IFET COLLEGEOF ENGINEERING

MECHANICAL DEPARTMENT

ME8694 HYDRAULICS AND PNEUMATICS

UNIT IV PNEUMATIC AND ELECTRO PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS

Properties of air – Perfect Gas Laws – Compressor – Filters, Regulator, Lubricator, Muffler, Air
control Valves, Quick Exhaust Valves, Pneumatic actuators, Design of Pneumatic circuit – Cascade
method – Electro Pneumatic System – Elements – Ladder diagram – Problems, Introduction to fluidics
and pneumatic logic circuits.

INTRODUCTION
Pneumatics is a branch of engineering that makes use of gas or pressurized air.

Pneumatic systems used in industry are commonly powered by compressed air or compressed inert
gases. A centrally located and electrically powered compressor powers cylinders, air motors, and other
pneumatic devices. A pneumatic system controlled through manual or automatic solenoid valves is
selected when it provides a lower cost, more flexible, or safer alternative to electric motors and
actuators.

Pneumatics also has applications in dentistry, construction, mining, and other areas.

Examples of pneumatic systems and components

 Air brakes on buses and trucks
 Air brakes on trains
 Air compressors
 Air engines for pneumatically powered vehicles
 Barostat systems used in Neurogastroenterology and for researching electricity
 Cable jetting, a way to install cables in ducts
 Dental drill
 Compressed-air engine and compressed-air vehicles
 Gas-operated reloading
 Holman Projector, a pneumatic anti-aircraft weapon
 HVAC control systems
 Inflatable structures
 Lego pneumatics can be used to build pneumatic models
 Pipe organ
 Electro-pneumatic action
 Tubular-pneumatic action
 Player piano
 Pneumatic actuator
 Pneumatic air guns
 Pneumatic bladder
 Pneumatic cylinder
 Pneumatic Launchers, a type of spud gun
  Pneumatic mail systems
 Pneumatic motor
 Pneumatic tire
 Pneumatic tools:
 Jackhammer used by road workers
 Pneumatic nailgun
 Pressure regulator
 Pressure sensor
 Pressure switch
 Roller coaster
 Vacuum pump
 Vacuum sewer

Gases used in pneumatic systems

Pneumatic systems in fixed installations, such as factories, use compressed air because a sustainable
supply can be made by compressing atmospheric air. The air usually has moisture removed, and a
small quantity of oil is added at the compressor to prevent corrosion and lubricate mechanical
components.

Factory-plumbed pneumatic-power users need not worry about poisonous leakage, as the gas is usually
just air. Smaller or stand-alone systems can use other compressed gases that present an asphyxiation
hazard, such as nitrogen—often referred to as OFN (oxygen-free nitrogen) when supplied in cylinders.

Any compressed gas other than air is an asphyxiation hazard—including nitrogen, which makes up
78% of air. Compressed oxygen (approx. 21% of air) would not asphyxiate, but is not used in
pneumatically-powered devices because it is a fire hazard, more expensive, and offers no performance
advantage over air.

Portable pneumatic tools and small vehicles, such as Robot Wars machines and other hobbyist
applications are often powered by compressed carbon dioxide, because containers designed to hold it
such as soda stream canisters and fire extinguishers are readily available, and the phase change
between liquid and gas makes it possible to obtain a larger volume of compressed gas from a lighter
container than compressed air requires. Carbon dioxide is an asphyxiant and can be a freezing hazard if
vented improperly.

Advantages of pneumatics
 Simplicity of design and control- Machines are easily designed using standard cylinders and
other components, and operate via simple on-off control.
 Reliability-Pneumatic systems generally have long operating lives and require little
maintenance. Because gas is compressible, equipment is less subject to shock damage. Gas
absorbs excessive force, whereas fluid in hydraulics directly transfers force. Compressed gas
can be stored, so machines still run for a while if electrical power is lost.
 Safety- There is a very low chance of fire compared to hydraulic oil. New machines are usually
overload safe to a certain limit.
Pneumatic logic
Pneumatic logic systems (sometimes called air logic control) are sometimes used for controlling
industrial processes, consisting of primary logic units like:

 And Units
 Or Units
 'Relay or Booster' Units
 Latching Units
 'Timer' Units
 Fluidics amplifiers with no moving parts other than the air itself

Pneumatic logic is a reliable and functional control method for industrial processes. In recent years,
these systems have largely been replaced by electronic control systems in new installations because of
the smaller size, lower cost, greater precision, and more powerful features of digital controls.
Pneumatic devices are still used where upgrade cost, or safety factors dominate.

Air
Air is the general name for the mixture of gases that makes up the Earth's atmosphere. On the Earth,
this gas is primarily nitrogen (78 percent), with oxygen (21 percent), water vapor (variable), argon (0.9
percent), carbon dioxide (0.04 percent), and many trace gases. ... There is no air in space.

Composition of Air
 Oxygen. The most important gas in the composition is oxygen.
 Nitrogen. To balance out oxygen, there is Nitrogen.
 Argon.
 Carbon dioxide.
 Water vapor.
 Other Particles.

Properties of air
Air is a mixture of gases, water vapor, and other substances, and it has specific properties, or
characteristics.

 Air is made up of gases

 Air has mass
 Air exerts pressure and has weight
 Air can be compressed
 Air is impacted by temperature

Mass and Mixture of Gases

Mass is defined as how much stuff an object contains - and by stuff, I mean matter, like atoms and
molecules. And even though you can't see it, air has a lot of atoms and molecules. Air is a gas (as
opposed to a liquid or a solid) and contains about 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% argon. There are
other trace gases in air, like helium, carbon dioxide, and neon, just to name a few.
Air also contains water vapor; the amount varies depending upon the location (think tropical, humid
Hawaii versus the dry desert of Las Vegas). Finally, air contains other things, like dust, pollen, and
bacteria.

What proof is there that air has mass? Well, if you blow up a balloon with air, the balloon expands. It's
expanding due to the gases, water vapor and other materials that give air mass.

Pressure and Weight

Let's move on to pressure, or when something exerts a force on something else. All of those atoms and
molecules we just mentioned are moving all around you. The pressure you're experiencing right now is
due to all of those atoms and molecules bumping into you, as well as the weight of all of the air
molecules and atoms above you.

And how do we know those atoms and molecules have weight? If you were to weigh an empty balloon
and then fill it with air and reweigh it, you'd notice it gained weight. This is because, as long as there's
gravity, everything with mass has weight (including air).

And here's a fun fact: at sea level all of the air above you exerts 14.7 pounds per square inch on your
body (as well as everything around you). If you're below sea level, the number is greater (because you
have more air pushing down on you) and if you're above sea level, this number is smaller (because you
have less air pushing down on you).

If you take your whole body surface into account, that's about the weight of a small car bearing down
on you at all times. Whoa. So why aren't you crushed? First off, air is exerting this pressure all over
you and it evens out.

Five properties if air

 Air takes up space. It's made up of atoms and molecules.

 Air is made of gases, including nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor, and other materials. These
substances are what give air mass.
 Air exerts pressure.
 Air has weight.
 Air can be compressed.
 Air is affected by temperature.

Perfect gas law.

Perfect gas law. ideal gas law According to the ideal gas law, when a gas is compressed into a smaller
volume, the number and velocity of molecular collisions increase, raising the gas's temperature and
pressure.

Ideal gas law

The ideal gas law, also called the general gas equation, is the equation of state of a hypothetical ideal
gas. It is a good approximation of the behavior of many gases under many conditions, although it has
several limitations.

The ideal gas law, also called the general gas equation, is the equation of state of a hypothetical ideal
gas. It is a good approximation of the behavior of many gases under many conditions, although it has
several limitations. It was first stated by Émile Clapeyron in 1834 as a combination of the empirical
Boyle's law, Charles's law, Avogadro's law, and Gay-Lussac's law. The ideal gas law is often w
Formula

PV =nRT

P =pressure

V =volume

N =amount of substance

R =ideal gas constant

T =temperatureritten as

Equation
The state of an amount of gas is determined by its pressure, volume, and temperature. The modern
form of the equation relates these simply in two main forms. The temperature used in the equation of
state is an absolute temperature: the appropriate SI unit is the kelvin.

compressor
A compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume. An air
compressor is a specific type of gas compressor.

Compressors are similar to pumps: both increase the pressure on a fluid and both can transport the fluid
through a pipe. As gases are compressible, the compressor also reduces the volume of a gas. Liquids
are relatively incompressible; while some can be compressed, the main action of a pump is to
pressurize and transport liquids.

Contents

Types of compressors
 Positive displacement
 Reciprocating compressors
 Ionic liquid piston compressor
 Rotary screw compressors
 Rotary vane compressors
 Rolling piston
 Scroll compressors
 Diaphragm compressors

Dynamic
 Air bubble compressor
 Centrifugal compressors
 Diagonal or mixed-flow compressors
 Axial compressors
Types of compressors
The main and important types of gas compressors are illustrated and discussed below:

Positive displacement
A positive displacement compressor is the system which compresses the air by the displacement of a
mechanical linkage reducing the volume (since the reduction in volume due to a piston in
thermodynamics is considered as positive displacement of the piston).[vague]

Put another way, a positive displacement compressor is one which operates by drawing in a discrete
volume of gas from its inlet then forcing that gas to exit via the compressor's outlet. The increase in the
pressure of the gas is due, at least in part, to the compressor pumping it at a mass flow rate which
cannot pass through the outlet at the lower pressure and density of the inlet.

Reciprocating compressors
Reciprocating compressors use pistons driven by a crankshaft. They can be either stationary or
portable, can be single or multi-staged, and can be driven by electric motors or internal combustion
engines.Small reciprocating compressors from 5 to 30 horsepower (hp) are commonly seen in
automotive applications and are typically for intermittent duty. Larger reciprocating compressors well
over 1,000 hp (750 kW) are commonly found in large industrial and petroleum applications. Discharge
pressures can range from low pressure to very high pressure (>18000 psi or 180 MPa). In certain
applications, such as air compression, multi-stage double-acting compressors are said to be the most
efficient compressors available, and are typically larger, and more costly than comparable rotary
units.Another type of reciprocating compressor, usually employed in automotive cabin air conditioning
systems,[citation needed] is the swash plate or wobble plate compressor, which uses pistons moved by
a swash plate mounted on a shaft (see axial piston pump).

Household, home workshop, and smaller job site compressors are typically reciprocating compressors
1½ hp or less with an attached receiver tank.

Ionic liquid piston compressor

An ionic liquid piston compressor, ionic compressor or ionic liquid piston pump is a hydrogen
compressor based on an ionic liquid piston instead of a metal piston as in a piston-metal diaphragm
compressor.

Rotary screw compressors

Rotary screw compressors use two meshed rotating positive-displacement helical screws to force the
gas into a smaller space.These are usually used for continuous operation in commercial and industrial
applications and may be either stationary or portable. Their application can be from 3 horsepower (2.2
kW) to over 1,200 horsepower (890 kW) and from low pressure to moderately high pressure (>1,200
psi or 8.3 MPa).

The classifications of rotary screw compressors vary based on stages, cooling methods, and drive types
among others. Rotary screw compressors are commercially produced in Oil Flooded, Water Flooded
and Dry type. The efficiency of rotary compressors depends on the air drier,[clarification needed] and
the selection of air drier is always 1.5 times volumetric delivery of the compressor.

Rotary vane compressors

Rotary vane compressors consist of a rotor with a number of blades inserted in radial slots in the rotor.
The rotor is mounted offset in a larger housing that is either circular or a more complex shape. As the
rotor turns, blades slide in and out of the slots keeping contact with the outer wall of the housing.Thus,
a series of increasing and decreasing volumes is created by the rotating blades. Rotary Vane
compressors are, with piston compressors one of the oldest of compressor technologies.

With suitable port connections, the devices may be either a compressor or a vacuum pump. They can
be either stationary or portable, can be single or multi-staged, and can be driven by electric motors or
internal combustion engines. Dry vane machines are used at relatively low pressures (e.g., 2 bar or 200
kPa or 29 psi) for bulk material movement while oil-injected machines have the necessary volumetric
efficiency to achieve pressures up to about 13 bar (1,300 kPa; 190 psi) in a single stage. A rotary vane
compressor is well suited to electric motor drive and is significantly quieter in operation than the
equivalent piston compressor. Rotary vane compressors can have mechanical efficiencies of about 90%

Rolling piston
The Rolling piston in a rolling piston style compressor plays the part of a partition between the vane
and the rotor. Rolling piston forces gas against a stationary vane.

2 of these compressors can be mounted on the same shaft to increase capacity and reduce vibration and
noise. A design without a spring is known as a swing compressor.

In refrigeration and air conditioning, this type of compressor is also known as a rotary compressor,
with rotary screw compressors being also known simply as screw compressors.

Scroll compressor
A scroll compressor, also known as scroll pump and scroll vacuum pump, uses two interleaved spiral-
like vanes to pump or compress fluids such as liquids and gases. The vane geometry may be involute,
archimedean spiral, or hybrid curves. They operate more smoothly, quietly, and reliably than other
types of compressors in the lower volume range.
Often, one of the scrolls is fixed, while the other orbits eccentrically without rotating, thereby trapping
and pumping or compressing pockets of fluid between the scrolls.

Due to minimum clearance volume between the fixed scroll and the orbiting scroll, these compressors
have a very high volumetric efficiency.

These compressors are extensively used in air conditioning and refrigeration because they are lighter,
smaller and have fewer moving parts than reciprocating compressors and they are also more reliable.
They are more expensive though, so peltier coolers or rotary and reciprocating compressors may be
used in applications where cost is the most important or one of the most important factors to consider
when designing a refrigeration or air conditioining system.

Diaphragm compressor
A diaphragm compressor (also known as a membrane compressor) is a variant of the conventional
reciprocating compressor. The compression of gas occurs by the movement of a flexible membrane,
instead of an intake element. The back and forth movement of the membrane is driven by a rod and a
crankshaft mechanism. Only the membrane and the compressor box come in contact with the gas being
compressed.

The degree of flexing and the material constituting the diaphragm affects the maintenance life of the
equipment. Generally stiff metal diaphragms may only displace a few cubic centimeters of volume
because the metal can not endure large degrees of flexing without cracking, but the stiffness of a metal
diaphragm allows it to pump at high pressures. Rubber or silicone diaphragms are capable of enduring
deep pumping strokes of very high flexion, but their low strength limits their use to low-pressure
applications, and they need to be replaced as plastic embrittlement occurs.

Dynamic
Dynamic compressors depend upon the inertia and momentum of a fluid.

Air bubble compressor

Also known as a trompe. A mixture of air and water generated through turbulence is allowed to fall
into a subterranean chamber where the air separates from the water. The weight of falling water
compresses the air in the top of the chamber. A submerged outlet from the chamber allows water to
flow to the surface at a lower height than the intake. An outlet in the roof of the chamber supplies the
compressed air to the surface. A facility on this principle was built on the Montreal River at Ragged
Shutes near Cobalt, Ontario in 1910 and supplied 5,000 horsepower to nearby mines.

Centrifugal compressors
Centrifugal compressors use a rotating disk or impeller in a shaped housing to force the gas to the rim
of the impeller, increasing the velocity of the gas. A diffuser (divergent duct) section converts the
velocity energy to pressure energy. They are primarily used for continuous, stationary service in
industries such as oil refineries, chemical and petrochemical plants and natural gas processing
plants.Their application can be from 100 horsepower (75 kW) to thousands of horsepower. With
multiple staging, they can achieve high output pressures greater than 1,000 psi (6.9 MPa).

This type of compressor, along with screw compressors, are extensively used in large refrigeration and
air conditioning systems. Magnetically levitated and air bearing centrifugal compressors exist.
Many large snowmaking operations (like ski resorts) use this type of compressor. They are also used in
internal combustion engines as superchargers and turbochargers. Centrifugal compressors are used in
small gas turbine engines or as the final compression stage of medium-sized gas turbines.

Diagonal or mixed-flow compressors

Diagonal or mixed-flow compressors are similar to centrifugal compressors, but have a radial and axial
velocity component at the exit from the rotor. The diffuser is often used to turn diagonal flow to an
axial rather than radial direction. Comparative to the conventional centrifugal compressor (of the same
stage pressure ratio), the value of the speed of the mixed flow compressor is 1.5 times larger.

Axial compressors

Axial compressors are dynamic rotating compressors that use arrays of fan-like airfoils to
progressively compress a fluid. They are used where high flow rates or a compact design are required.

The arrays of airfoils are set in rows, usually as pairs: one rotating and one stationary. The rotating
airfoils, also known as blades or rotors, accelerate the fluid. The stationary airfoils, also known as
stators or vanes, decelerate and redirect the flow direction of the fluid, preparing it for the rotor blades
of the next stage. Axial compressors are almost always multi-staged, with the cross-sectional area of
the gas passage diminishing along the compressor to maintain an optimum axial Mach number.
Beyond about 5 stages or a 4:1 design pressure ratio a compressor will not function unless fitted with
features such as stationary vanes with variable angles (known as variable inlet guide vanes and variable
stators), the ability to allow some air to escape part-way along the compressor (known as interstage
bleed) and being split into more than one rotating assembly (known as twin spools, for example).

Axial compressors can have high efficiencies; around 90% polytropic at their design conditions.
However, they are relatively expensive, requiring a large number of components, tight tolerances and
high quality materials. Axial compressors are used in medium to large gas turbine engines, natural gas
pumping stations, and some chemical plants.

Pneumatic filter

A pneumatic filter is a device which removes contaminants from a compressed air stream. This can be
done using a number of different techniques, from using a "media" type that traps particulates, but
allows air to pass through to a venturi, to a membrane that only allows air to pass through.

Usage
It is now common to have various stages of filtration employed in a filter-regulator-lubricator form
factor, usually with the different filter housings connected. Air filtration applications are diverse and
include end-user sectors such as cleanroom environments, biomedical, analytical instrumentation, food
processing, marine and aviation, agriculture, manufacturing, food and beverage packaging and a host
of other uses.

Primary filters
Typical commercial pneumatic filters will remove particles as small as 5 micrometres from the air. The
filters protect pneumatic devices from damage that would be caused by these contaminants. These
contaminants include lubricant particles ejected by the compressor, dirt particles, small water droplets
or aerosols.
Secondary filters & membrane air dryers
Secondary filters are used for a variety of applications and can remove particles as small as 50
nanometres in size. These secondary filters can remove fumes, odors, vapor, mist, moisture, oil, and
tiny particles from the air stream.

In addition, special "point-of-use" air drying devices (called membrane air dryers) may be used to
depress the pressure dewpoint by selectively passing water vapor out of the compressed air stream as it
passes through the inside hollows of a bundle of narrow, thinly-coated, membrane fibers. A small
amount of "sweep air" must then be purged around the outside of the bundle of hollow fibers carrying
the compressed air. Purge or "sweep" air is thus expanded (to atmospheric pressure) and subsequently
vented to the atmosphere. The "dryer" purge air which is carried or swept along the outside of the
hollow bundle of fibers creates a vapor pressure gradient between the "wet" compressed air on the
inside the fibers and the "dryer" sweep air on the outside the bundle. This results in delivery of cleaner,
dryer air before the compressed air is sent into any "moisture-sensitive" equipment(s).

Membrane air dryers, however, may be easily damaged through any contact with liquid droplets (water
or oil) so they should be protected with a high-efficiency coalescing (nano) air filter, positioned either
immediately upstream (or integrated within) the membrane air dryer housing. Membrane dryers are
primarily used with equipment's that are especially sensitive to water vapor such as paint booths, two-
part mixing equipment (polyurethane sealants), polyurethane dispensers, PUR-applicators (edge-
banding equipment), laser-cutting machinery, CMM's, industrial ink-jet printers, or even for laboratory
use .

Pressure regulator
A pressure regulator is a control valve that reduces the input pressure of a fluid or gases to a desired
value at its output. Regulators are used for gases and liquids, and can be an integral device with an
output pressure setting, a restrictor and a sensor all in the one body, or consist of a separate pressure
sensor, controller and flow valve.

Operation

A pressure regulator's primary function is to match the flow of gas through the regulator to the demand
for gas placed upon it, whilst maintaining a constant output pressure.

If the load flow decreases, then the regulator flow must decrease as well. If the load flow increases,
then the regulator flow must increase in order to keep the controlled pressure from decreasing due to a
shortage of gas in the pressure system.

A pressure regulator includes a restricting element, a loading element, and a measuring element:

The restricting element is a valve that can provide a variable restriction to the flow, such as a globe
valve, butterfly valve, poppet valve, etc.

The loading element is a part that can apply the needed force to the restricting element. This loading
can be provided by a weight, a spring, a piston actuator, or the diaphragm actuator in combination with
a spring.

The measuring element functions to determine when the inlet flow is equal to the outlet flow. The
diaphragm itself is often used as a measuring element; it can serve as a combined element.
In the pictured single-stage regulator, a force balance is used on the diaphragm to control a poppet
valve in order to regulate pressure. With no inlet pressure, the spring above the diaphragm pushes it
down on the poppet valve, holding it open. Once inlet pressure is introduced, the open poppet allows
flow to the diaphragm and pressure in the upper chamber increases, until the diaphragm is pushed
upward against the spring, causing the poppet to reduce flow, finally stopping further increase of
pressure. By adjusting the top screw, the downward pressure on the diaphragm can be increased,
requiring more pressure in the upper chamber to maintain equilibrium. In this way, the outlet pressure
of the regulator is controlled.

Single stage regulator

High pressure gas from the supply enters into the regulator through the inlet valve. The gas then enters
the body of the regulator, which is controlled by the needle valve. The pressure rises, which pushes the
diaphragm, closing the inlet valve to which it is attached, and preventing any more gas from entering
the regulator.

The outlet pressure and the inlet pressure hold the diaphragm/poppet assembly in the closed position
against the force of the large spring. If the supply pressure falls, it is as if the large spring compression
is increased allowing more gas and higher pressure to build in the outlet chamber until an equilibrium
pressure is reached. Thus, if the supply pressure falls, the outlet pressure will increase, provided the
outlet pressure remains below the falling supply pressure. This is the cause of end-of-tank dump where
the supply is provided by a pressurized gas tank.[citation needed] With a single stage regulator, when
the supply tank gets low, the lower inlet pressure causes the outlet pressure to climb. If the spring
compression is not adjusted to compensate, the poppet can remain open and allow the tank to rapidly
dump its remaining contents. In other words, the lower the supply pressure, the lower the pressure
differential the regulator can achieve for a given spring setting.

The outlet side is fitted with a pressure gauge. As gas is drawn from the outlet side, the pressure inside
the regulator body falls. The diaphragm is pushed back by the spring and the valve opens, letting more
gas in from the supply until equilibrium is reached between the outlet pressure and the spring. The
outlet pressure therefore depends on the spring force, which can be adjusted by means of an adjustment
handle or screw.

Double stage regulator

Two stage regulators are two single stage regulators in one that operate to reduce the pressure
progressively in two stages instead of one. The first stage, which is preset, reduces the pressure of the
supply gas to an intermediate stage; gas at that pressure passes into the second stage. The gas now
emerges at a pressure (working pressure) set by the pressure adjusting control knob attached to the
diaphragm. Two stage regulators have two safety valves, so that if there is any excess pressure there
will be no explosion. A major objection to the single stage regulator is the need for frequent
adjustment. If the supply pressure falls, the outlet pressure may change, necessitating adjustment. In
the two stage regulator, there is improved compensation for any drop in the supply pressure.

Applications

Air compressors
Air compressors are used in industrial, commercial, and home workshop environments to perform an
assortment of jobs including blowing things clean; running air powered tools; and inflating things like
tires, balls, etc. Regulators are often used to adjust the pressure coming out of an air receiver (tank) to
match what is needed for the task. Often, when one large compressor is used to supply compressed air
for multiple uses (often referred to as "shop air" if built as a permanent installation of pipes throughout
a building), additional regulators will be used to ensure that each separate tool or function receives the
appropriate pressure it needs. This is important because some air tools, or uses for compressed air,
require pressures that may cause damage to other tools or materials.

Aircraft
Pressure regulators are found in aircraft cabin pressurization, canopy seal pressure control, portable
water systems, and waveguide pressurization.

Aerospace
Aerospace pressure regulators have applications in propulsion pressurant control for reaction control
systems (RCS) and Attitude Control Systems (ACS), where high vibration, large temperature extremes
and corrosive fluids are present.

Water pressure reduction

Often, water enters water-using appliances at fluctuating pressures, especially in remote locations, and
industrial settings. This pressure often needs to be kept within a range to avoid damage to appliances,
or accidents involving burst pipes/conduits. A single-stage regulator is sufficient in accuracy due to the
high error tolerance of most such appliances. Also used in applications where the water supply
reservoir is significantly higher in elevation to the end of the line. e.g. underground mine water supply.

Oxy-fuel welding and cutting

Oxy-fuel welding and cutting processes require gases at specific pressures, and regulators will
generally be used to reduce the high pressures of storage cylinders to those usable for cutting and
welding. Oxy-gas regulators usually have two stages: The first stage of the regulator releases the gas at
a constant rate from the cylinder despite the pressure in the cylinder becoming less as the gas is
released. The second stage of the regulator controls the pressure reduction from the intermediate
pressure to low pressure. It is constant flow. The valve assembly has two pressure gauges, one
indicating cylinder pressure, the other indicating hose pressure.

Mining Industry

As the pressure builds rapidly in relation to depth, underground mining operations require a fairly
complex water system with pressure reducing valves. These devices must be installed at a certain
distance interval, usually 600 feet (180 m).[citation needed] Without such valves, pipes would easily
burst and pressure would be too great for equipment operation.Natural Gas Industry

Pressure regulators are used extensively within the Natural Gas industry. Natural gas is compressed to
high pressures in order to be distributed throughout the country through large transmission pipelines.
The transmission pressure can be over 1000 psig and must be reduced through various stages to a
usable pressure for industrial, commercial, and residential applications. There are three main pressure
reductions locations in this distribution system. The first reduction is located at the city gate, whereas
the transmission pressure is dropped to a distribution pressure to feed throughout the city. This is also
the location where the odorless natural gas is odorized with mercaptan. The distribution pressure is
further reduced at a district regulator station, located at various points in the city, to below 60 psig. The
final cut would occur at the end users location. Generally, the end user reduction is taken to low
pressures ranging from 0.25 psig to 5 psig. Some industrial applications can require a larger usable
pressure.

Pneumatic lubricator
A pneumatic lubricator injects an aerosolized stream of oil into an air line to provide lubrication to the
internal working parts of pneumatic tools, and to other devices such as actuating cylinders, valves and
motors.

Compressed air enters the inlet port and passes over a needle valve orifice attached to a pick-up tube.
This tube - often equipped with a sintered bronze filter - is submerged into a reservoir bowl filled with
light machine oil. Oil is pulled up by the venturi effect, and emitted as an aerosol at the outlet port. The
needle valve is typically situated within a clear polycarbonate or nylon housing to aid in oil flow rate
adjustment. Some compressor oils and external chemicals can cause polycarbonate and/or nylon sight
glass to be degraded and create a safety hazard

A lubricator should always be the last element in an FRL (Filter-Regulator-Lubricator) unit. If an FRL
is connected "backwards" with incoming air connected to the lubricator, oil-laden air interferes with
pressure regulator operation, oil is separated from the air stream and drained by the filter, and very
little or none is delivered to connected equipment.

mufflers
Pneumatic mufflers are used for valves, cylinders and pneumatic tools and systems to reduce the noise.
In Europe, pneumatic mufflers are also called pneumatic silencers. In the USA, people also called it
pneumatic breathers. They are used to reduce the exhaust noise, also called exhaust mufflers, vent
mufflers.

Pneumatic Control valve

A control valve is a valve used to control fluid flow by varying the size of the flow passage as directed
by a signal from a controller. This enables the direct control of flow rate and the consequential control
of process quantities such as pressure, temperature, and liquid level.

Operation

The opening or closing of automatic control valves is usually done by electrical, hydraulic or
pneumatic actuators. Normally with a modulating valve, which can be set to any position between fully
open and fully closed, valve positioners are used to ensure the valve attains the desired degree of
opening.

Air-actuated valves are commonly used because of their simplicity, as they only require a compressed
air supply, whereas electrically-operated valves require additional cabling and switch gear, and
hydraulically-actuated valves required high pressure supply and return lines for the hydraulic fluid.

The pneumatic control signals are traditionally based on a pressure range of 3-15psi (0.2-1.0 bar), or
more commonly now, an electrical signal of 4-20mA for industry, or 0-10V for HVAC systems.
Electrical control now often includes a "Smart" communication signal superimposed on the 4-20mA
control current, such that the health and verification of the valve position can be signalled back to the
controller. The HART, Fieldbus Foundation, and Profibus are the most common protocols.
An automatic control valve consists of three main parts in which each part exist in several types and
designs:

 Valve actuator - which moves the valve's modulating element, such as ball or butterfly.
 Valve positioner - Which ensures the valve has reached the desired degree of opening. This
overcomes the problems of friction and wear.
 Valve body - in which the modulating element, a plug, globe, ball or butterfly, is contained.

Control action
Taking the example of an air-operated valve, there are two control actions possible:

 "Air or current to open" - The flow restriction decreases with increased control signal value.
 "Air or current to close" - The flow restriction increases with increased control signal value.

There can also be failure to safety modes:

 Air or control signal failure to close" - On failure of compressed air to the actuator, the valve
closes under spring pressure or by backup power.
 Air or control signal failure to open" - On failure of compressed air to actuator, the valve opens
under spring pressure or by backup power.

The modes of failure operation are requirements of the failure to safety process control specification of
the plant. In the case of cooling water it may be to fail open, and the case of delivering a chemical it
may be to fail closed.

Valve positioners
The fundamental function of a positioner is to deliver pressurized air to the valve actuator, such that the
position of the valve stem or shaft corresponds to the set point from the control system. Positioners are
typically used when a valve requires throttling action. A positioner requires position feedback from the
valve stem or shaft and delivers pneumatic pressure to the actuator to open and close the valve. The
positioner must be mounted on or near the control valve assembly. There are three main categories of
positioners, depending on the type of control signal, the diagnostic capability, and the communication
protocol: pneumatic analog and digital.

Processing units may use pneumatic pressure signaling as the control set point to the control valves.
Pressure is typically modulated between 20.7 to 103 kPa (3 to 15 psig) to move the valve from 0 to
100% position. In a common pneumatic positioner the position of the valve stem or shaft is compared
with the position of a bellows that receives the pneumatic control signal. When the input signal
increases, the bellows expands and moves a beam. The beam pivots about an input axis, which moves a
flapper closer to the nozzle. The nozzle pressure increases, which increases the output pressure to the
actuator through a pneumatic amplifier relay. The increased output pressure to the actuator causes the
valve stem to move. Stem movement is fed back to the beam by means of a cam. As the cam rotates,
the beam pivots about the feedback axis to move the flapper slightly away from the nozzle. The nozzle
pressure decreases and reduces the output pressure to the actuator. Stem movement continues, backing
the flapper away from the nozzle until equilibrium is reached.
Quick exhaust valves

Quick exhaust valves are valves that are designed to allow direct exhaust or expulsion of compressed
air. This can happen if the displacement speed of the cylinder rod increases which reduces the cycle
time.

A quick release valve allows the brakes to release quickly and fully, by allowing the pressurized air to
exhaust near the brake chambers. In this diagram a quick release valve is placed close to the front brake
chambers between the foot valve and the air chambers.

Pneumatic actuator
A pneumatic control valve actuator converts energy (typically in the form of compressed air) into
mechanical motion. The motion can be rotary or linear, depending on the type of actuator.

Principle of operation
A Pneumatic actuator mainly consists of a piston or a diaphragm which develops the motive power. It
keeps the air in the upper portion of the cylinder, allowing air pressure to force the diaphragm or piston
to move the valve stem or rotate the valve control element.

Valves require little pressure to operate and usually double or triple the input force. The larger the size
of the piston, the larger the output pressure can be. Having a larger piston can also be good if air supply
is low, allowing the same forces with less input. These pressures are large enough to crush objects in
the pipe. On 100 kPa input, you could lift a small car (upwards of 1,000 lbs) easily, and this is only a
basic, small pneumatic valve. However, the resulting forces required of the stem would be too great
and cause the valve stem to fail.

This pressure is transferred to the valve stem, which is connected to either the valve plug (see plug
valve), butterfly valve etc. Larger forces are required in high pressure or high flow pipelines to allow
the valve to overcome these forces, and allow it to move the valves moving parts to control the
material flowing inside.

The valves input is the "control signal." This can come from a variety of measuring devices, and each
different pressure is a different set point for a valve. A typical standard signal is 20–100 kPa. For
example, a valve could be controlling the pressure in a vessel which has a constant out-flow, and a
varied in-flow (varied by the actuator and valve). A pressure transmitter will monitor the pressure in
the vessel and transmit a signal from 20–100 kPa. 20 kPa means there is no pressure, 100 kPa means
there is full range pressure (can be varied by the transmitters calibration points). As the pressure rises
in the vessel, the output of the transmitter rises, this increase in pressure is sent to the valve, which
causes the valve to stroke downward, and start closing the valve, decreasing flow into the vessel,
reducing the pressure in the vessel as excess pressure is evacuated through the out flow. This is called a
direct acting process.
Types
Some types of pneumatic actuators include:

 Tie rod cylinders

 Rotary actuators
 Grippers
 Rodless actuators with magnetic linkage or rotary cylinders
 Rodless actuators with mechanical linkage
 Pneumatic artificial muscles
 Vane Motors

 Speciality actuators that combine rotary and linear motion—frequently used for clamping
operations
 Vacuum generators
Design of Pneumatic circuit

Principles of pneumatic control

Pneumatic circuit

Pneumatic control systems can be designed in the form of pneumatic circuits. A pneumatic circuit is
formed by various pneumatic components, such as cylinders, directional control valves, flow control
valves, etc. Pneumatic circuits have the following functions:

 To control the injection and release of compressed air in the cylinders.

 To use one valve to control another valve.

Pneumatic circuit diagram

A pneumatic circuit diagram uses pneumatic symbols to describe its design. Some basic rules
must be followed when drawing pneumatic diagrams.

Basic rules
1. A pneumatic circuit diagram represents the circuit in static form and assumes there is no
supply of pressure. The placement of the pneumatic components on the circuit also follows
this assumption.
2. The pneumatic symbol of a directional control valve is formed by one or more squares. The
inlet and exhaust are drawn underneath the square, while the outlet is drawn on the top.
Each function of the valve (the position of the valve) shall be represented by a square. If
there are two or more functions, the squares should be arranged horizontally.

3/2 directional control valve 3/2 directional control valve

(normally closed type) (normally closed type)

 3. Arrows "↓↖" are used to indicate the flow direction of air current. If the external port is
not connected to the internal parts, the symbol “┬” is used. The symbol “⊙” underneath the
square represents the air input, while the symbol “▽” represents the exhaust. Fig. 17 shows
an example of a typical pneumatic valve.
4. The pneumatic symbols of operational components should be drawn on the outside of the
squares. They can be divided into two classes: mechanical and manual .

(a) Vertical piston lever (b) Pulley lever (c) Unilateral pulley lever

Mechanically operated pneumatic components

(a) Standard (b) Lever (c) Button (d) Pull & push

Manually operated pneumatic components

1. Pneumatic operation signal pressure lines should be drawn on one side of the squares,
while triangles are used to represent the direction of air flow (Fig. 20).

Pneumatic operation signal pressure line

Basic principles
some of the basic principles of drawing pneumatic circuit diagrams, the numbers in the
diagram correspond to the following points

Basic principles of drawing pneumatic circuit diagrams

5. When the manual switch is not operated, the spring will restore the valve to its original
 position.
6. From the position of the spring, one can deduce that the block is operating. The other block
will not operate until the switch is pushed.
7. Air pressure exists along this line because it is connected to the source of compressed air.
8. As this cylinder cavity and piston rod are under the influence of pressure, the piston rod is
in its restored position.
9. The rear cylinder cavity and this line are connected to the exhaust, where air is released.
The setting of circuit diagrams

Power level, logic level and signal input level

The basic rules of circuit diagram setting are as follows

 Use the line which represents the connecting pipe to connect all the air supply unit and the
pneumatic components to complete the pneumatic circuit. Check carefully the circuit and the logic of
the operation before use to avoid any accident

Assistance valves, such as those with logic functions (for example, memory, ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’,
delay, etc), can be put between the pneumatic components and the power control valves.

Control cylinders and operational valves (signal components) driven by power control valves should be
placed at the lower levels of the diagram
Power control valves should be drawn directly under the cylinder controlled by them, forming a power
unit.

Different kinds of basic circuits

Flow amplification
Cylinders with a large capacity require a larger flow of air, which can be hazardous to users. It is
unsafe to manually operate pneumatic directional control valves with large flow capacity. Instead we
should first operate manually a small control valve and use it to operate the pneumatic control system
with large flow capacity. This is called flow amplification, which can greatly ensure the safety of the
operators. During operation, valves with large flow capacity should be placed near the cylinder, while
valves with smaller flow capacity should be placed on control boards some distances away. Fig. 23
shows a basic flow amplification circuit. Notice how different components are placed on different
levels.

Flow amplification system

Signal inversion
The pneumatic diagram in how directional control valves can be switched. When operating control
valve , control valve will stop producing pressure output. When control valve ceases operation and is
restored to its original position, control valve will resume its output. Therefore, at any given time, the
pressure output of control valve is the exact opposite of that of control valve .
 Signal inversion system

Memory Function
Memory is a common basic function. It can keep a component at a certain state
permanently until there is a change of signals. Fig. 25 shows a memory function circuit. When
control valve  is operated momentarily (that is, pressed for a short time), the output signal of the
5/2 directional control valve  will be set to ON. The signal will stay that way until control valve
 is operated momentarily and generates another signal to replace it, causing it to stay permanently
at OFF.

Delay function
A pneumatic delay circuit can delay the operating time of the next control valve. Its principle
of operation involves the use of an orifice to slow down the flow of air and control the time of
pneumatic operation. Delay functions can be divided into two classes: ON-signal delay and OFF-
signal delay.

ON-signal delay
the circuit diagram of an ON-signal delay circuit, which delays the output of the next control
valve. When control valve  is operated, the one way flow control valve will slow down the flow
of air, thus delaying the signal output of the outlet of control valve  (A), resulting in a persistent
ON-signal. The time when control valve  will be restored to its original position is not affected.
Fig. 26 Circuit diagram of an ON-signal delay circuit
OFF-signal Delay
The circuit diagram of an OFF-signal delay circuit, which delays the output of the next control
valve. This circuit is similar to an ON-signal delay circuit. The only difference is that the one way
flow control valve is connected in the opposite direction. Therefore, when control valve  is
operated, the outlet of control valve  (A) will continue to output signals. However, when control
valve  is restored to its original position, the release of air is slowed down by the one way flow
control valve, resulting in a persistent OFF-signal.

Fig. 27 Circuit diagram of an OFF-signal delay circuit

Single acting cylinder control

Single acting cylinders can be controlled manually. However, they can also be controlled by
two or more valves. This is called logic control. Examples of logic control include ‘OR’ function,
‘AND’ function, ‘NOT’ function, etc.

Direct control and speed control

If a single acting cylinder is connected to a manual 3/2 directional control valve, when the
control valve is operated, it will cause the cylinder to work (Fig. 28). Therefore, the circuit allows
the cylinder to be controlled manually.

Direct control of a single acting cylinder

The only way to change the extension speed of the piston of a single acting cylinder is to
restrict the flow of air at the inlet and use the spring to determine the speed of retraction. Therefore,
a one way flow control valve is placed in the circuit to control the speed.
OR Function
The single acting cylinder can be operated by two different circuits. Examples include manual
operation and relying on automatic circuit signals, that is, when either control valve
 or control valve  is operated, the cylinder will work. Therefore, the circuit in possesses the OR
function. However, if the output of two 3/2 directional control valves are connected through the port
of a triode, the air current from control valve  will be released through the exhaust of control
valve , and so the cylinder will not work. This problem can be solved by connecting a shuttle
valve to the port of the triode.

Circuit diagram of an OR function circuit

AND Function
Another name for an AND function is interlock control. This means control is possible only
when two conditions are satisfied. A classic example is a pneumatic system that works only when
its safety door is closed and its manual control valve is operated. The flow passage will open only
when both control valves are operated. shows the circuit diagram of an AND function circuit. The
cylinder will work only when both valve  and  are operated.

Circuit diagram of an AND function circuit

NOT Function
Another name for a NOT function is inverse control. In order to hold or lock an operating
conveyor or a similar machine, the cylinder must be locked until a signal for cancelling the lock is
received. Therefore, the signal for cancelling the lock should be operated by a normally open type
control valve. However, to cancel the lock, the same signal must also cancel the locks on other
devices, like the indication signal  in Fig. 31. Fig. 31 shows how the normally closed type control
valve  can be used to cut off the normally open type control valve  and achieve the goal of
changing the signal.

Circuit diagram for a NOT function circuit

Double acting cylinder

Direct control
The only difference between a single acting cylinder and a double acting cylinder is that a
double acting cylinder uses a 5/2 directional control valve instead of a 3/2 directional control valve.
Usually, when a double acting cylinder is not operated, outlet ‘B’ and inlet ‘P’ will be connected. In
this circuit, whenever the operation button is pushed manually, the double acting cylinder will move
back and forth once.

Circuit diagram of a double acting cylinder direct control circuit

 In order to control the speed in both directions, flow control valves are connected to
the inlets on both sides of the cylinder. The direction of the flow control valve is opposite
to that of the release of air by the flow control valve of the single acting cylinder.
Compared to the throttle inlet, the flow control valve is tougher and more stable.
Connecting the circuit in this way allows the input of sufficient air pressure and energy to
drive the piston.

Single control
A cylinder always has to maintain its position in a lot of situations, even after the
operational signal has disappeared. This can be achieved by the use of a circuit that
possesses the memory function. As shown in Fig. 33, the extension path of a double
acting cylinder is activated by control valve , while retraction is governed by control
valve . Control valve , on the other hand, maintains the position of the cylinder by
maintaining its own position. Control valve  will be changed only when one of the
manual control valves is pushed. If both control valves  and  are operated at the
same time, control valve  will be subject to the same pressure and will remain in its

original position.
Circuit that maintains the position of a double acting cylinder

Cascade method

Method cascading
In object-oriented programming, method cascading is syntax which allows multiple methods
to be called on the same object. This is particularly applied in fluent interfaces.

Application
Cascading is syntactic sugar that eliminates the need to list the object repeatedly. This is
particularly used in fluent interfaces, which feature many method calls on a single object.
This is particularly useful if the object is the value of a lengthy expression, as it eliminates the
need to either list the expression repeatedly or use a temporary variable. For example, instead
of either listing an expression repeatedly:

Comparison with method chaining

Given a method call , after executing the call, method cascading evaluates this expression to
the left object a (with its new value, if mutated), while method chaining evaluates this
expression to the right object.

cascading method of signal elimination

Reversing Valves [Double piloted 5/2 way or 4/2 way] .These are signal processing valves
which are used to change over from one signal to next signal Depending on the presence of
set or reset signal at the reversing valves, output change over takes place from port 4 to port 2
of the valve There is no need to examine exact step where signal over lap occur in the circuit

Reversing Valves
When an input limit switch signal, S1 is generated , it is used to activate a Final Control
valve. This results in activation of a corresponding cylinder which is followed by activation
of a limit switch S2. This limit switch signal cancels the first input signal S1 using a reversing
valve and the same process continues

Conditions for Cascading

Number of signal inputs [from limit switches] must be equal to number of

output signals [pilot signals to final control valves]
• Each input signal is assigned to a particular out put signal

• It should be possible to store an out put signal even when the corresponding input

signal is no longer present

• Only one out put signal may exist at any one point or it must be possible to

eliminate any specific output signal

• The input signal should be effective in the same required sequence

• No. of reversing valves required are (n-1), where n is total number signals from limit
switches or signal groups
Electro-pneumatic system

Electro-pneumatic action
The electro-pneumatic action is a control system by the mean of air pressure for pipe organs,
whereby air pressure, controlled by an electric current and operated by the keys of an organ
console, opens and closes valves within wind chests, allowing the pipes to speak. This system
also allows the console to be physically detached from the organ itself. The only connection
was via an electrical cable from the console to the relay, with some early organ consoles
utilizing a separate wind supply to operate combination pistons.

Invention
Although early experiments with Barker lever, tubular-pneumatic and electro-pneumatic
actions date as far back as the 1850s, credit for a feasible design is generally given to the
English organist and inventor, Robert Hope-Jones. He overcame the difficulties inherent in
earlier designs by including a rotating centrifugal air blower and replacing banks of batteries
with a DC generator, which provided electrical power to the organ. This allowed the
construction of new pipe organs without any physical linkages whatsoever. Previous organs
used tracker action, which requires a mechanical linkage between the console and the organ
windchests, or tubular-pneumatic action, which linked the console and windchests with a
large bundle of lead tubing.

Operation
When an organ key is depressed, an electric circuit is completed by means of a switch
connected to that key. This causes a low-voltage current to flow through a cable to the
windchest, upon which a rank, or multiple ranks of pipes are set. Within the chest, a small
electro-magnet associated with the key that is pressed becomes energized. This causes a very
small valve to open. This, in turn, allows wind pressure to activate a bellows or "pneumatic"
which operates a larger valve. This valve causes a change of air pressure within a channel
that leads to all pipes of that note. A separate "stop action" system is used to control the
admittance of air or "wind" into the pipes of the rank or ranks selected by the organist's
selection of stops, while other ranks are "stopped" from playing. The stop action can also be
an electro-pneumatic action, or may be another type of action. This pneumatically assisted
valve action is in contrast to a direct electric action in which each pipe's valve is opened
directly by an electric solenoid which is attached to the valve.

Advantages and disadvantages

The console of an organ which uses either type of electric action is connected to the other
mechanisms by an electrical cable. This makes it possible for the console to be placed in any
desirable location. It also permits the console to be movable, or to be installed on a "lift", as
was the practice with theater organs.
While many consider tracker action organs to be more sensitive to the player's control, others
find some tracker organs heavy to play and tubular-pneumatic organs to be sluggish, and so
prefer electro-pneumatic or direct electric actions.

An electro-pneumatic action requires less current to operate than a direct electric action. This
causes less demand on switch contacts. An organ using electro-pneumatic action was more
reliable in operation than early direct electric organs until improvements were made in direct
electric components.

A disadvantage of an electro-pneumatic organ is its use of large quantities of thin perishable

leather, usually lambskin. This requires an extensive "re-leathering" of the windchests every
twenty-five to forty years depending upon the quality of the material used, the atmospheric
conditions and the use of the organ.

Like tracker and tubular action, electro-pneumatic action—when employing the commonly
used pitman-style windchests—is less flexible in operation than direct electric action[citation
needed]. When electro-pneumatic action uses unit windchests (as does the electro-pneumatic
action constructed by organ builder Schoenstein & Co. then it works similarly to direct
electric action, in which each rank operates independently, allowing "unification", where
each individual rank on a windchest can be played at various octave ranges.

A drawback to older electric action organs was the large amount of wiring required for
operation. With each stop tab and key being wired, the transmission cable could easily
contain several hundred wires. The great number of wires required between the keyboards,
the banks of relays and the organ itself, with each solenoid requiring its own signal wire,
made the situation worse, especially if a wire was broken (this was particularly true with
consoles located on lifts and/or turntables), which made tracing the break very difficult.

These problems increased with the size of the instrument, and it would not be unusual for a
particular organ to contain over a hundred miles of wiring. The largest pipe organ in the
world, the Boardwalk Hall Auditorium Organ, is said to contain more than 137,500 miles
(221,300 km) of wire. Modern electronic switching has largely overcome these physical
problems.

Basic Elements of a Pneumatic System

A – Compressor: a pump which compresses air, raising it to a higher pressure, and delivers it
to the pneumatic system (sometimes, can also be used to generate a vacuum).
B – Check valve: one-way valve that allows pressurized air to enter the pneumatic system,
but prevents backflow (and loss of pressure) into the compressor when it is stopped.

C – Accumulator: stores compressed air, preventing surges in pressure and relieving the
duty cycle of the compressor.

D – Directional valve: controls the flow of pressurized air from the source to the selected
port. Some valves permit free exhaust from the port not selected. These valves can be
actuated either manually or electrically (the valves typically provided in the FIRST kits use
dual solenoids to change the direction of the valve, based on input signals from the control
system).

E – Actuator: converts energy stored in the compressed air into mechanical motion. A linear
piston is shown. Alternate tools include rotary actuators, air tools, expanding bladders, etc.

Ladder Diagram

The ladder diagram (LD) originated in the graphical representation of electrical control
systems using relays (relay-based logic). It is mostly used for discrete automation and is ideal
for sequential control with interlocks. The specifics of LD are as follows:

 Based on the schemes/circuit diagrams of relay logic programming, as discussed in

Appendix A
 Graphical representation for the programming elements

The name ladder diagram is derived from the program’s resemblance to a ladder with two
vertical rails and a series of horizontal rungs between them. The rails are called power rails in
the ladder diagram. illustrates a typical ladder diagram and its conventions.

Ladder logic diagrams

Ladder diagrams can become quite complex. PLC systems generally have the ability to
perform math functions on data, apply Boolean operators, and store data in registers or
memory locations.

Consider these simple examples:

An output is only energised when there is a continuous true path from the left-hand side to
the right-hand side of the ladder.
Output Y400 is energised (true) as long as inputs X000 AND X100 are both closed (true).

Introduction to fluidics
Fluidics, or fluidic logic, is the use of a fluid to perform analog or digital operations similar to
those performed with electronics.

The physical basis of fluidics is pneumatics and hydraulics, based on the theoretical
foundation of fluid dynamics. The term fluidics is normally used when devices have no
moving parts, so ordinary hydraulic components such as hydraulic cylinders and spool valves
are not considered or referred to as fluidic devices.

A jet of fluid can be deflected by a weaker jet striking it at the side. This provides nonlinear
amplification, similar to the transistor used in electronic digital logic. It is used mostly in
environments where electronic digital logic would be unreliable, as in systems exposed to
high levels of electromagnetic interference or ionizing radiation.

Nanotechnology considers fluidics as one of its instruments. In this domain, effects such as
fluid-solid and fluid-fluid interface forces are often highly significant. Fluidics have also been
used for military applications.

Logic elements
Logic gates can be built that use water instead of electricity to power the gating function.
These are reliant on being positioned in one orientation to perform correctly. An OR gate is
simply two pipes being merged, and a NOT gate (inverter) consists of "A" deflecting a supply
stream to produce Ā. The AND and XOR gates are sketched in the diagram. An inverter
could also be implemented with the XOR gate, as A XOR 1 = Ā.
Another kind of fluidic logic is bubble logic. Bubble logic gates conserve the number of bits
entering and exiting the device, because bubbles are neither produced nor destroyed in the
logic operation, analogous to billiard-ball computer gates.

Components
Amplifiers

In a fluidic amplifier, a fluid supply, which may be air, water, or hydraulic fluid, enters at the
bottom. Pressure applied to the control ports C1 or C2 deflects the stream, so that it exits via
either port O1 or O2. The stream entering the control ports may be much weaker than the
stream being deflected, so the device has gain.

Given this basic device, flip flops and other fluidic logic elements can be constructed. Simple
systems of digital logic can thus be built.

Fluidic amplifiers typically have bandwidths in the low kilohertz range, so systems built from
them are quite slow compared to electronic devices

Pneumatic logic circuits

A pneumatic logic circuit is an interconnected set of components that convert compressed gas
(usually air) into mechanical work. In the normal sense of the term, the circuit must include a
compressor or compressor-fed tank.

Components
The circuit comprises the following components:

 Active components
o Compressor
 Transmission lines
o Air tank
o Pneumatic hoses
o Open atmosphere (for returning the spent gas to the compressor)
o Valves
 Passive components
o Pneumatic cylinders
o Service Unit
 FRL - Filter Regulator and Lubrication

Pneumatic cylinder
In general, based on the application, a pneumatic cylinder is usually a single acting cylinder,
where there is a single port in the cylinder and where cylinder extension is done by
compressed air and retraction by means of open coiled spring. In double acting cylinders two
ports both extend and retract by means of compressed air.
Direction control valve (DCV)
The direction control valve is used to control the direction of flow of compressed air. Usually
classified into normally open (NO)and normally closed (NC)valves. The normally open
valves will permit flow from inlet port of valve to outlet port normally the flow will be cut by
changing the position of the valve. The normally closed valves will not permit flow from inlet
port of valve to outlet port normally the flow will be permitted only by changing the position
of the valve. In general valves are designated as 2/2 DCV, 3/2DCV, 5/2 DCV,5/3 DCV etc.
In which the first numerical indicates number of ports and second numerical indicates
number of positions. To change the position, the valves are generally actuated by:

 Pedal Operated
 Push button operated
 Spring operated
 Solenoid operated
 By using Pneumatic source itself etc.

Two pressure valve (And Valve)

Generally two valve actuators (push buttons) are used when both the push buttons are pressed
at a time the air flow takes place if either any one is pressed at a time air flow will not take
place in valve outlet. Generally used in mechanical press and machine tools to ensure
operator's both the hands are outside the machine or press during operation.
OR Valve
Generally two valve actuators (push buttons) are used when either one push button is pressed
the air flow takes place. This is also called a shuttle valve.
Check valve
The check valve allows air flow in one direction, it is also called as non return valve.
Quick exhaust valve
The valve construction is OR valve with exhaust port,ensures quick return of cylinder
therefore cycle time reduces
Flow control valve
The combination throttle valve connected to check valve is called one way flow control
valve, while air passes from one direction to other the check valve will not allow the air flow
(As the check valve allows flow only in one direction) while through the restricted way of
throttle compressed air flow takes place. While the air comes out from other way both the
ways of throttle as well as the check valve opens to pass the compressed air therefore the
piston moment in one direction can be controlled.
Time delay valve
The combination of 3/2 direction control valve, reservoir and flow control valve is time delay
valve. This valve is used to delay the actuation of cylinder after pressing the push button or
pedal etc.
Pressure relief valve
The pressure relief valve is used to maintain the system set pressure, in case if the system set
pressure increases the pressure relief valve gets opens and exhaust the compressed air to
atmosphere
The following devices operate using compressed gases, but are not normally thought of as
being pneumatic circuits:

 Guns
 Rockets
 Refrigerators
 Internal combustion engines
 Scuba set