
minor basin (Number 1) and then the north and central basins (Num-
bers 2 and 4, respectively). The south basin (Number 5) and Bojorquez
192
Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 215 (2018) 185–198
Lagoon (Number 3) are the ones that show the lowest exchanges. These
two cases are the result of the narrow channels that restrict the ex-
changes, especially in Bojorquez Lagoon's mouth. In the south basin this
condition is met only in its northern mouth, whereas its exchanges with
the southeastern minor basin are vigorus, but the volume of the south
basin is ∼7.7 times larger than that of the minor basin, hence the
drastic dye modification in this minor basin implies only a small
modification in the south basin.
At t = 28 d, the horizontal pattern shows weak mixing in the rainy
season (Fig. 12c) and remarkably stronger mixing in the cold-front
season (Fig. 12d), as shown in Fig. 12b. In both cases the major mixing
occurs between the central, north and northwestern basins, and be-
tween the south and southeastern basins; Bojorquez Lagoon seems to be
remarkably isolated from the rest of the NLS. Thus, the advection ex-
periments are useful to elucidate the transitory character of the waters
within the basins and the apparent role of the gyres in their interiors.
P. Romero-Sierra et al. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 215 (2018) 185–198

Fig. 10. (a) Spencer ternary diagram and (b) ternary diagram Ca-Mg-HCO3.

This information is also useful to analyze the potential dispersion of any
other tracer, like chemical pollutants or wastewater.
The information provided by the passive-tracer advection experi-
ments can be complemented by calculations of volume transports into
NLS's basins (Section 2.6). Table 2 shows the mean incoming transports
into the 6 basins shown in Fig. 12a and the corresponding residence
times of their waters. The maximum transport
(10.5–14.5 × 106 m3 s−1) and the minimum transport
(1.0–1.6 × 106 m3 s−1) correspond to the north basin and Bojorquez
Lagoon, respectively. The magnitude of the transport is related to the
number and size of basin's entrances; in this case, the north basin has
three entrances (from the northwestern basin, central basin, and Bo-
jorquez Lagoon) and the largest entrance among all the basins (the
transition to the central basin); whereas Bojorquez Lagoon has only one
entrance which is the smallest one among all the basins. Sorted by their
residence times (Table 2), the southeastern basin presents the shortest
time (1.7–3.2 days), followed by the northwestern, north and south
basins which present intermediate values (8.7–17.8, 16.1–22.2 and
11.4–23.0 days, respectively), and finally Bojorquez Lagoon and the
central basin with the longest residence times (23.7–38.7 and 25.2–40.1
days, respectively).
As expected, there are important seasonal differences in the
transports (Table 2) and hence the water renewal in the basins within
the NLS. The reduction of residence time which goes from 28% in the
north basin to 51% in the northwestern and south basins. The most
isolated basin, Bojorquez Lagoon, shows a reduction of 39% in the re-
sidence time of its waters.
4. Discussion
4.1. Spatial and seasonal distribution of hydrographic variables
The spatial distribution of hydrographic variables, nutrients, and
major elements in the NLS is complex, and cannot be associated un-
equivocally with a single factor or source. However, it is evident that
the variability of wind stress and the underground water input exert
high influence on the hydrodynamic and hydrochemical behavior of the
NLS. The results show a spatially and seasonally heterogeneous system
because of the geomorphology of the system is implicitly hetero-
geneous.
The lowest temperatures were found on the western part of the la-
goon system, influenced by colder waters coming from natural springs
located in the area. The decrease of temperature during the passage of
cold fronts is due to heat loss associated with the mixing produced by

Table 1
Spearman (r) correlation matrix of cations and anions (n = 47), p < 0.05 (Alk = alkalinity).
Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+ Sr2+ NH4+ Cl− SO42- Alk NO2− NO3− PO43-

Ca2+ 1 0.889 −0.011 −0.049 −0.054 −0.401 0.523 0.294 −0.456 0.226 −0.011 0.190
p < 0.00 p < 0.01 p < 0.001 p < 0.01 p < 0.01
Mg2+ 1 0.057 0.018 −0.054 −0.408 0.608 0.434 −0.548 0.134 0.011 0.151
p < 0.01 p < 0.01 p < 0.01 p < 0.01
Na+ 1 0.338 −0.177 0.078 0.608 0.633 −0.118 −0.157 0.052 −0.142
p < 0.01 p < 0.01 p < 0.01
K +
1 −0.158 0.560 −0.082 0.397 0.237 −0.439 0.108 −0.199
p < 0.01 p < 0.01 p < 0.01
Sr 2+
1 0.113 −0.055 0.046 0.091 −0.090 −0.215 −0.189
NH4+ 1 −0.456 −0.036 0.456 −0.300 −0.078 −0.187
p < 0.01 p < 0.01 p < 0.01
Cl− 1 0.704 −0.616 0.066 0.132 −0.049
p < 0.01 p < 0.01
SO42− 1 −0.440 −0.260 0.171 −0.164
p < 0.01
Alk 1 −0.150 0.015 −0.028
NO2− 1 −0.104 0.418
p < 0.01
NO3− 1 0.107
PO43− 1

193
P. Romero-Sierra et al.
Fig. 11. Mean vectors (a–b) and standard-deviation ellipses (c–d) of the depth-averaged velocity in the Nichupté Lagoon during rainy season (first column: a, c) and
March 2016 (second column: b, d). Mean vector and standard-deviation ellipse of the spatially averaged wind stress (Pa) is also shown in the smaller sub-axes in
panels (a) and (b).
the interaction of cold air with the lagoon's water. The temperature
values recorded in the cold-front campaign were similar to those re-
ported by Carbajal-Pérez (2008).
The spatial variability of temperature among sampling sites in both
campaigns was minimal and it was influenced by the shallowness of the
basins. Coastal lagoons are shallow water bodies, hence they are more
susceptible to changes in temperature, either by solar-radiation heating
or by cooling during the passage of cold-fronts. The results clearly show
a seasonal variation in the lagoon. The cold-front season occurs be-
tween November and February and is associated with low air tem-
peratures and storms (20 °C–23 °C). The results suggest that the input of
colder water comes from the springs located in the western part of the
central basin and the input of seawater into the southern basin. Valdés-
Lozano et al. (2006) recorded temperatures lower than those reported
in this study, the average temperature recorded was 23 °C at the central
and south basins.
The rainy-season temperature is similar to the results reported by
Valdés-Lozano et al. (2006) and Carbajal-Pérez (2008) with average
values of 32–33 °C. The highest value recorded in this study was for
Bojorquez lagoon (34 °C), which may be due to several factors. These
factors include the shallow depth, the lack of continuous water flow
between Bojorquez lagoon (two very narrow entrances only) and the
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Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 215 (2018) 185–198
rest of the lagoon system, and the lack of connection with the sea. The
combination of these factors results in a higher accumulation of heat by
solar radiation and therefore an increase in the water temperature.
Espinosa-Bouchot (2010) reported temperatures of 33 °C for the Bo-
jorquez lagoon. In addition, the results reported in this study are similar
to those reported for this season in other coastal lagoons in the Yucatan
Peninsula: Aguilar Martínez (2015) for the Chacmochuc lagoon in the
North of Cancun (average values between 29 °C and 34 °C); and Tapia-
González et al. (2008) and Herrera-Silveira (2006) for the Chelém,
Celestún and Dzilam lagoons with average results between 24 °C and
26 °C. The spatial distribution of temperature is important to consider
the wind circulation during the cold-front season. All the results are
also similar to those reported in some lagoons of the Yucatan Peninsula
by Herrera-Silveira (2006).
Salinity in the NLS was spatially variable. The salinity pattern at the
central basin was lower than the northern and southern basins (euha-
line type), affected by seawater input thorough the two entrances from
the ocean. In the same season, the central basin is estuarine-type, as-
sociated to groundwater flow springs located in the western part or by
run off contributions from land. These springs play an important role in
the regulation of the system, releasing water with lower salinity into the
lagoon. The salinity pattern with groundwater inputs is common in
P. Romero-Sierra et al. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 215 (2018) 185–198

Fig. 12. (a) Initial concentration (I0) for the passive-tracer experiments (Section 2.5); a different value of dye (passive tracer) concentration is assigned to each basin.
(b) Time evolution of the mean absolute deviation from the initial state, σI (Eq. (1)); line colors match the basin colors in panel (a); solid lines correspond to the rainy
season, dashed lines correspond to the cold-front season. Third column: Absolute difference between the initial (t = 0, I0) and the final (t = 28 days, If) dye
concentrations, vertically averaged, for (c) the rainy season and (d) the cold-front season. Passive-tracer concentrations are expressed in arbitrary units. (For
interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the Web version of this article.)

Table 2 NLS. In addition, lower water temperatures produced by wind stress

Volumes (in 106 m3), mean incoming transports (in m3 s−1), and residence could produce DO-enriched water. For example, Herrera-Silveira
times (in days) for the 6 numbered basins defined in Fig. 12a, for the rainy and (1996) reported high DO concentrations in the Celestún lagoon (Yu-
the cold-front seasons. Calculations were done as described in Section 2.6. catán state) exposed to the wind effects during cold-fronts; and
Basin 1 2 3 4 5 6 Carbajal-Pérez (2008) reported concentrations between 7 and
14.5 mg l−1, for the same season. It is possible that the last data cor-
Volume 4.5 20.2 3.3 26.6 13.1 1.7
respond to an oversaturation value linked to higher wind stress. How-
Transport (rainy) 2.9 10.5 1.0 7.7 6.6 6.3
Transport (cold-front) 6.0 14.5 1.6 12.2 13.3 11.9
ever, our data showed no significant differences between the seasons,
Resid. time (rainy) 17.8 22.2 38.7 40.1 23.0 3.2 i.e., there is the same DO concentration in both seasons. This ob-
Resid. time (cold-front) 8.7 16.1 23.7 25.2 11.4 1.7 servation could imply a high remotion of DO even during cold-front
season. A possible explanation is that more oxygen is required for or-
ganic matter oxidation. If we consider that there is low DO in
karstic coastal lagoons. Salinity values were similar to the results re- groundwater, also there must be an importat portion of organic matter
ported to Valdés-Lozano et al. (2006), and Carbajal-Pérez (2008) for the oxidizing as it reaches the NLS. However, the DO sinks in the NLS de-
same season. Merino et al. (1990) exhibited a strong salinity gradient serves further research. Based on DO balance, previous works have
for the rainy season. In the Central basin, Valdés-Lozano et al. (2006) emphasized that Bojorquez lagoon is more vulnerable to eutrophication
reported a salinity range between 25 and 27. Our data also show the and anoxia events due to the limited oxygen exchange and the in-
west-to-east salinity gradient in the rainy season, but in the cold-front creasing demand of this gas for organic matter oxidation (Merino et al.,
season the gradient was stronger and values near to 10 were detected in 1992; Valdés-Lozano et al., 2006).
the west side of the laggon. Overall, the salinity was higher in the Dissolved oxygen in the NLS could be related to several sources and
eastern part of the lagoon. In August 2015 the highest salinity occurred sinks acting locally along the environmental gradients as could be re-
in the northeast and southeast, comparable with results reported by sidence time of water and organic load (Medina-Gómez and Herrera-
Carbajal-Pérez (2008) and Hernández-Terrones et al. (2014) for the Silveira, 2003). For example, the distribution DO in the rainy season
same month. In both seasons, the lowest salinity was observed in the seems to be related to the salinity, at least in the west side of the central
western side of the central basin, due to the influence of the springs basin. On the other hand, the zone with low DO located at the south of
located in this zone. Bojorquez lagoon could be explained for the shallowness of the site, and
Dissolved oxygen is one of the most important indicators of health because of its proximity to a high-density residential area. Actually, the
in aquatic ecosystems. The concentration of this gas depends of tem- zone coincides with the higher ammonium concentration, a substance
perature and salinity, therefore, higher DO concentration is expected produced in low oxygen concentration.
for freshwater and cold waters. NLS experienced this condition during The pH values were variable in both seasons. This behavior can be
the cold-front season. The lower salinity values during cold-front season due to the influence of seawater. The lowest pH values are related with
suggest high precipitation, and hence, high freshwater influx to the springs (at the west part of the lagoon) (Carbajal-Pérez, 2008).

195
P. Romero-Sierra et al.
4.2. Nutrients
In coastal lagoons, the quantity and variation of nutrients is im-
portat for the primary production regulation. The quantification of N
and P is essential for understanding the trophic state of the system
(Vollenweider, 1992) because these elements could often limit the
primary productivity in non-perturbed environments. NOx concentra-
tion was high in both seasons, reaching values above 30 mg l−1 and
exceptionally 60 mg l−1 and showed a marked spatial variation. The
high NOx concentrations in the rainy season can be associated with
groundwater input associated to tidal influence, although it is also
possible that intense nitrification processes occur since the DO recorded
was between 2.5 and 6 mg l−1. Valdés-Lozano et al. (2006) reported
average nitrate concentrations of 0.05 mg l−1 in the rainy season, while
in the cold-front season the average concentrations were 15.2 mg l−1 on
the surface and 14.2 mg l−1 near the bottom, where nitrification pro-
cesses may occur. Our data state that NOx concentrations remained high
in both seasons with median values near to 14–16 mg l−1 which re-
present higher values than those reported by Hernández-Terrones et al.
(2014) and Carbajal-Pérez (2008). Herrera-Silveira (1996) reported
nitrate concentrations of 2.48 mg l−1 for the Celestún lagoon (NW of
Yucatan Peninsula) which are in the range of the rainy season in the
NLS. Oxidized nitrogen is produced by nitrification of reduced forms
coming from organic matter. Our values suggest that this form of as-
similable nitrogen is increasing in the lagoon. This process of nutrient
enrichment could be result of inputs coming from the groundwater and
wastewater inputs coming from residential areas.
The increase of nitrogen in the NLS has been assessed in aquatic
vegetation. Results obtained by Carruthers et al. (2005) through the
assessment of 15N content and %N in the seagrass Thalassia testudinum
show a nitrogen load in the NLS. They found that the nitrogen con-
centration is regionally high, and that its effect on the ecosystem could
be higher in areas with limited water circulation. Sánchez et al. (2013),
based on their results and those from Carruthers et al. (2005), reported
that in the period from 1991 to 2012 the N content increased 58% due
to the increment of N load in the water. The origin of N in the NLS, as
revealed by 15N, is the wastewater (Carruthers et al., 2005). Increased
input of nutrient is a common effect of touristic developments asso-
ciated to coastal lagoons (González-De Sayas et al., 2013). However, the
impact of the nutrients in the NLS is enhanced because of the limited
connectivity with adjacent sea and long residence time of the water
within the lagoon may act conjointly to accumulate NOx in the lagoon
and, as consequence, accelerate the deleterious process associated to
eutrophication.
At the rainy season, the average ammonium concentrations at the
surface and near the bottom samples were 1.6 mg l−1 and 1.7 mg l−1,
respectively. Valdés-Lozano et al. (2006) reported lower average con-
centrations (0.07 mg l−1). Studies conducted in other coastal lagoons
by Gómez-Ortega (2013) report average ammonium concentrations
between 0.77 mg l−1 and 6.31 mg l−1. During the cold-front season, the
average ammonium concentrations were lower than those registered in
the rainy season (0.20 mg l−1 in surface and 0.28 mg l−1 in bottom
samples). The cold fronts play an important role (high DO concentra-
tions measured), so the nitrification process can occur (transformation
of ammonium to nitrate). The ammonium average concentrations are in
agreement with the study carried out in the Celestún lagoon by Herrera-
Silveira (1996).
Nitrites concentration was summed to nitrates to obtain the oxi-
dized nitrogen (NOx). However, during the rainy season the NOx were
BDL (below the detection limit). Nitrites were present in the results
obtained in the cold-front sampling campaign. Nitrite is the chemical
species that is oxidized to nitrates, implying that no conditions for
complete nitrite oxidation were present in the cold-front period. The
average phosphate concentrations obtained in the cold-front sampling
campaign were higher than those recorded during the rainy season.
This is probably due to the wind effect of cold-front in shallow waters
196
Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 215 (2018) 185–198
which could make the phosphates in sediments resuspend into to the
water column.
The ion concentration depends on abiotic factors like chemical and
climatological processes, and the geology of the site (Alonso, 1998).
The concentration of the major elements (surface and depth) reveals a
clear difference in their origin. The order of abundance ions was:
Ca2+ > SO42− > HCO3−. The seasonality can explain the behavior of
calcium, sulfates and bicarbonates (i.e., the fact that the groundwater
and rainfall are higher in rainy season). In the cold-front season, the
groundwater effect is low, the bicarbonates proportion decreases, the
lagoon's water is becomes enriched in calcium, both by gypsum, calcite
or dolomite dissolution, and in a lesser extent by rainwater contribu-
tion. The Spencer diagram shows that all sites are in zone 1A, the calcite
is transformed into gypsum by the mixing of rainwater and seawater in
the lagoon (Fig. 8). In the cold-front season, the chemical composition
changes (1B zone, Fig. 8) due to calcium carbonate and gypsum sa-
turation, the mixing is enriched in calcium (located in the upper left
side of the triangular diagram of Fig. 8a). In zone 1 = Mg > Ca, the
Ca/Mg ratio decreases due to the precipitation of calcium carbonate in
both seasons, and the magnesium concentration increases in the solu-
tion (Fig. 8b). In the case of Mg > SO42−, the magnesium proportion is
higher than sulfates for both seasons.
The results of the statistical analysis indicated that the water
column is homogeneous. This feature could be due to the shallowness of
the NLS. Nonetheless, the wind factor in both seasons must be con-
sidered, due to the low depth of the lagoon. From the Wilcoxon test
results it can be inferred that the seasonality influences the nutrient
concentration, due to factors like precipitation, temperature, tides,
prevailing winds, etc.
Results obtained in the 1980s (Merino and Ruiz, 1989) were within
the limits established for waters of recreational use and protection of
aquatic life (CE-CCA-001/89), and since then the authors recommended
to carry out a monthly monitoring program of at least 12 stations.
Moreover, the emphasis has been focused on the need of installation of
appropriate drainage infrastructure to avoid direct discharges to the
lagoon and to the Caribbean Sea. It was also mentioned the need to
apply penalties for non-compliance in disposal of solid wastes and
wastewater.
4.3. Numerical model results
The Nichupté Lagoon's circulation is characterized by the presence
of relatively intense “jets” (∼3 cm s−1 in the rainy season, ∼6 cm s−1
in the cold-front season) in the shallow areas and of gyres in the basins
in the Lagoon's interior. In mean terms the shallow flows are pre-
dominantly directed to the west but their direction oscillates from west
to east with a standard deviation comparable to the mean. The gyres in
the larger basins are modulated by these shallow flows, which alternate
their rotation sign from north to south: anti-clockwise, clockwise and
anti-clockwise, respectively. The basins located to the northwest,
southeast and northeast (Laguna Bojorquez) also show well-defined
gyres.
The circulation pattern described above is consistent with previous
numerical exercises. Results from a vertically-integrated, finite-differ-
ence nonlinear model forced by constant winds with magnitude
∼5 m s−1, carrying out different experiments varying the wind direc-
tion, show water velocities of 3–5 cm s−1 (Carbajal-Pérez, 2008). Gyres
were also found in the basins, associated with jets of 8–10 cm s−1 in
some regions. On the other hand, results from a vertically-integrated,
shallow-water equations model forced by different wind regimes (ex-
periments with different magnitudes and directions) show velocities of
a few cm s−1 (Pedrozo-Acuña, 2008), with gyres in the basins. How-
ever, instantaneous velocities in the Bojorquez Lagoon's interior were
typically of the order of 10 cm s−1.
According to the kinematic analysis of the waters in the Lagoon's
interior (advection of passive tracers), there is a vigorous mixing
P. Romero-Sierra et al.
between the central and northern basins, with the exception of
Bojorquez Lagoon which is remarkably isolated from the rest of the
waters, and between the southern basins. This mixing is remarkably
more efficient during the cold-front season respect to the rainy season.
There is some accumulation of water in the main gyres but they seem
not to prevent the mixing of this interior water with the adjacent wa-
ters, most probably favored by the fluctuations of the flow itself. These
results are in agreement with estimates of residence times of the basins'
waters. Those estimates suggest that, in the rainy season, the NLS's
interior water bodies are renewed in about 3 weeks, with the exception
of the southeastern minor basin that is renewed in only 3 days, and the
central basin and Boorquez Lagoon that are renewed in almost 6 weeks.
These values can be decreased by 30–50% in the cold-front season. The
very short residence time (3 days) of the southeastern minor basin in-
dicates that it is just an extension of the south basin and cannot be
considered as an independent basin. The central basin is the largest
water body (26.6 × 106 m3) in the NLS, with a very energetic interior
circulation, hence it presents a longer residence time of almost 6 weeks.
Bojorquez Lagoon, as stated before, has a narrow entrance which re-
strics the volume exchanges, resulting in a residence time of almost 6
weeks.
In later versions of the NLS numerical model it may be important to
solve the evolution of temperature and salinity, which would imply an
adequate definition of the heat flows. This is a difficult task because
bulk formulae like those proposed by Fairall et al. (1996), which are
widely used, may not be valid for such small and shallow water bodies.
In a small and shallow water reservoir like the NLS, horizontal varia-
tions of density are not expected to have a significant dynamic effect on
the circulation, but to resolve the evolution of density would allow
modeling dynamic factors such as coastal freshwater discharges.
5. Conclusions
The Nichupté Lagoon System (NLS) is a dynamic and shallow eco-
system, highly vulnerable to external pressures. The physicochemical
parameters present a heterogeneous variation (spatial and seasonal).
Salinity and temperature have a spatial and temporal heterogeneity,
influenced by the contributions of seawater, groundwater, precipita-
tion, and wind. The salinity is influenced by the evaporation, since this
one is higher than the precipitation, and also by the entrance of sea-
water through the two channels that connect the lagoon with the
Caribbean Sea. The main process in the Lagoon for both seasons is
evaporation.
The dissolved-oxygen concentration range has decreased con-
siderably (approx 5 mg l−1 less) with respect to the last ten years.
Although it is not possible to speak of hypoxia, the decrease of DO in
the NLS can be considered as alarming. The nutrient concentrations,
associated to DO decrease and high temperatures recorded, infers a
vulnerability to eutrophication effects.
There is also a high seasonal variability for Ca2+, SO42− y HCO3−.
During rainfall season, HCO3− predominates as a response to ground-
water input to the system, and in the cold-front season Ca2+ pre-
dominated, due to a lower influence of groundwater.
Two types of water occur in the study area: (Cl) and (Cl-SO4-Na-Ca-
Mg). A strong predominance of Na-Cl, classifies the lagoon system as a
brackish lake. However, chemical composition does not look like sea-
water composition in both seasons. The chemical evolution of the la-
goon water shows a transformation process, producing SO4 > Ca in the
rainy season, due to mixing between lagoon waters with groundwater
and seawater. In the cold-front season, chemical composition is again
transformed into Ca > SO4 by a gypsum saturation process, resulting
in a water mixture being enriched with calcium.
The hydrochemistry results show that an evaporation process occurs
in the system. The system has an evolution in the chemical composition
of the water, which is enriched in Ca (cold-front season) and enriched in
SO4 (rainy season). There is no precipitation of calcite or gypsum,
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Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 215 (2018) 185–198
although this could occur during the cold-front season due to the geo-
chemical evolution observed in the ternary diagram of Spencer.
The circulation in the two analyzed periods is qualitatively similar,
with magnitudes of the currents particularly different between each
other. The rainy season shows near-coastal mean currents of magnitude
∼2–3 cm s−1, while the cold-front season mean currents are twice
stronger (∼5–6 cm s−1). In the rainy season, the residence time of the
NLS's interior water bodies is about 3 weeks, with exception of the
largest body, the central basin, and the most isolated body, Bojorquez
Lagoon, which present residence times of almost 6 weeks. In the cold-
front season, these values can be decreased by 30–50%.
The geomorphological structure changes are due to hotel and re-
sidential development, and a long-lasting environmental quality eva-
luation is necessary to carry out. The results highlight the need to es-
tablish urgent measures for their recuperation and protection, since the
pressure with new developments is increasing. Even if the mangrove in
the NLS is within a Natural Protected Area, the management plan needs
to improve and protect the water bodies with strong measures.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
Acknowledgment
This project was funded by Centro de Investigación Científica de
Yucatán (project 2015600001) and by CONACYT through a M.S.
scholarship to Pilar Romero-Sierra. David Rivas was funded by Centro
de Investigación y de Educación Superior de Ensenada’s internal project
number 625118. Thanks also to the technical staff from the Water
Sciences Unit of CICY, in particular to Daniela Ortega Camacho and
Benjamín Delgado Pech. Thanks to Augusto Cervantes, Tonatiuh
Sánchez Ahuactzin, and Myrna Lili López Monzalvo for their help in
fieldwork.
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