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INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL :
The term soil has various meaning depending upon the general
professional field in which it is being considered. To an agriculturist, soil is the
substance existing on earth surface which grown and develops plant. But to an
Engineer, soil is the unaggregated or uncommented deposit of mineral and/or
organic particles or minerals covering the earth crust. It includes different
materials like boulders, sands, gravels clays and silts and the range of particle
size may extend from granis only fraction of a micron (10-4cm) in dia. upto large
size boulders.
Soil engineering, soil mechanics or Geotechnique is one of the youngest
disciplines of civil engineering involving the study of soil, its behaviours and
application as an engineering material. Dr. Karl Terzaghi published his first book
on soil mechanics in 1925 and he actually gave the concept on this new subject.
When lime is added to a wer soil following two types of reaction occur.
(i) Lime alters the nature of the absorbed water layers of the soil
particles by base exchange phenomenon. Calcium ions displace
the other ions (Sodium or hydrogen) naturally carried by the soil.
The double layer of the soil colloids may be depressed due to an
increase in the cation concentration or may expand due to high pH
value of lime.
(ii) A puzzolanic or cementing action takes place with the lime
reacting chemically with available silica (Sio2) and alumina
(Al2O2) in soils to form natural cement composed of calcium
Aluminus silicate complexes.
The principal changes that occur in soil during limes stabilization are as
follows –
(i) Clay particles get flocculated to larger sizes. The plastic limit
increases. The plasticity index of highly plastic soil decreases.
(ii) The shrinkage limit increases and shrinkage ratio decreases.
Resistance to water absorption, capillary raise and volume change on
wetting or drying increases.
(iii) Strength and durability increases.
(iv) In general there is an increase in the optimum water content and
reduction the maximum compacted density.2
Popularity of use of local soil for the construction of roads and buildings
is increasing due to economical and durable products produced. To make such
constructions more resistant to softening effects of water, the use of lime as a
stabilizer is gaining popularity. As a result of research work carried out in
different parts of the world, the stabilization of soils with lime has shown a very
promising future. Lime soil seems to have now come to stay as a material of
construction with comparatively low strength.
Lime stabilized soil may be used not only for road construction or airfield
pavements but for various purposes-
(a) As a surfacing for low cost roads or areas of ground desired to be water
proofed such as farm yards, verges, carparking places, store yards etc.
(b) As sub-base under all types of road surfacing and under footpaths, cyce
tracks, school playground, carparks, runways, floors of factories etc.
(c) In the formation of embankents, and filling in the craters, pits etc.
(d) For filling in pipe trenches under road it is necessary to abviate settlement
and consiquent damage to road surfacings.
(e) For filling behind the retaining walls, over arches, and culverts and in
limited spaces whore it is not practicable to obtain adequate compaction
by rolling.
2.1 It is known in the second century, Romans used lime in building industry by
mixing with it pozzolanic material.
The first attempt to improve soil with lime for roads was perhaps made in
1924, in the state of Missouri as an experiement on the construction of a road
using hydrated lime. In spite of some initial success in the stabilization of soil
with lime, no serious attempt was made to extend the technique to a large scale
construction till the 2nd world war when gravel stabilized with lime was used in
the construction of runwarys and taxiways in Texas.
In another test road built in 1959 near Fort Dodge, Iowa, lime was used as
a base material; other materials used in the base course were lime flyash, and
cement.
3.2 FLOCULATION :
Goldberg and Klein after carrying out studies on X ray diffraction and
differential thermal analysis of two clays (portevile clay containing 50 to 60 per
cent montmorillonite and bentonite) concluded that most of calcium hydroxide is
converted into calcium carbonate and no free calcium hydroxide remains after
some time. Their studies donot disclose detactable amounts of hydroxilicate of
lime. Chemical analysis of treated portervile clay shown progressively higher
values of calcium carbonate when treated with increasing concentration of
calcium hydroxide content as a result of partial carbonation of calcium hydroxide
calcium bicarbonate was also found in the lime treated bentonite which originally
contained no calcium carbonate.
However, Clare and Cruchley have found that the formation of carbonate
is not essential for imparting strength to soil stabilized with lime. They made
samples of soil stabilized with lime and save a heavy coating of paraffin wax to
prevent access of air so that no carbondioxide (CO2) from air can react lime. It
has been found that even than the soil develops strength and, therefore,
contradicats the theory of formation of carbonate to impart strength to lime
stabilised soil. It could, however, be argued that the air entraped in the voids of
the blocks contains enough CO2 to convert Ca (OH)2 in to CaCo3. To avoid this
argument, work was conducted in the Central Road Research Institute by curing
the lime treated blocks in vacuum desicator, which removed the air completely. It
was noticed that after curing for a week or so the blocks developed the same
strength as those cured in air, thereby disporving the theory of carbonate
formation.
One of the theories put forward is that the increase in strength of soil
stabilized with Ca(OH)2 could also be due to the hexagenal crystals of Ca(OH)2
which can be formed at temperature of 28o to 30oC and under reduced pressure
conditions which are met with under actual field conditions. It was shown as a
result of experiments carried out in U.K. that even when required temperature and
moisture conditions for the crystallisation were not provided there was still
improvement in the soil strength thereby cancelling the application of this theory.
The various physical properties of soil which are effected by lime are the
followig :
i) Liquid limit
ii) Plastic limit
iii) Plasticity index
iv) Other properties of soil
v) Californin bearing ratio (C.B.R.)
vi) Unconfined compressive strength.
The effect of addition of lime on the liquid limit of different types of soil
has been studied by research workers in various parts of the world. The results
are conflicting in as much as, some has observed rise in liquid limit values where
as others have found less in values. Research carried out in India with black
cotton soil has been shown that liquid limit of the soil decreases with the increase
in concentration of lime. Similar observations have also been made in U.S.A. by
Spangler and Patel on heavy clayey soil. But Clare and Cruchley in U.K. and
Zietleh and Zolkov in Israel report a complex reaction. According to the work
done in U.K. the immediate effect of the addition of small concentration of lime
such as 1 .p.c. rises the liquid limit of the soil considerably but further addition of
lime upto 10 p.c. steadily reduces this value, though at mostage lower than the
liquid limit of the untreated soil.
Most of the clayey soils which have rediculously low strength in soaked
condition improve considerably by treatment with lime. It has been shown as a
research work carried out in India on black cotton soil that the compressive
strength can go up as high as 150-200 lb. per sq. inch after 7 day curing. It has
also been noticed further addition of lime beyond certain limit causes reduction
of strength. Work done by Fuller and Dubny has shown that the ultimate
compressive strength of lime treated soil rises progressively at least for 300 days
resulting in an ultimate compressive strength of 780 lb per sq. inch. Recent
research work has shown that higher compressive strength can be obtained if
instead of calcium lime a mixure of calcium and magnasium lime in equal
proportion is used. The plot ever leaf shows the results obtained from the
research work by Manuel Matees at Iowa State University.
CHAPTER-V
METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY
Clayey soil was selected for the purpose of experiment. The soil was
properly dried. The dried clay was rammed and sieved with a sieve B.S. No. 200
and pure clay particles were separated out. Thus about 3 kg. soil was sieved out
which was taken for testing purpose. The soil obtained thus was brownish yellow
in colour.
5.2.2 Operation ‘A’ :
About 2 kg. of the sieved soil was taken and the following tests were
performed :
Liquid limit test was performed with standard procedure using liquid limit
testing apparatus (gig. 9). The results are plotted in a semilogarithemic paper
(water content vs. Ho. of blows) and liquid limit was found to be 0.42 p.c.
The soil was mixed thoroughly with drinkable water until the soil mss
becomes plastic enough to be easily moulded with fingers. Following the usual
procedure a thread of 3 mm dia. was prepared and then the plastic limit was
determined.
From the liquid limit and plastic limit as obtained above the plasticity
index was determined as given below.
Ip = Wl – Wp
Where, Ip = plasticity index
Wl = Liquid limit
Wp = Plastic limit
Where,
W2 = wt. of mould compacted soil
W1 = wt. of empty mould
V = volume of compacted soil = (volume of the mould)
The dry density of the soil is given by,
V
b
Va = 1+w
2 kg. of the soil was taken and mixed throughly with 15 p.c. of drinking
water (i.e. at O.M.C.). the soil was then compacted in a Poroctor’s mould in three
layers using standard rammer (2.6 kg wt.) and 25 number of blows for each layer.
Remoulded samplaes of standard size (length 8.5 cm and dia. 3.8 cm) were
obtained from the mould and subjected to compressive force in a uncomfined
compression tester. The failure behaviours was observed and the unconfined
compressive strangth was obtained from the plot.
2 kg. of the dry soil was mixed throughly with 15 p.c. drinkable water (by
weight). The soil was then compacted in Proctors mould as usual procedure.
Then the compacted soil was tested with the help of Proctor needle (fig. 11) using
0.8 cm. dia. Needle. The penetration resistance was determined for the
penetration of each division upto five divisions. The dry density of the compacted
soil was also determined.
2 kg. soil was taken in a bowel. A quantity of lime (powdered and sieved
properly) weighing 20 grams in 1 p.c. by wt. of the soil was mixed throughly
with the soil in the bowel. This soil was subjected to the same series of tests as in
operation ‘A’ following the same procedure except steps 5.2.2.5 and 5.2.2.6.
The operation ‘C’; ‘D’, ‘E’ and ‘F’ were performed by following the same
procedure as discussed above.
CHAPTER-VI
TEST RESULTS
Table-I
Table-II
Percentage of lime 0 1 2 3 4 5
Liquid limit in p.c. 44 46.8 54 45.5 45 44.5
Plastic limit in p.c. 16 17 21 30.5 38.6 41.5
Plasticity index in p.c. 28 29.8 33 15 6.4 3
Shrinkage limit in p.c. 2.6 3.6 4.67 8.7 10.5 12.5
Shrinkage ratio 1.99 1.85 1.76 1.69 1.66 1.62
6.1.3 EFFECT OF LIME DRY DENSITY AT FIXED MOISTURE
CONTENT (ABOUT 18 P.C.)
Table-III
Percentage of lime 0 1 2 3 4 5
Wt. density in gm/cc 1.95 1.95 1.89 1.89 1.83 1.78
Dry density in gm/cc 1.67 1.67 1.60 1.56 1.52 1.49
6.1.4 EFFECT OF LIME ON THE PENETRATION RESISTANCE OF
THE SOIL.
Table-IV
Percentage of Depth of Penetration Maximum
lime penetration in resistance in penetration
cm. kg/cm resistance in
kg/cm2
1.3 6
2.6 6.5
0 3.9 7 8
5.2 7
6.5 8
1.3
6
2.6
7
3.9
1 8 8
5.2
8
6.5
6
1.3 9
2.6 11
2 3.9 13 13
5.2 13
6.5 11
1.3 8
2.6 10
3 3.9 10 10
5.2 8
6.5 7
1.3 7
2.6 7.5
4 3.9 7.5 7.5
5.2 7.5
6.5 7
1.3 7
2.6 7.5
5 3.9 7 7.5
5.2 6.5
6.5 6
CHAPTER-VII
DISCUSSION OF THE TEST RESULTS
In this investigation following aspects were not considered which are left
for further study –
1. Chemical analysis of the clay and determination of its p.H. value. After
determination of the p.H. value, effect of lime on clay with different p.H.
value can be studied.
2. Chemical analysis of the soil to determine the propertion of the different
constituents : After determination of the constituents, effect of lime on
clay with different proportion of constituents can be determined in detail.
3. Effect of lime on soil when applied in the form of slurry : Here powdered
lime has been used. Therefore, effect of lime on soil applied in the form
of slurry can be investigated.
4. Effect of lime on soil at varying temperatures : Temperature effect is also
not studied here, which can be studied.
5. Effect of lime on soil with different lime lapse : Time effect on
stabilization of clay soil by lime can be studied.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Title
No.
1. Effect of various additives on the atterberg limits of a gumbotil soil.
2. Effect of various additives on the strength of a friable loess soil.
3. Effect of lime on the liquid limit plastic limit and plasticity index of
clayey soil.
4. Effect of lime on shrinkage limit of clayey soil.
5. Variation of shrinkage limit with different percentage of lime.
6. Effect of lime on dry density of clayey soil.
7. Relation between penetration resistance and depth of penetration
with different percentage of lime.
8. Variation of maximum penetration resistance with different
percentage of lime.
9. Liquid limit apparatus and grooving tool.
10. Proctor’s mould and rammer.
11. Proctor needle.
12. Balance.
APPENDIX-III