FITOPLANKTON PRACTICAL GUIDE

Edited By:
Rizky Regina Kawirian
E1A012066

BIOLOGY PROGRAM
FACULTY OF TEACHER TRAINING AND EDUCATION
MATARAM UNIVERSITY

2016
 INTRODUCTION

Autotrophs include photosynthetic organisms such as land plants and algae. They
possess chlorophyll and carry on photosynthesis in freshwater and marine habitats. Algae
make up the phytoplankton, which are photosynthesizing organisms suspended in water.
Green. Phytoplankton found in the sunlit epilimnion use up nutrients as they photosynthesize.
Photosynthesis releases oxygen, giving this layer a ready supply (Mader, 2010).
Phytoplankton (phytos = plant; plankton = ‘drifters’) refers here to all photosynthetic
organisms that are carried around by the waves and currents of the oceans, be it small, often
unicellular, cyanobacteria, eukaryotic microalgae or the occasional larger alga drifting in the
water body (Beer et al., 2014).
The word ‘algae’ originates from the Latin word for seaweed and is now applied to a
broad assemblage of organisms that can be defined both in terms of morphology and general
physiology. They are simple organisms, without differentiation into roots, stems and leaves –
and their sexual organs are not enclosed within protective coverings. In terms of physiology,
they are fundamentally autotrophic (obtaining all their materials from inorganic sources) and
photosynthetic–generating complex carbon compounds from carbon dioxide and light energy.
Some algae have become secondarily heterotrophic, taking up complex organic molecules by
organotrophy or heterotrophy (Tuchman (1996) in Bellinger and Sigee, (2015) ).
Oceans covering about 71% of the earth’s surface contain more than 5000 species of
planktonic microscopic algae, the phytoplankton, which forms the base of the marine food
chain and produces roughly 50% of the oxygen we inhale. However, phytoplankton is not
only a cause of life, but also sometimes a cause of death. When the population becomes too
large in response to pollution with nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphate, these blooms can
reduce the water transparency, causing the death of other photosynthetic organisms.
(Barsanti and Gualtieri, 2006).

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 1

Diagrammatic Structure of Some Algae

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 2

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 3
Fitoplankton Practical Guide 4
Fitoplankton Practical Guide 5
Fitoplankton Practical Guide 6
 Common Spesies of Algae

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 7

Microcystis flosaquae Microcystis aeruginosa Anabaena circinalis Anabaena spiroides

Closterium sp. Cosmarium sp. Aulacoseira sp. Synedra sp.

A
u
l
a
Fragilaria sp. Navicula sp. Cocconeis sp. c Pinularia sp.
o
As
eu
il
ra
Peridinium sp. Ceratium hirundinella Gymnodinium sp. Euglena sp.
ac
.
o
ss
A pe

.ui
lr

Asterionellopsis glacialis aa Bacillaria paxillifera

Phacus sp. Trachelomonas sp.
c

. os
Aul
sap
ec .
o
i
s

Chaetoceros sp. Corethron hystrix Coscinodiscus sp. re Cylindrotheca closterium

ai
r
.
Fitoplankton Practical Guide Au a 8
ls
s
ap
p
c
.
 Ditylum brightwellii Eucampia zodiacus Pleurosigma sp. Gyrosigma sp.

.
A
u
l
a
c
Leptocylindrus danicus Leptocylindrus minimus Lithodesmium undulatum
o Melosira nummuloides
s
. Au
e
l
i
a
rc
a
o
s
es
Navicula sp. Navicula sp. Odontella aurita Odontella sinensis/
ip
/Biddulphia aurita Biddulphia sinensis
r.
.
a
A
u
s
l
p
a
.
c
o
s
Paralia sulcata/ Pseudo-nitzschia sp. Rhizosolenia setigera e Skeletonema sp.
Gaillonella sulcata/ i
Melosira sulcata . r
a

s
p
.

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 9

Striatella unipunctataa Thalassionema Thalassionema Thalassiosira sp.
frauenfeldii/ nitzschioides
Thalassiothrix frauenfeldii

Thalassiosira auguste- Thalassiosira Akashiwo sanguinea/ Alexandrium fundyense

lineata pseudonana/ Cyclotella Gymnodinium
nana sanguineum.

Ceratium furca/ Ceratium tripos Cochlodinium Dinophysis acuminata

Neoceratium furca polykrikoides

Peridinium Prorocentrum micans Prorocentrum minimum Distephanus speculum

quinquecorne

Fitoplankton
.
Practical Guide 10
Pyramimonas sp. Ebria tripartita Hydrodictyon Dinobryon

Epipyxis Vaucheria. Batrachospermum Audouinella

Stigeoclonium. Cladophora Melosira Aulacoseira

Fragilaria. Fragilaria Tabellaria Tabellaria

Diatoma Diatoma Spirogyra Spirogyra

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 11

 Desmidium Zygnema Mougeotia Mougeotia

Oedogonium Tribonema Tribonema Ulothrix

Ulothrix Stigonema Tolypothrix Gloeotrichia

Aphanizomenon Anabaena Anabaena circinalis Pseudanabaena

Anabaena flos-aquae Nostoc Arthrospira Oscillatoria

.
Oscillatoria

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 12

 Lyngbya Phormidium Gomphosphaeria Gomphosphaeria

Synechocystis. Gloeocapsa Chroococcus Chroococcus

Aphanocapsa. Microcystis Microcystis Pandorina

Gonium Synura Eudorina Eudorina

Volvox Volvox Meridion Asterionella

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 13

 Synedra Actinastrum Dictyosphaerium Sphaerocystis

Pediastrum simplek Pediastrum boryanum Coelastrum Oocystis

Oocystis Scenedesmus opoliensis Mallomonas Phacus

.

Euglena Chrysochromulina Rhodomonas Cryptomonas

.

Haematococcus Haematococcus Chlamydomonas Ceratium

.

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 14

Peridiniums Stephanodiscus Auliscus Aulacodiscus
.

Hyalodiscus Cyclotella Gyrosigma Gyrosigma

.

Cocconeis Cymatopleura elliptica Encyonema Rhoicosphenia

.

Gomphonema Planothidium Nitzschia Nitzschia

.

Pinnularia Navicula Navicula Chlorella

.

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 15

 Pleurotaenium Staurastrum. Cosmarium Selenastrum

Monoraphidium Closterium moniliferum Closterium aciculare Micrasterias

Thalassiosira eccentrica Thalassiosira oestrupii Thalassiosira oestrupii Planktoniella sol

var. venrickae

Cyclotella striata Cyclotella stylorum Lauderia annulata Detonula pumila

Skeletonema costatum Stephanopyxis Paralia sulcata Paralia sulcata

palmeriana

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 16

Coscinodiscus Coscinodiscus Coscinodiscus Coscinodiscus
asteromphalus asteromphalus centralis centralis

Coscinodiscus granii Coscinodiscus granii Coscinodiscus Coscinodiscus

marginatus oculus-iridis

v
Coscinodiscus oculus- Coscinodiscus radiatus Coscinodiscus Palmeria
iridis var. borealis wailesii hardmaniana

Actinocyclus Actinocyclus octonarius Actinocyclus. Asteromphalus

octonarius var. var. octonarius octonarius var. flabellatus
crassus tenellus

Asteromphalus hookeri Biddulphia sinensis Triceratium cf. Triceratium reticulum

broeckii

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 17

 Lampriscus Dimeregramma minor Biddulphia pulchella Cerataulina bicornis
shadboltianum

Cerataulina Cerataulina pelagica Climacodium Eucampia zodiacus

dentata frauenfeldianum

Eucampia zodiacus Hemiaulus Hemiaulus sinensis Bellerochea

membranaceus horologicalis

Bellerochea malleus Helicotheca thamensis Ditylum Corethron criophilum

brightwelli

Rhizosolenia Rhizosolenia cochlea Rhizosolenia Rhizosolenia cf.

bergonii imbricata pungens

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 18

Rhizosolenia robusta Rhizosolenia shrubsolei Proboscia alata Proboscia alata f.
indica

Pseudosolenia Guinardia flaccida Guinardia delicatula Guinardia striata

calcar-avis

Dactyliosolen Bacteriastrum Bacteriastrum Bacteriastrum cf.

fragilissimus delicatulum delicatulum elegans

Bacteriastrum hyalinum Bacteriastrum hyalinum Bacteriastrum hyalinum Bacteriastrum

varians var. hispida

Bacteriastrum varians var. hispida

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 19

 Chaetoceros Chaetoceros Chaetoceros Chaetoceros
affinis coarctatus compressus
atlanticus

Chaetoceros cf. Chaetoceros Chaetoceros decipiens Chaetoceros

costatus denticulatus
curvisetum

Chaetoceros Chaetoceros Chaetoceros laciniosus Chaetoceros laevis

diversus
didymus

Chaetoceros Chaetoceros Chaetoceros Chaetoceros socialis

lorenzianus
peruvianus pseudocurvisetum

Chaetoceros tortissimum

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 20

Leptocylindrus Leptocylindrus Trachysphenia Diplomenora
danicus cocconeiformis
minimus australis

Grammatophora Grammatophora Striatella unipunctata Lyrella cf. abrupta

marina oceanica

Lyrella atlantica Lyrella clavata Lyrella fogedii Lyrella cf. hennedyi

Lyrella spectabilis Mastogloia cf. Mastogloia decussata Mastogloia erythraea

arabica

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 21

 Mastogloia linearis Mastogloia Mac- Achnanthes brevipes v. intermedia
Donaldii

Achnanthes cf. Cocconeis placentula Cymbella Gomphonema

fimbriata

Berkeleya scopulorum var. perlonga

Fallacia cf. arenaria Caloneis cf. westii Oestrupia musca Diploneis

chersonensis

Diploneis didyma Diploneis aff. Diploneis interrupta Diploneis litoralis

gemmatula

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 22

 Diploneis Diploneis Diploneis Diploneis Meuniera membranacea
smithii suborbicularis vacillans
weissflogii
var.
renitens

Navicula Navicula Navicula Trachyneis Trachyneis aspera

directa var. cf. erifuga perhombus
antillarum
remota

Haslea cf. balearica Pleurosigma Pleurosigma diverse- Pleurosigma

cuspidatum striatum cf. elongatum

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 23

 Pleurosigma Pleurosigma cf. strigosum Gyrosigma Plagiotropis
formosum diminutum lepidoptera

Amphora Amphora Amphora Amphora Amphora proteus

decussata obtusa cf. obtusa ostrearia

Amphora sulcata

Amphora Amphora Bacillaria socialis

Amphora cf. turgida
rhombica spectabilis

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 24

 Bacillaria paxillifera

Cylindrotheca closterium Hantzschia

amphioxis

Nitzschia behrei
Nitzschia coarctata

Nitzschia cf. fluminensis Nitzschia longissima Nitzschia lorenziana

Nitzschia cf. sigma Nitzschia cf. sigmoidea Nitzschia panduriformis

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 25

 Peudo-nitzschia seriata Peudo-nitzschia delicatissima

Entomoneis sulcata Surirella fastuosa

Surirella fastuosa Surirella cf. hybrida Surirella scalaris

Plagiodiscus nervatus Prorocentrum Prorocentrum compressum

balticum

Prorocentrum gracile Prorocentrum lima

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 26

Prorocentrum micans Prorocentrum Prorocentrum triestinum
rhathymum

Dinophysis acuta Dinophysis caudata

Dinophysis miles

Dinophysis mitra Dinophysis Dinophysis

norvegica rotundata

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 27

Histioneis costata Ornithocercus Pseudophalacroma Amphidinium sp

magnificus nasutum

Ceratium fusus

Ceratium breve

Ceratium furca
Ceratium lineatum

Ceratium massiliense Ceratium trichoceros

Ceratium tripos

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 28

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 29
 Schematic Picture of Some Algae

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 30

 Plate 1

Plate 1
1.Nitella. 2. Chara; 1a. Dinobryon sociale,
1b. Dinobryon divergens, 2. Epipyxis anglica
.3. Lemanea : (a) growths on higher plant stem, (b) whole
alga. 4. Vaucheria. 5.Batrachospermum: (a) whole alga,
(b) detail of main stem and branching. 6. Hildenbrandia.

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 31

 Plate 2

Plate 2
1. Coleochaete. 2. Aphanochaete. 3.
Bulbochaete. 4. Chaetophora: (a) whole alga,
(b) growths on stem of higher plant. 5.
Draparnaldia. 6. Stigeoclonium.

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 32

 Plate 3

Plate 3
1. Gongrosira. 2. Microthamnion. 3. Rhizoclonium: (a) general view, (b) detail of cell. 4. Melosira:
(a) M.
varians, (b) M. nummuloides, (c) M. (now Aulacoseira) italica, (d) M. dickiei. 5. Tabellaria
fenestrata: (a) girdle view of colony, (b) single cell – valve view, (c) zig-zag colony. 6. Tabellaria
flocculosa. 7. Fragilaria: (a) F. crotonensis, (b) F. capucina – single cell, girdle view.

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 33

 Plate 4

Plate 4
1. Diatoma: (a) D. vulgaris girdle view, (b) D. vulgaris valve view, (c) D. anceps valve view. 2.
Spirogyra: (a) S. protecta, (b) S. circumlineata, (with zygospore) (c) S. wrightiana. 3. Geminella.
4. Spondylosium: (a) S. planum, (b) S. rectangulare. 5. Stichococcus. 6. Microspora: (a) M.
crassior, (b) M. floccosa. 7. Tribonema: (a) T. viride, (b) T. minus.

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 34

 Plate 5

Plate 5
1. Ulothrix. 2. Klebsormidium. 3. Stigonema. 4. Tolypothrix. 5. Scytonema. 6. Calothrix.
7. Homoeothrix.

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 35

 Plate 6

Plate 6
1. Gloeotrichia: (a) colony, (b) filaments. 2. Rivularia: (a) colony, (b) filaments. 3.
Cylindrospermum. 4. Aphanizomenon: (a) raft of filaments, (b) single filament. 5.
Lyngbya: (a) L. aestuarii, (b) L. major. 6. Phormidium: (a) P. lucidum, (b) P.
autumnale. 7. Chamaesiphon: (a) single cell with exospores, (b) colony.

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 36

 Plate 7

Plate 7
1. Oscillatoria rubescens. 2. Oscillatoria tenuis. 3. Oscillatoria princeps.
4. Oscillatoria brevis. 5. Oscillatoria agardhii.

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 37

 Plate 8

Plate 8
1. Merismopedia: (a) M. punctata, (b) M. elegans. 2. Coelosphaerium. 3.
Woronichinia: (a) colony, (b) cells
with radiating stalks attached. 4. Synechococcus. 5. Snowella. 6.
Gomphosphaeria: (a) colony, (b) individual cells. 7.
Chroococcus: (a) C. turgidus, (b) C. limneticus. 8. Gloeocapsa. 9.
Aphanothece. 10. Aphanocapsa

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 38

 Plate 9

Plate 9
1. Pandorina. 2. Gonium. 3. Eudorina. 4. Synura. 5. Uroglena. 6. Volvox, surface
detail of colony: (a) V. globator, (b) V. tertius.

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 39

 Plate 10

Plate 10
1. Kirchneriella. 2. Actinastrum. 3. Elakatothrix: (a) individual cells, (b) colony
, 4. Meridion: (a) colony, (b) single cell, valve view
. 5. Asterionella: (a) single cell, girdle view, (b) colony. 6. Tetraspora: (a) colony, (b)
zoospore. 7. Botryococcus:
(a) general view of colony, (b) detail of cells. 8. Dictyosphaerium.

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 40

 Plate 11

Plate 11
1. Asterococcus. 2. Gloeocystis. 3. Palmella. 4.
Sphaerocystis

. 5. Westella. 6. Micractinium.
7. Protoderma.
8. Pediastrum:
(a) P. boryanum v. cornutum,
(b) P. boryanum, (c) P. tetras,
(d) P. duplex, (e) P. simplex, (f)
P. simplex v.
gracillimum.

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 41

 Plate 12

Plate 12
1. Coelastrum: (a) C. microporum, (b) C. asteroideum. 2. Sorastrum. 3. Tetrastrum: (a) T.
triangulare, (b) T. staurogeniforme. 4. Pleurococcus. 5. Crucigenia:
(a) C. tetrapedia, (b) C. fenestrata. 6. Oocystis: (a) O. elliptica, (b)
O. solitaria, (c) O. natans.

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 42

 Plate 13

Plate 13 Species of Scenedesmus

. 1. S. communis (synonym S. quadricauda). 2. S. arcuatus. 3. S. opoliensis. 4. S.

armatus var. bicaudatus. 5. S. acuminatus. 6. S. dimorphus. 7. S. obliquus. 8. S. obtusus.

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 43

 Plate 14

Plate 14
1. Mallomonas. 2. Trachelomonas: (a) T. hispida, (b) T.
superba, (c) T. caudata, 3. Phacus: (a) P. triqueter,
(b) P. longicauda. 4. Euglena: (a) E. viridis, (b) E.
mutabilis, (c). Euglenoid movement.

5. Chromulina.
6. Lepocinclis.
7. Pyramimonas.
8. Spermatozopsis.

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 44

 Plate 15

Plate 15
1. Carteria. 2. Chlorogonium. 3. Chroomonas. 4. Rhodomonas: (a) R. lacustris, (b) R.
nanoplanktica. 5.
Cryptomonas: (a) C. curvata, (b) C. ovata. 6. Pteromonas: (a) P. aequiciliata, (b) P.
aculeata. 7. Haematococcus. 8.
Chlamydomonas: (a) C. reinhardtii, (b) C. globosa.

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 45

 Plate 16

Plate 16
1. Ceratium hirundinella. 2. Ceratium cornutum: (a) vegetative cell, (b) cyst. 3.
Woloszynskia coronata.
4. Peridinium: (a) P. volzii, (b) P. limbatum. 5. Gymnodinium: (a) G. chiastosporum, (b)
G. fuscum, (c) G. aeruginosum.
6. Glenodinium cinctum.

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 46

 Plate 17

Plate 17
1. Thalassiosira. 2. Hyalodiscus. 3. Aulacodiscus. 4. Cyclotella. 5. Coscinodiscus.
6. Stephanodiscus.
7. Cyclostephanus. 8. Auliscus. 9. Actinoptychus. 10. Actinocyclus.

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 47

 Plate 18

Plate 18
1. Thalassiosira: (a) Chain of cells, girdle view, (b) single cell, valve view. 2.
Stephanodiscus. 3. Auliscus.
4. Aulacodiscus. 5. Hyalodiscus. 6. Cyclotella. 7. Actinocyclus.

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 48

 Plate 19

Plate 19
1. Rhizosolenia. 2. Acanthoceras. 3. Urosolenia. 4. Chaetoceros. 5. Ellerbeckia.
6. Melosira nummuloides

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 49

 Plate 20

Plate 20
1. Asteromphalus. 2. Actinoptychus. 3. Coscinodiscus. 4. Ellerbeckia. 5. Orthoseira.
6. Aulacoseira: (a) A. granulata, (b) A. italica
.

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 50

 Plate 21

Plate 21
1. Stenopterobia. 2. Gyrosigma: (a) frustule markings, (b) chloroplasts. 3. Nitzschia.
4. Surirella: (a) S. linearis – frustule markings
, (b) S. linearis – chloroplast, (c) S. robusta, (d) S. minuta, (e) S. elegans.

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 51

 Plate 22

Plate 22
1. Cocconeis: (a) C. placentula (showing frustule markings/chloroplast),
(b) C. pedicula. 2. Diploneis. 3. Campylodiscus:
(a) valve viewwith frustule markings, (b) girdle viewwith chloroplast.
(c) side viewto showsaddle-shape
4. Semiorbis. 5. Eunotia: (a) E. arcus (showing chloroplast),
(b) E. serra (with markings). 6. Hannaea. 7. Reimeria

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 52

Plate 23

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 53

 Plate 23
A/B: general valve view – different orientations of raphe 1. Encyonema: Type A raphe (a)
frustule markings, (b) chloroplast. 2. Amphora: (a) valve view – frustule markings, (b) valve
view – chloroplast, (c) girdle view – chloroplast.
3. Cymbella: Type B raphe (a) frustule markings,
(b) chloroplast. 4. Rhopalodia: (a) valve view, (b) girdle
view. 5. Peronia: (a) valve view, (b) girdle view. 6. Rhoicosphenia: (a) valve view, (b)
girdle view.

Plate 24

Plate 24
1. Didymosphenia. 2. Gomphonema: (a) G. augur frustule markings, (b) G. acuminatum
chloroplast arrangement. 3. Epithemia. 4. Achnanthes: (a) valve view, (b) girdle view,
chloroplast. 5. Tetracyclus: (a) valve view
(b) girdle view. 6. Diatoma hyemalis: (a) valve view, (b) girdle view. 7. Diatoma vulgaris.
8. Fragilariaforma: (a) valve
view. (b) girdle view.

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 54

 Plate 25

Plate 25
1. Synedra, valve views: (a) S. ulna – valve view, markings, (b) S. ulna – girdle
view, chloroplasts, (c)
S. acus. 2. Nitzschia: (a) N. acicularis, (b) N. palea, (c) N. amphibia, (d) N.
dissipata, (e) N. linearis. 3. Stauroneis. 4.
Neidium: (a) valve view, frustule markings, (b) chloroplasts. 5. Caloneis – frustule
markings/chloroplasts. 6. Luticola. 7.
Brachysira. 8. Craticula.

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 55

 Plate 26

Plate 26
1. Pinnularia viridis: (a) surface markings, (b) chloroplasts. 2. Amphipleura: (a)
surface markings (b) chloroplasts.
3. Diploneis: (a) surface markings, (b) chloroplasts. 4. Frustulia.

(A) Golenkinia,
(B) Lagerheimia,
(C) Micractinium.

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 56

 Plate 27.1
Spesies of Navicula:
1. N. rhynchocephala. 2. N. tripunctata. 3a,b.
N. bryophila. 4. N. subtilissima.

Plate 27.1

Plate 27.2

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 57

 Plate 27.2
1. Chodatella 2. Chlorella 3. Oocystis. 4. Tetraedron. 5. Pleurotaenium. 6.
Tetmemorus 7. Actinotaenium

Plate 28

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 58

 Plate 28
1. Xanthidium. 2. Staurodesmus. (a) S. convergens, (b) S. sellatus. 3.
Staurastrum: (a) S. anatinum, (b) S. arctison. 4. Micrasterias. 5. Euastrum.

Plate 29

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 59

 Plate 29
1. Ankyra. 2. Monoraphidium, species shape variations: (a) M. griffithii, (b) M.
arcuatum, (c) M. contortum.
3. Selenastrum, variation in colony appearance: S. bibraianum (a) naked colony, (b)
cells enclosed within a mucilaginous
envelope. 4. Ankistrodesmus. 5. Closterium. 6. Penium.

Fitoplankton Practical Guide 60

 REFERENCES
Beer, S., M. Bj¨ork., dan J. Beardall. 2014. Photosynthesis in the Marine Environment
Second Edition. USA: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Barsanti, L. and P. Gualtieri. 2006. Algae. Anatomy, Biochemistry, and Biotechnology. USA:
CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group.
Bellinger, E. G. dan D. C. Sigee. 2015. Freshwater Algae Identification and Use as
Bioindicators. Second Edition. USA: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Belcher, Hillary dan Erica Swale.1976. A beginner’s guide to Freshwater Algae. London:
Institute of Terrestrial Ecology Natural Environment Research Council.
Mader, Sylvia S. 2010. Biology. Tenth Edition. New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies.
Al-Kandari, M., F. Y. Al-Yamani., K. Al-Rifaie. 2009. Marine Phytoplankton Atlas of
Kuwait’s Waters. Kuwait :Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research.
Patten, P. V., J. Y. Li., G H. Wikfors. 2012. A Student’s Guide to Common Phytoplankton of
Long Island Sound. Connecticut Sea Grant College Program 2012.
Perry, Robert. 2003. A Guide to the Marine Plankton of Southern California. 3rd Edition.
UCLA OceanGLOBE & Malibu High School. Accessed in
http://www.msc.ucla.edu/oceanglobe.

Rissik, D., D.v. Senden., M. Doherty.,T. Ingleton., P. Ajani,. L. Bowling.,M. Gibbs., M.

Gladstone., T.Kobayashi, I. Suthers and W. Froneman. 2009. Plankton: a Guide to
Their Ecology and Monitoring for Water Quality. editors by Iain M. Suthers and
David Rissik. Australia: CSIRO Publishing.