1.

- Electric Field

1.Coulomb’s law
2. The Electric Field
2.1 Definition
2.2. Electric Field lines
2.3 The Electric field of a continuous charge distribution
3.Gauss’s law
4. Conductors in electrostatic equilibrium
• STRONG NUCLEAR FORCE

• WEAK NUCLEAR FORCE

• GRAVITATIONAL FORCE

• ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCE
 mp= 2000 me

• mass
matter Atom (zero net charge) LAW OF CONSERVATION OF CHARGE
qe = 1.60 x 10-19 C
• charge
Fundamental unit of charge

UNITS
MKS o SI Charging by friction
Coulomb (C)
qp= -qe
Charging by induction
 (1) CHARGING BY INDUCTION (conductors)

- + Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (1736-1806)

+++++++++ - + ( 1 uncharged metal sphere)
- +

- +
+++++++++ - + ( 2 uncharged metal spheres in contact)
- +

- +
+++++++++ - + (the spheres are separated before the rod is removed)
- +

- - - + ++
- - + + q1 = q = - q2
- - - +++ (2 metal spheres charged by induction)

- - - -
- -- - - - - q1 = q2 =q/2
- - - - - - -

(uncharged metal sphere)

 (ii) COULOMB’S TORSION BALANCE

τ = −κθ κ: torsion constant

r r
(a) F F
- +
r r r r
θ
F F F F
+ + - -

(b) F ∝ q1q2
Torsion balance
1
(c) F∝ r
r2 z F21
COULOMB’s LAW (Vector form): q1 r r r
r12 = r2 − r1
r r
r r r1 F12
qq r
F12 = k 1 22 u12 r
u 12 =
r12
r
q2
r12 r12 r2
0 y
2 2
Nm Nm
• Coulomb constant k = 8.9874 × 109 2 ≈ 9 × 10 9 2
C 2 C x
• Vacuum permitivity 1 C
ε0 = = 8.854 × 10 -12
4πk Nm2
 2.1.- Definition • Electric Field (electric force per unit charge)
r
F r r r
r q0 10 qq r r F q r r F
z r10 F10 = k 1 20 u10 E 1 = 10 = k 12 u10 E=
r10 q0 r10 q0
q1
r
r r10 Positive test charge
r1 UNITS MKS o SI
q0
r N/C
r F10
r0
0 y
ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A SYSTEM OF POINT CHARGES q2
r
x r r r r r z r20
F = F10 + F20 + F30 + ... + FN 0 q3
r q1
r r2
qq r qq r qq r q q r r
F = k 1 20 u10 + k 2 20 u20 + k 3 20 u30 + .... + k N 0 uN 0 r r10
r10 r20 r30 rN0 r1 q0 r
r r r F10
r F q r q r q r q r r0 F20
E= = k 12 u10 + k 22 u20 + k 32 u30 + .... + k N2 uN 0
q0 r10 r20 r30 rN0 0 r y
F30
r N qi r
E = ∑ k 2 uN 0 x
i ri0
 y x
● Ex. Electric Field due to two equal and opposite charges DIPOLE
a a
P
r r
-q +q E − E + x
r r r q r q r
E(P) = E − + E + = k i − k i
[x − a]2 [x + a ]2

Dipole moment
r r
p=qL
r
p
2kq
E=
-q
r
L +q
[r ]3
r >> L
 2.2. Electric Field lines Graphical representation of E

•Direction: the electric field is tangent to the line through that point
(lines of force: they show the direction of the electrical force exerted on a positive test charge)

•Magnitude (electric field strenght) ∝ Density of the electric field lines nº línes = nº lines
A 4π r 2

2q
Electrostatic cat’s problems
2.3. The Electric field of a continuous charge distribution

(Calculating E from Couloms law)

z z

qi r dq r
dE = k 2 ur
r r r
ri r
r dq
r Ei 0
r0
0 0 y
y

x x
q1, q2, q3, ...., qN
∑ → ∫ r dq r
r N q r
E = ∫ k 2 ur
E = ∑ k 2 ui 0 V r
i ri0

•Charge densities UNITS

dq r ρ dV r
→Volume charge density ρ= C/m3 E = ∫ k 2 ur
dV V r
dq r σ dS r
→Surface charge density σ= C/m2 E = ∫ k 2 ur
dS S r
r λ dL r
→Linear charge density: λ=
dq C/m E = ∫ k 2 ur
dL
L r
● Ex. Electric Field due to a line charge of finite lenght (uniform charge Q, lenght L)
(a) Electric field on the axis

Q Q
EX = k → k 2
(x0 - L)x0 xx0 → ∞ x0
0 >> L

(b) Electric field at a point P on the perpendicular bisector of the line charge
Q
y >> L → Ey = k
(y → ∞ ) y2
2kLλ 1
Ey =
y L2 + 4y 2
2kλ
y << L → Ey =
(y →0) y

(c) Electric field at a point P

y
Ey r
E 1 1
Ex
E x = kλ − 
 r2 r1 
r1
yP
 cotθ2 cotθ1 
E y = −kλ − 
r  2 r r1 
θ1 2

++++++++++++++
θ2
x
● Ex. Electric Field on the axis of a charged ring(uniform charge Q, radius a)

Q
x >> a → Ex = k
(x →∞ ) r2
kxQ
Ex =
(a 2
+ x2 )
3/2

x = 0 → Ex = 0

● Ex. Electric Field on the axis of a charged disk (uniform charge Q, radius R)

Q
x >> R → Ex = k
(x →∞ ) x2
 x 
E x = 2πσk 1 - 
 x2 + R2 
x << R → E x = 2πσk
(R → ∞ )
 Karl Friedich Gauss (1777-1855)

•Electric Flux, φ, through a surface (number of field lines penetrating a surface) UNITS N/C m2

r r
(a) Surface of area A, perpendicular to E = const. (b) Surface area A not perpendicular to E = const.
r unit verctor prepndicular to the
n r r
r surface
A = An
E α r
φ=EA
E
r r
φ = E⋅ A

φ = E A cosα

r
E
r
• φmax → α = 0° → φ = EA n

• φ = 0 → α = 90° r
n
(c) General case: • curved surface
• Er ≠ const.

r
ni
r r r r r
∆Ai Ei φ = lim
∆Ai →0
∑ i i i ∫ ⋅ n dA
i
E ⋅ n ∆A = E
S

r r r r
∆φi = E i ⋅ ∆ Ai = E i ⋅ ni ∆Ai
r r
n n

•Electric flux through a closed surface

r r
φnet = ∫ E ⋅ n dA φnet ∝ net number of lines through the closed surface
S

q
q

φnet = 0 φnet ≠ 0 φnet = 0

 r r Q
• GAUSS’S LAW: φnet = ∫ E ⋅ n dA = 4π k Qinside = inside
S
ε0

•Aplication ⇒ calculation of the electric field of a highly symmetrical charge distributuion

1- Analyze the magnitude and direction of the electric field using symmetry considerations
r r
2- Find a imaginary closed surface (Gaussian surface) where E ⋅ n = En = cte
3-Calculate the total charge inside the Gaussian surface
4.- Apply Gauss’s law to relate En to the charges inside the closed surface and solve for En

r r r r r r Qinside
φneto = ∫ E ⋅ n dA = E ⋅ n ∫ dA = E ⋅ n A = E cos α A = En 4π k Qinside =
S S
ε0

4π k Qinside Qinside
En = E cos α = =
A Aε 0
● Ex. Electric Field due to a point charge Q
r
E
r r r r r r r r
n = ur φnet = ∫ E ⋅ n dA = E ⋅ n ∫ dA = E ⋅ n A = Er 4π r 2
q Qinside
r
S S φnet =
ε0
Qinside = q
1 C2
ε0 = = 8.854 × 10 -12
4πk Nm2

q q q
Er 4π r 2 = → Er = =k 2
ε0 2
4π r ε0 r
Er

1
Er ∝
r2 Quantitative statement of Gauss’s law

r r q q r
E = Er ur = = k ur 1
4π r 2 ε0 r2 ε0 =
4πk
r
r r  q q
φnet = ∫ E ⋅ n dA = E r ∫ dA = Er 4π r 2 =  k 2 
4π r 2 = 4πkq =
S S  r  ε0

Independent of r!!!
Electric flux due to a point charge through one Dipole
cube’s face

r
Er r φnet = 0
r n
n
E -q +q Qinside = (− q + q ) = 0

+q

r r
φnet = 4πkQinside E ⋅ n = En ≠ cte
Qinside = q

φnet 4πkq q
φnet = 6φface → φface = = =
6 6 6ε 0

φnet ∝ net number of lines through the closed surface = 0

Demonstration Gauss’s law (solid angle)

Solid angle subtended by ∆A at ∆A

∆Ω =
the center of the sphere r2

Independent of the shape A 4πr 2

of the closed surface ∫ dΩ = r 2 = r 2 = 4π steradians r r
∆A n⋅ ur ∆Acosθ
∆Ω = =
r2 r2
total solid angle subtended by a spherical surface

r r q q r r r q r r
E = Er ur = 2
= k 2
ur → ∆φ = E ⋅ n ∆A = k 2 ur ⋅ n ∆A = kq∆Ω
4π r ε0 r r

r r q
φnet = ∫ E ⋅ n dA = kq ∫ dΩ = kq 4π =
S
ε0
● Ex. Electric Field due to a uniformly charged slab (volume charge density, ρ, thickness 2a)

φnet = φleft end + φright end + φcurved side

( )
r r
φcurved side = 0 → E ⋅ n = 0
r r φnet = 2 En A
φleft end = ∫ E ⋅ ndA = En ∫ dA = E A n
left end left end
r r
φright end = ∫ ⋅ ndA = En
E ∫ dA = E A n
right end right end

r r Qinside
φnet = ∫ E ⋅ n dA = 4π k Qinside =
S
ε0

Qinside = ρA2a (z ≥ a ) 2 En A = ρA 2 a ε 0 (z ≥ a )
Qinside = ρA2 z (z ≤ a ) 2 En A = ρA 2 z ε 0 (z ≤ a )

 ρa 
E z = −  (z ≤ - a )
 ε0 
r r  ρz 
E = Ez k E z =   (− a ≤ z ≤ a )
 ε0 
 ρa 
E z =   (z ≥ a )
ε
 0 
● Ex. Electric Field due to a uniformly charged plane (surface charge density, σ)

x φnet = φleft end + φright end + φcurved side

r
n r
E φnet = 2 En A
r r r r Qinside
n n r φnet = ∫ E ⋅ n dA = 4π k Qinside =
E ε0
Qinside = σA
S

r z
E
 σ 
E z = −  = −2πkσ (z < 0 )
r r 2 ε
 0
Ex E = Ez k  σ 
E z =   = 2πkσ (z > 0)
 2ε 0 

Ez
Ez = 2πkσ

En discontinuous!!!
z
E z = −2πkσ
● Ex. Electric Field due to a thin spherical shell of charge (charge Q, radius R)

r r r r r r
φnet = ∫ E ⋅ n dA = E ⋅ n ∫ dA = E ⋅ n A = Er 4π r 2
S S

r r Qinside
φnet = ∫ E ⋅ n dA = 4π k Qinside =

R
Qinside = 0 (r < R ) S
ε0

Qinside = Q (r > R )
r r
n = rur
E r Er = 0 (r < R )
r
E = Er ur
Er =
Q
= k
Q
(r > R )
4π r 2 ε0 r2

Er(r=R) discontinuous!!!
● Ex. Electric Field due to a uniformly charged solid sphere (charge Q, radius R)

r r r r r r
φnet = ∫ E ⋅ n dA = E ⋅ n ∫ dA = E ⋅ n A = Er 4π r 2
S S

r r Qinside
φnet = ∫ E ⋅ n dA = 4π k Qinside =
4 
Qinside= ρ π r3  (r ≤ R) S
ε0
R 3 
r r
n = rur
Qinside = Q (r ≥ R )
E
ρr
Er = =
Q
r (r ≤ R )
r r 3ε 0 4π ε0 R 3
E = Er ur
Er =
Q
2
Q
=k 2 (r ≥ R )
4ππ0 r r
 ● Ex. Electric Field due to an infinite line charge (linear charge density, λ)

φnet = φleft end + φright end + φcurved side

r r
E E
( )
r r r
n φleft end = φright end = 0 → E⋅ n = 0
r
n r r r r r r
+ + + + + + +L
+ + + + + + + + + +++ φnet = φcurved side = ∫ E ⋅ n dA = E ⋅n ∫ dA = E ⋅ n A = Er 2π rL
r
n r r curved side curved side
n
r r Qinside
r r φnet = ∫ E ⋅ n dA = 4π k Qinside =
E E Qinside= λL S
ε0

r r λ
r E = Er ur Er =
2π ε0 r
n
r
r Er
E
L r r
n = ur
1
Er ∝
r
r
n

r
● Ex. Electric Field due to an infinitely long cylindrical shell of charge (surface charge density σ, radius R)

φnet = φleft end + φright end + φcurved side

r r
E E
( )
r r r
n φleft end = φright end = 0 → E⋅ n = 0
r
n r r r r r r
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +++ φnet = φcurved side = ∫ E ⋅ n dA = E ⋅n ∫ dA = E ⋅ n A = Er 2π rL
r L
n r r curved side curved side
n
r r r Qinside= 0 (r < R) r r
φnet = ∫ E ⋅ n dA = 4π k Qinside =
Qinside
E E E Qinside= σ 2πR L = λL S
ε0
r r
n = ur
R r r Er = 0 (r < R )
E = Er ur σR λ
Er = = (r > R )
ε 0 r 2π rε 0
r
n Er
r
Er(r=R) discontinuous!!!
r
E
L r r
n = ur 1
Er ∝
r
r Er = 0
n
R
r
● Ex. Electric Field due to an infinitely long uniformly charged cylinder (volume charge density, ρ, radius R)

φnet = φleft end + φright end + φcurved side

r r
E E
( )
r r r
n φleft end = φright end = 0 → E⋅ n = 0
r
n r r r r r r
+ + + + + + +L
+ + + + + + + + + +++ φnet = φcurved side = ∫ E ⋅ n dA = E ⋅n ∫ dA = E ⋅ n A = Er 2π rL
r
n r r curved side curved side
n
r r r ( ) (r ≤ R)
Qinside= ρ π r2L r r
φnet = ∫ E ⋅ n dA = 4π k Qinside =
Qinside

= ρ(π R L) (r ≥ R)
E E E 2 ε0
r r Qinside S

n = ur
ρr
R r Er = (r ≤ R )
r 2ε 0
E = Er ur
ρR 2 λ
Er = = (r ≥ R )
2ε 0 r 2π rε 0
r
n Er
r ρR λ
Er (r = R) = =
r 2ε 0 2π Rε 0
E
L r r
n = ur 1
Er ∝
r
r
n
R r
 Discontinuity of En

Uniformly charged plane Thin spherical shell of charge Infinitely long cylindrical shell of charge

Ez
Er Er
Ez = 2πkσ

1 1
z Er ∝ Er ∝
r2 r
E z = −2πkσ Er = 0
Er = 0

R r R r

σ DISCONTINUITY OF E AT A
En2 − En1 = n
ε0 SURFACE CHARGE

1 2 2
σ En1 = 0
En 1 = −2 πkσ = − 2 r 1 r
r 2 ε0 1 n En1 = 0 n
n σ
σ r Q 1 σ r En2 =
r r En 2 = 2 πkσ = En2 = = E ε0
E E 2 ε0 E 4πR 2 ε 0 ε 0
 • conductors (∃ free electrons )
Materials Charge and field at conductor surfaces
• insulators (∃ free electrons)
r r r
E0 1. Force acting on the fee electrons F0 = −e E0
r r
Ei 2. E
Induction of electric field i
- + r r r r r
3. Electrostatic equilibrium ∑ F = 0 → -e E0 − e E i = 0 ⇒ E i = - E0
- +
- +
- +
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONDUCTORS IN ELECTROSTATIC EQUILIBRIUM
- +
(a) The electric field inside a conductor in electrostatic equilibrium is equal to
r r zero. r r r
F0 = − eE0 E =E +E =0
i 0

(b) – The electric charge in a conductor is on its surface.

σ
- The electric field just outside the surface of a conductor is given by En =
ε0
.