Rashid 2016

Chapter 9
A Compendium of the Urban Layout Maps

of Downtown Areas in Cities Around
the World
Map Keys
Name of the City
Street Map Urban Block Map
Street Centerline Map Axial Map

(Colored using Integration)
1000
500 m
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 235

M. Rashid, The Geometry of Urban Layouts,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-30750-3_9
236 9 A Compendium of the Urban Layout Maps of Downtown Areas in Cities…
9.1 Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
Abu Dhabi is the capital and the second most populous city of the United Arab
Emirates. The city is located on the northeastern part of the Persian Gulf in the
Arabian Peninsula. It is on an island less than 250 m (820 ft) from the mainland and
is joined to the mainland by several bridges [1]. The city was planned in the 1970s
with main roads laid out in a grid-iron pattern [2]. On the northerly end of the island,
where the downtown area is located and where the population density is highest, the
main streets are lined with 20–30-story towers. Behind these towers are villas or
low-rise buildings) [1].
The area shown here in the maps contains such neighborhoods as Al Manhal,
Khalidiya Village, Al Zaab, Al Tibbiya, Al Dhafrah, Al Wahdah, and Al Rowdah.
Among these, Al Manhal has the Al Manhal Palace, and Al Tibbiya has the Sheikh
Kalifa Medical City. The other neighborhoods have many low-rise residential quar-
ters mixed with government buildings, shopping centers, office towers, high-rise
hotels and apartments, banks, museums, and schools. As shown in the maps, the
streets of the area are laid out in an inconsistent manner within a large regular grid
system. These streets are often short and remain confined within the units defined
by the large grid system. The urban blocks, defined as islands surrounded by streets,
have different shapes and sizes. Some of the larger blocks have streets and dead
ends within them, while the smaller ones are served by the streets around the perim-
eter only. In the axial map colored using the integration values of the axial lines, the
most integrated lines run along the streets of the larger grid system of the area.
Within the large grid system, axial lines along the other streets remain segregated,
promoting, maybe, a sense of seclusion and privacy.
9.1 Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates 237
9.2 Abuja, Nigeria
Located in the center of the country, Abuja is the capital city of Nigeria. It is one of
the few purpose-built capital cities in Africa [3]. Built mainly in the 1980s, it offi-
cially became Nigeria’s capital on December 12, 1991, replacing Lagos [3]. The
master plan for Abuja and the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) was developed by
International Planning Associates (IPA), a consortium of three American firms:
Planning Research Corporation; Wallace, McHarg, Roberts & Todd; and
Archisystems, a division of the Hughes Organization [4]. More detailed design of
the central areas of the capital, particularly its monumental core, was done by Kenzo
Tange, with his team of city planners at Kenzo Tange and Urtec Company [3].
The area shown in the maps here has two parts with distinctly different street
patterns separated by greenways and parks. One of these parts includes several
zones of the Wuse District. They contain Abuja’s principal market, hotels, hospitals,
and government buildings surrounded by residential areas. These areas are defined
by curvilinear streets similar to those found in the superblocks of American sub-
urbs. The other part is defined by straight streets laid down in a rectilinear pattern.
The central business district (CBD) of the city and the seat of the Nigerian govern-
ment are located here. The area also contains many office buildings, hotels, schools,
libraries, and shopping centers. Despite being planned, urban blocks in the part with
curvilinear patterns show inconsistent size and shape characterized by loops and
dead ends. In the axial map colored using the integration values of the axial lines,
the most integrated lines form a cross with very limited geographical reach. As a
result, most axial lines in the area remain poorly integrated.
9.2 Abuja, Nigeria 239
9.3 Accra, Ghana
Accra is the capital and the largest city of Ghana. It stretches along the Ghanaian
Atlantic coast and extends north into Ghana’s interior. Originally built around a
port, Accra served as the capital of the British Gold Coast between 1877 and 1957
[5].
The area, as shown in the maps here, contains parts of the historic districts of
Usshertown, Tudu, Victoriaborg, West Ridge, East Ridge, Jamestown, Adabraka,
Asylum Down, North Ridge, and Christiansborg/Osu. These areas comprise of a
mixture of very low-density and high-density developments. They include adminis-
trative and cultural centers, government ministries, hotels, businesses, financial
institutions, and residential areas.
As can be seen in these maps, the street grid of the area is defined by multiple
patterns laid out in different orientations. Some of these patterns are compact, while
others are loose. As a result, the street grid of the area is discontinuous at several
places. The urban blocks within the area vary in size and shape, with larger blocks
in the center and smaller blocks on the edges. In the axial map colored using the
integration values of the axial lines, the most integrated lines do not reach out to
different parts of the area in the same way. As a result, while most streets in the left
part of the area remain fairly integrated, those on the right remain poor integrated.
9.3 Accra, Ghana 241
9.4 Ad Doha, Qatar
Doha is the capital and the most populous city of the state of Qatar. It is located on
the coast of the Persian Gulf in the east of the country. Doha was founded in the
1820s. It was officially declared the country’s capital in 1971, when Qatar gained
independence [6]. In 1974 the British consultant Llewelyn Davis was appointed to
design the first master plan of Doha, projected for 1990. His plan was based on ring
and radial roads defining numerous administrative zones [7]. In the plan, the first
ring, Ring A, was defined as the modern city center with mixed-use commercial
functions. The second ring, Ring B, was planned as a transitional zone with multi-
story residential units for workers. Ring C was reserved for medium-to-high-density
housing areas, and Ring D for high-quality housing areas. Later, Rings E and F were
added, extending the city [7]. Based on Davis’s plan, a new city center was created
consisting of commercial developments, services, and multistory housing for work-
ers. To make room for the new city center, most of the old Qatari neighborhoods
were demolished by the end of the 1970s [7].
The maps here clearly show the ring and radial roads, as conceived by Davis.
However, within the larger street grid defined by the ring and radial roads, irregular
street patterns have developed. These patterns are often discontinuous because
streets often do not reach the major roads defining the larger grid system. The urban
blocks within the area are fine grained, almost like a traditional Islamic city. In the
axial map colored using the integration values of the axial lines, the most integrated
lines form a Z-shape with limited geographical reach. Streets with lower integration
values do not branch out of these lines into the surrounding areas. Numerous short
streets of the area have no more than a few connections with other streets in its
neighborhood; they therefore remain less integrated in the area.
9.4 Ad Doha, Qatar 243
9.5 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Addis Ababa is the capital and the largest city of Ethiopia. Founded in 1886, it is
located on a well-watered plateau surrounded by hills and mountains in the geo-
graphic center of the country [8]. In its first years Addis Ababa was more like a mili-
tary encampment than a town. Its central focus was the emperor’s palace, which was
surrounded by the dwellings of his troops and retainers [8]. It then served as the
capital of Italian East Africa from 1935 to 1941, when there were significant changes
in the city. After the Italians left, fewer changes were made to the city between 1941
and 1960. Since then, the growth of Addis Ababa has been impressive [8].
The area shown in the maps here include parts of the districts of Merkato, Agere,
Sengatera, Gola Sefer, Arada, and Aware. These districts include residential, educa-
tional, and commercial functions along with some of the most important institutions
of the country. Except for some parts of the Merkato and Agere Districts, the rest of
the area remains unplanned, following the traces of the early military encampment
[8].
The street grid of the area, as shown in the maps here, is extremely irregular and
discontinuous. As a result, urban blocks are also irregular in shape and size. Along
with the organic processes of growth, natural features, such as the mountainous ter-
rain, might have contributed to the irregularities and discontinuities observed in the
area. Despite discontinuity in the grid, as shown in the axial map colored using the
integration values of the axial lines, the most integrated streets cover much of the
area and reach deep into the fabric of the city. As a result, most streets in the area
remain well connected, indicating that visible discontinuity in the street grid may
not always translate into configurational discontinuity in urban layouts.
9.5 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia 245
9.6 Algiers, Algeria
Algiers is the capital and the largest city of Algeria. It is situated on the west side of
a bay of the Mediterranean Sea. The modern part of the city is built on the level
ground by the seashore, while the old part climbs the steep hill behind the modern
town and is crowned by the casbah, or citadel [9]. Though started as a Phoenician
commercial outpost called Ikosim, the present-day city was founded in 944 by
Bologhine ibn Ziri, the founder of the Berber Zirid-Sanhaja dynasty [10]. After
being ruled by the Ottomans, starting in 1516, Algiers became the capital of French
Algeria in 1830. In 1962, it became the capital of independent Algeria [9].
The area in these maps lies south of the casbah in a hilly area. Centered on the El
Mouradia commune, or district, the area also includes parts of the Paradou, Haut
Hydra, Mustapha Superieur, and Mustapha communes, among others. Generally
known to the inhabitants of Algiers as “the heights of Algiers,” these districts
include residential and commercial functions, along with many foreign embassies,
government ministries, and university centers, making the area one of the adminis-
trative and policy centers of the country.
The maps here show that most streets are curvilinear because they follow hilly
terrains. As a result, the urban blocks of the area are irregular in shape and size.
Some of these blocks are very small, while others are quite large. In the axial map
colored using the integration values of the axial lines, the most integrated lines
remain centered along one street, and they fail to reach deep into the fabric of the
city owing to fragmented axial lines along curvilinear streets. As a result, most areas
remain poorly integrated.
9.6 Algiers, Algeria 247
9.7 Amman, Jordan
Amman is the capital and the most populous city of Jordan. It is situated on a hilly
area in northwestern Jordan. Built over 19 hills (each known as a Jabal, Tál, Mount,
or Mountain), the main areas of Amman gain their names from the hills and moun-
tains on whose slopes they lie [11]. The history of Amman goes back many millen-
nia. It was mentioned in the Bible as Rabbath Ammon [11]. The settlement was
dominated by the Ammonites, followed by the Assyrians and then by the Nabataeans,
before it became a Roman trade center and was renamed Philadelphia [11]. After
the Islamic conquests, Amman experienced a slow decline until the Ottomans built
the Hejaz Railway, linking Damascus and Medina. Amman became a major station
on the railway, facilitating both the hajj (pilgrimage) to Mecca and permanent trade
in the region. When the Ottomans were forced out after the World War I, under the
British Mandate the Hashemites formed a monarchy that has ruled Jordan to the
present [12]. Amman became the capital of Jordan after its independence in 1946.
The area shown in these maps include parts of Jabal Amman, Jabal Al Weibdeh,
Jabal al Qalaa (the Citadel), Al Qusur (the Royal Palaces), Jabal Al Nasm, Jabal Al
Taj, and Jabal Al Ashrafiye from West and East Amman. The area includes many
historical sites, the Royal Palace, and Old Amman or Balad. The area also includes
institutional, commercial, mixed-use, and residential areas.
As shown in the maps here, the streets of the area are curvilinear, as they follow
hilly terrains. The urban blocks of the area are irregular in shape and size. In the
lines remain centered along a few streets at the interface of West and East Amman,
and they fail to reach deep into the fabric of the city owing to fragmented axial lines
along curvilinear streets. As a result, most streets in the area remain poorly
connected.
9.7 Amman, Jordan 249
9.8 Amsterdam, Netherlands
Located in the western Netherlands, Amsterdam is the capital and the most popu-
lous city of Netherlands. Originating as a small fishing village in the late twelfth
century, Amsterdam became one of the most important ports and a leading center
for finance and diamond trade in the world during the Dutch Golden Age (seven-
teenth century) [13]. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the city expanded,
and many new neighborhoods and suburbs were planned and built [13].
The area shown in the maps here covers the city center of Amsterdam. It corre-
sponds to the city as it was around 1850. The canal system of the area was the result
of conscious city planning for defense, water management, and transportation pur-
poses [14]. The river Amstel, which terminates here, connects to a large number of
these canals. The main concentric canals of the area are the Herengracht, the
Keizersgracht, the Prinsengracht, the Lijnbaansgracht, and the Singelgracht. The
four districts of the city included in the area here are the Old Center, Canal Ring,
Plantage, and Jordaan. The Old Center is known for its traditional architecture and
canals. Canal Ring is a rich neighborhood. Jordaan, built as a traditional working-
class area, now houses many art galleries, hip boutiques, and restaurants. Plantage
contains most of Amsterdam’s museums.
The street grid, as shown in these maps, has remained largely unchanged since
the nineteenth century. It is composed of a set of concentric streets that run along the
canals and a set of radial streets connecting these concentric rings by bridges. As a
result, a large number of urban blocks are radially disposed in a concentric manner.
However, the blocks in the central and peripheral areas do not follow the same radial
pattern. Because of the canals, the area has a large amount of unbuildable area. The
axial map colored using the integration values of the axial lines shows that the most
integrated lines are distributed along the concentric and radial streets, covering a
large part of the area.
9.8 Amsterdam, Netherlands 251
9.9 Ankara, Turkey
Ankara, the present capital of Turkey, is located in the middle of Anatolian Plateau.
The history of Ankara and its surroundings stretches back to the Hattie civilization
of the Bronze Age. Followed by the Hittites, Phrygians, Lydians, and Persians,
Ankara became the capital city of the Galatians in the third century BCE [15]. It
then became an important Roman city [15]. Yet Ankara remained a small town of
few thousand people, mostly living around Ankara Castle, until the beginning of the
twentieth century [15]. The modern Ankara was declared the capital of the new
Turkish republic in 1923 [15]. Except for the old town in and around the citadel near
Ulus and some unplanned shantytowns (not shown in the maps here), most of
Ankara is a purpose-built capital.
Ankara transformed significantly during the 1950s. In 1952, Kızılay, the central
hub of Yenişehir, was formally accepted as the central business district (CBD) [15]
(included in the maps). Landowners were permitted to build apartment blocks along
the boulevard, with shopping arcades on the ground and basement floors. Consistent
with the conventional “international” image of a CBD, the first skyscrapers in
Turkey were also built in Kızılay, housing offices, banks, hotels, and restaurants
[16]. In addition to Kızılay, the area shown here also includes parts of the Altındağ,
Çankaya, Etimesgut, Keçiören, and Yenimahalle mixed-use residential districts.
Except for the part where the old city is located, the street grid of the area is
composed of somewhat irregularly laid out radial and concentric streets. Most urban
blocks here are quadrilaterals with different shapes and sizes. A few urban blocks,
small to large, have irregular shapes. The area also has a few permanent open spaces.
In the axial map colored using the integration values of the axial lines, the most
integrated lines are located around the Kızılay area in the center. Some of these
lines, however, also extend to the peripheral areas. As a result, the streets of a large
part of the area remain well integrated with the other streets in the area.
9.9 Ankara, Turkey 253
9.10 Atlanta, Georgia, United States
Atlanta is the capital and the most populous city of the US state of Georgia. Situated
among the foothills of the Appalachian Mountains, Atlanta is marked by rolling hills
and dense tree coverage [17]. Established in 1837 at the intersection of two railroad
lines, known today as Five Points, Atlanta was burnt to the ground in 1864 during the
Civil War [18]. After the Civil War, Atlanta was gradually rebuilt. During the first
decades of the twentieth century, Atlanta experienced a period of unprecedented
growth. In three decades’ time, Atlanta’s population tripled as the city limits expanded
to include nearby streetcar suburbs [19]. Again, in the twenty-first century, Atlanta is
undergoing a profound transformation demographically, physically, and culturally.
The downtown area shown in the maps here is one of the three major high-rise
districts in Atlanta. The other two high-rise districts are Midtown and Buckhead.
Downtown Atlanta contains many large office buildings. Downtown also contains
sporting venues, tourist attractions, low-density residential neighborhoods and
major universities.
As shown in the maps, the area is composed of multiple regular street patterns
that are torn apart by highways. With a few exceptions, urban blocks of the area are
square in shape and similar in size. In a few cases, initial blocks are combined
together making larger blocks, or they are made smaller using internal streets or
dead ends. The axial map colored using the integration values of the axial lines
shows only a few very highly integrated lines. In general, with some well integrated
and many poorly integrated lines the syntactic structure of the area remains as frag-
mented as the street grid itself.
9.10 Atlanta, Georgia, United States 255
9.11 Auckland, New Zealand
Located on the North Island of New Zealand, Auckland is the largest city of the
country. The central part of the city occupies a narrow isthmus between Manukau
Harbor on the Tasman Sea and Waitemata Harbor on the Pacific Ocean [20]. It is
one of the few cities in the world with two harbors on two separate major bodies of
water [20]. The isthmus was settled by the Māori around 1350. Auckland was estab-
lished in 1840 on the land given to the British governor by the Māori as a sign of
goodwill and in the hope that the building of a city would attract commercial and
political opportunities [21]. Trams and railway lines shaped Auckland’s rapid
expansion in the early twentieth century, but since then arterial roads and motor-
ways have become both defining and geographically dividing features of the urban
landscape of the city.
The area shown here in the maps covers parts of Central Auckland. It includes
the central business district (CBD) and parts of its surrounding areas—Parnell,
Newmarket, Eden Terrace, Ponsonby, and Wynyard Quarter—that made up Old
Auckland City. Bounded by several major motorways and by the harbor coastline in
the north, the CBD is one of the most densely built-up areas of New Zealand, with
high-rise buildings serving office, commercial, and retail functions. It has the high-
est concentration of arts, culture, and higher education institutions and venues in the
country [22].
Mostly determined by its hilly terrain, trams and railways, and highways, the
street grid of the area is irregular with linear and curvilinear streets that stop and/or
change directions all too frequently. At the center of the area is a large public park
system enhancing irregularity as well as discontinuity in the gird. The urban blocks
of the area are inconsistent in shape, size, and orientation. Despite all the irregulari-
ties and discontinuities, the axial map colored using the integration values of the
axial lines shows a spread-out set of very highly integrated lines that cover most of
the area.
9.11 Auckland, New Zealand 257
9.12 Baghdad, Iraq
Baghdad is the capital and the largest city of Iraq. Located along the Tigris River,
the city was founded in the eighth century as the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate
[23]. Within a short time of its founding, Baghdad evolved into a significant cul-
tural, commercial, and intellectual center in the Islamic world and garnered a world-
wide reputation as the “Center of Learning” [23]. Throughout the High Middle
Ages, Baghdad was considered to be the largest city in the world with an estimated
population of 1,200,000 [23]. The city was largely destroyed by the Mongols in
1258, resulting in a decline that would linger through many centuries owing to fre-
quent plagues and multiple successive empires [23]. With the recognition of Iraq as
an independent state (formerly the British Mandate of Mesopotamia) in 1938,
Baghdad gradually regained some of its former prominence as a significant center
of Arab culture [23, 24].
The area shown in the maps includes the neighborhoods of Salehia, Shawaka (Al
Mansour), Al Rasheed, Shorjah, Sinak, Bab Al Sahrqi, and Camp Gaylani. While
some of these neighborhoods are in Old Baghdad, the others are in newer areas. The
majority of these neighborhoods have a mixture of residential, commercial, educa-
tional and religious buildings. Various administrative and government buildings,
office buildings, cultural institutions and transportation hubs can also be found in
the area.
The street grid of the area is composed of a very large net of primary streets and
inconsistent local street patterns within the large net. While the local patterns are
irregular in the older areas, they are quite regular in the newer areas. Consequently,
the shape and size of urban blocks are very irregular and inconsistent in the older
areas, and regular and consistent in the newer area. In the axial map colored using
the integration values of the axial lines, the most integrated lines follow the large net
of primary streets of the area. Because of the continuity in the street grid, the local
streets of the area also remain well connected in the axial map.
9.12 Baghdad, Iraq 259
9.13 Bangkok, Thailand
Bangkok is the capital and the most populous city of Thailand. It is located in the
Chao Phraya River Delta in Thailand’s central plains [25]. The river meanders
through the city in a southward direction. Originally swampland, most of the pres-
ent city area was gradually drained and irrigated for agriculture by the construction
of canals (khlong), which took place throughout the sixteenth to nineteenth centu-
ries. This intricate canal network served as the primary mode of transport, and most
people lived near or on these canals up until the late nineteenth century, when the
construction of modern road systems began. Many of these canals have since been
filled in or paved over, but others still crisscross the city, serving as major drainage
channels and transport routes [25].
Bangkok is subdivided into numerous districts (khet), which are further subdi-
vided into subdistricts (khwaeng) [25]. The area shown here in the maps lies at the
intersection of two peripheral districts of Bangkok—Bueng Kum and Khan Na Yao.
Mostly residential in use, the area also includes hospital, factories, shopping malls,
and commercial buildings.
The area shown in the maps is crisscrossed with canals, which seems to have
affected the street and urban block patterns. Most internal streets end on these
canals, increasing the number of dead ends quite significantly. The narrow elon-
gated shape of urban blocks can be traced back to a time when these plots extended
from one canal to another for easy transport and irrigation. The axial map colored
using the integration values of the axial lines shows a very asymmetric syntactic
structure where only a few streets have many connections. As result, there is a sharp
drop in integration values from these lines to the other lines in the map.
9.13 Bangkok, Thailand 261
9.14 Beirut, Lebanon
Located on a peninsula at the midpoint of Lebanon’s Mediterranean coast, Beirut is

the capital and the largest city of country. Excavations in the downtown area have
unearthed layers of Phoenician, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, Arab, Crusader,
and Ottoman remains. The first historical reference to Beirut is found in the cunei-
form tablets of the Amarna letters sent to the pharaoh of Egypt in the fourteenth
century BCE [26]. After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire following World War
I, Beirut, along with the rest of Lebanon, was placed under the French Mandate.
When Lebanon achieved independence in 1943, Beirut became the capital city.
The area shown in the maps here includes several quarters of Beirut. They are
Dar El Mreisse, Bachoura, Mazraa, Minet El Hosn, Moussaitbeh, Port, Ras Beirut,
Saifi, and Zuqaq al Blat. Damaged during the Lebanese Civil War of 1975–1990,
this area of the city has become the focus of civic life in Lebanon after reconstruc-
tion. Several key institutions, including the Parliament and its related offices, the
ministries and other important government offices, and the Beirut Municipality, are
located in the area. It also has many corporate headquarters, museums, small parks
and squares, souks, shops, fashion boutiques, department stores, and art and handi-
crafts galleries, as well as restaurants and sidewalk cafes [27].
As shown in the maps, the whole area has a complex network of streets and
alleys, similar to the organic patterns commonly found in many traditional Islamic
cities. Most urban blocks in the area are very small and are served by the surround-
ing streets only. In the axial map colored using the integration values of the axial
lines, the most integrated lines form a C-shape. Streets with lower integration values
do not branch out of these lines into the surrounding areas. Therefore, most local
streets remain segregated in the map.
9.14 Beirut, Lebanon 263
9.15 Belo Horizonte, Brazil
Belo Horizonte is one of the largest cities in Brazil. Though the area was first settled
in the early eighteenth century, the city as it is known today was founded in 1897 as
Cidade de Minas and adopted the present name in 1901 [28]. The original size of the
city was 8 square mile (20 square km) in a valley surrounded by mountains, but today
it is many times that size, extending over and beyond the mountains [29]. In planning
the city, Aarão Reis and Francisco Bicalho were inspired by the plans of Washington,
DC, in the United States and La Plata in Argentina [29]. Within the circular ring,
known as Perimeter Avenue, the layout of the original city features large square
sections defined by broad avenues intersected diagonally by smaller streets.
The area shown in the maps here includes a part of the original city area, which
is separated from the newer parts on the north by Perimeter Avenue. Centered on the
District of Centro, the area also includes the districts of Santa Teresa, Colégio
Batista, Lagoinha, Barro Preto, Santo Agostinho, Boa Viagem, Savassi, and
Funcionários. Densely built up with high- and low-rise buildings, the area includes
several residential and commercial areas along with corporate headquarters, gov-
ernment buildings, schools and universities, hospitals, churches, hotels and apart-
ments, museums, and other cultural institutions. The area also includes many
historic landmarks, buildings, parks, and plazas.
As shown in the maps here, the contrast between the old planned areas and the
incrementally developed newer areas beyond Perimeter Avenue is clear. The street
grid of the old area is rigid, while that of the newer areas is composed of several
rectilinear layouts that meet with each other oddly, partly due to mountainous ter-
rain. As a result, all the square urban blocks in the old areas have the same size and
orientation. In contrast, mostly rectangular urban blocks in the new areas have dif-
ferent sizes and orientations. The axial map colored using the integration values of
the axial lines shows only a few highly integrated lines connecting the old areas
with the new areas. While the syntactic structure of the older areas is homogeneous,
it is differentiated in the newer areas, providing different spatial opportunities.
9.15 Belo Horizonte, Brazil 265
9.16 Berlin, Germany
Berlin is the capital and the largest city of Germany. Berlin’s appearance as a city
today is predominantly shaped by the role it played in Germany’s history. Each of
the national governments based in Berlin—the Kingdom of Prussia, the German
Empire, the Weimar Republic, Nazi Germany, East Germany, and now the reunified
Germany—initiated ambitious (re)construction programs, with each adding its own
distinctive style to the city [30]. However, most important of all is the fact that
Berlin was devastated by bombing raids, fires, and street battles during World War
II, and many of the buildings that remained after the war were demolished in the
postwar period in both West and East Berlin. Much of this demolition was initiated
by municipal architecture programs to build new residential or business quarters
and main roads [30].
Present-day Berlin is subdivided into twelve boroughs (Bezirke). Each borough
contains a number of localities (Ortsteile). The area shown in the maps here include
parts of two boroughs—Mitte and Pankow. From Mitte, the area includes parts of
Mitte and Gesundbrunnen, and from Pankow, it includes parts of Prenzlauerberg,
Pankow, and Weißensee. The locality of Mitte contains the historical heart of Berlin,
and it is in many ways the real center of the city [31]. Just like any other downtown
area, this area includes several residential quarters along with corporate headquar-
ters, government buildings, schools and universities, hospitals, churches, hotels and
apartments, museums, and other cultural institutions. The area also includes many
historic landmarks, buildings, parks, and plazas.
The street grid of the area is irregular with straight and curved streets laid out in
different directions. As a result, the area contains small to very large urban blocks
with irregular shapes. The axial map colored using the integration values of the
axial lines shows that the most integrated lines of the area form a centralized core
that reaches out to its different parts.
9.16 Berlin, Germany 267
9.17 Bern, Switzerland
Bern is the capital of Switzerland. The city was originally built on a hilly peninsula
surrounded by the River Aare, but it outgrew the natural boundaries by the nine-
teenth century [32]. A number of bridges have been built to allow the city to expand
beyond the Aare. The city was founded in 1191 by Berthold V, duke of Zähringen
[32]. In 1353 Bern joined the Swiss Confederacy, becoming one of the “eight can-
tons” [32]. Despite the waves of pestilence that hit Europe in the fourteenth century,
the city continued to grow, mainly owing to immigration from the surrounding
countryside. In 1848 Bern was made the Federal City (the seat of the Federal
Assembly) of the new Swiss federal state [32].
The area shown in the maps here include Weisses Quartier, Schwarzes Quartier,
Gelbes Quartier, Kirchenfeld, Altenberg, Monbijou, Länggasse, and Stadtbach.
Some of these quarters make up the historic old town of Bern, which became a
UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983 [32]. Its compact layout has remained essen-
tially unchanged since its construction during the twelfth to fifteenth centuries. In
addition to many historical buildings, the seats of the federal, cantonal, and munici-
pal governments are also situated in the old city. The area outside the old city
includes several residential and commercial buildings, along with corporate head-
quarters, government buildings, schools and universities, hospitals, churches, hotels
and apartments, museums, and other cultural institutions.
Determined by its topography, the street grid of the area is extremely irregular.
The continuity in the grid is disrupted by the river as well as by the open space sys-
tems. The irregular urban blocks of the area vary in size from very small to large.
The axial map colored using the integration values of the axial lines shows that the
most integrated lines of the area branch out from the core of the old city to different
parts of the area. Discontinuity in the street grid may be a reason why a large num-
ber of streets in the area remain poorly connected.
9.17 Bern, Switzerland 269
9.18 Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan
Bishkek, formerly Pishpek and Frunze, is the capital and the largest city of
Kyrgyzstan. Possibly founded by the Sogdians, it was originally a caravan rest stop
on one of the branches of the Silk Road through the Tian Shan range. It gained
some prominence when the Uzbek Khan of Kokhand built a fort at the location in
1825 [33]. In 1860, the fort was conquered and razed by the military forces of
Tsarist Russia, and a town was built over the destroyed fort. The site was redevel-
oped from 1877 onward by the Russian government [33]. It became the capital of
the country in 1991.
Today, Bishkek is a city of wide boulevards and marble-faced public buildings
combined with numerous Soviet-style apartment blocks with interior courtyards
and, especially outside of the city center, thousands of smaller privately built houses
[33]. It is laid out on a grid pattern, with most streets flanked on both sides by nar-
row irrigation channels that water the innumerable trees in the area [33]. The area
shown in these maps include several residential quarters, along with corporate head-
quarters, government buildings and embassies, schools and universities, hospitals,
churches, hotels and apartments, museums, and other cultural institutions.
As can be seen in these maps, the original large square blocks of the area are
often subdivided into smaller blocks with alleys that rarely run beyond a block or
two. In some cases, the interior of the large blocks are accessed by dead ends, creat-
ing irregularity within an otherwise regular street grid. In the axial map colored
using the integration values of the axial lines, the highly integrated lines follow the
larger street grid spanning from one end of the area to the other, and the alleyways
and dead ends within the grid remain poorly integrated.
9.18 Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan 271
9.19 Bogotá, Colombia
Bogotá is the capital and the largest city of Colombia. The area of modern Bogotá
was inhabited by the indigenous people of Mesoamerica before the arrival of the
Spanish colonizers led by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada around 1537 [34]. Under
Spanish rule, the area became a major settlement and later the capital of the Spanish
provinces and the seat of the Viceroyalty of New Granada [34]. After independence,
Bogotá became the capital of the Republic of Colombia.
The area shown in the maps here includes the districts of Santa Fe, Los Mártires,
Antonio Nariño, Puente Aranda, and La Candelaria. La Candelaria, the historical
district of Bogotá, houses the Congress, the Supreme Court of Justice and the center
of the executive administration as well as the residence of the president (Casa de
Nariño). These buildings, along with the principal mayor’s office, the Lievano
Palace (Palacio de Liévano), are located within a few meters from each other in this
area [34]. The other districts in the area provide mixed-use residential quarters with
commercial building, hospitals, schools, shopping areas, and cultural institutions.
As can be observed in the maps here, the rectilinear grid of the area shows occa-
sional discontinuity and irregularity, perhaps, in response to topography. Within the
grid, squares or plazas are used as focal points, typical of Spanish-founded settle-
ments. Most urban bocks of the area are very small and rectangular or square in
shape. The axial map colored using the integration values of the axial lines shows
that several highly integrated streets span from one end of the area to the other in
both directions and that the rest of the streets in the area remain well integrated,
owing to the continuity of the street grid.
9.19 Bogotá, Colombia 273
9.20 Boston, Massachusetts, United States
Boston is the capital and the largest city of the US commonwealth of Massachusetts.
One of the oldest cities in the country, Boston was founded on the Shawmut
Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. More than two-thirds of inner
Boston’s land area did not exist when the city was founded but was created by the
gradual filling in of the surrounding tidal areas over the centuries [35]. Throughout
the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the city continued to be an important port
and manufacturing hub, as well as a center for education and culture, of the state and
the United States. Today, Boston’s economic base includes higher education, health-
care, finance, professional and business services, high-tech industries, and govern-
ment activities [36].
The area shown in the maps here include North End, West End, Beacon Hill,
parts of Back Bay, and the Financial District. Some of these districts contain largely
low-rise buildings, while others contain a mixture of low-rise and high-rise build-
ings. These districts include residential and commercial areas, along with corporate
headquarters, government buildings, financial institutions, schools and universities,
hospitals, churches, hotels and apartments, and museums, as well as parks, open
spaces, and waterfronts. They also contain numerous historic landmarks, buildings,
and places.
The street grid of the area is defined by a collection of rectilinear and irregular
patterns of streets. Overall, the street grid is remarkably discontinuous owing to the
river and open spaces. The urban blocks of the area have different shapes and sizes.
The axial map colored using the integration values of the axial lines shows that a few
highly integrated streets fan out from the central part to the peripheral areas. Despite
discontinuity in the street grid, streets in a large part of the area remain well
integrated.
9.20 Boston, Massachusetts, United States 275
9.21 Bratislava, Slovakia
Bratislava is the capital and the largest city of Slovakia. Located on both banks of
the River Danube and the left bank of the River Morava, the first known settlement
of the area began around 5000 BCE. It was a part of the Roman border defense sys-
tem from the first to the fourth century CE and was a key economic and administra-
tive center on the frontier of the Kingdom of Hungary from 1000 CE on. It was
granted township in 1291 by the Hungarian king Andrew III and was declared a free
royal town in 1405 by King Sigismund. Thereafter, the city became a coronation
town and the seat of kings, archbishops, the nobility, and all major organizations and
offices. Between 1536 and 1830, eleven Hungarian kings and queens were crowned
at St. Martin’s Cathedral here. In the nineteenth century many new industrial, finan-
cial, and other institutions were founded in this city. After a century of political
turmoil, the city became the capital of the newly formed Slovak Republic in 1993.
The area shown in the maps here include the Old Town of Bratislava. Most his-
torical buildings are concentrated in the Old Town. It has several baroque palaces.
The Grassalkovich Palace, built around 1760, is now the residence of the Slovak
president, and the Slovak government now has its seat in the former Archiepiscopal
Palace. The Mayor’s Office is in the Primate’s Palace. The area is also home to
several embassies, universities, museums, theaters, galleries, and other important
cultural and educational institutions. Many of Slovakia’s large businesses and finan-
cial institutions also have headquarters here. Several smaller houses in the area are
also historically significant [37].
The street grid of the area is irregular, with streets changing directions all too
frequently. The size and shape of urban blocks are inconsistent. Some of the larger
blocks have dead ends serving the interior of these blocks. The axial map colored
using the integration values of the axial lines shows that a few highly integrated
streets fan out from the center to the peripheral areas and that the areas with curvi-
linear streets remain more segregated than the areas with more straight streets.
9.21 Bratislava, Slovakia 277
9.22 Brisbane, Australia
Brisbane is the capital city of the Australian state of Queensland. One of the oldest
cities in Australia, Brisbane was chosen as a settlement for secondary offenders
from the Sydney Colony in 1824. Non-convict settlement in the region was allowed
in 1838 [38]. Unlike Sydney and Melbourne, early Brisbane escaped overcrowding
owing to larger residential plots [39]. More recently, the density of the inner city
neighborhoods has increased with the construction of apartments. Today, several of
Australia’s tallest buildings are also located here [39]. The city has also retained
some heritage buildings dating back to the 1820s.
The area shown in the maps here include the Brisbane central business district
(CBD) and parts of Spring Hill, Fortitude Valley, Petrie Terrace, and South Brisbane.
The CBD area started along a thoroughfare that ran northeast from the river’s edge
to the prisoners’ barrack near the corner of today’s Queen and Albert Streets [39].
A town survey in 1840 showed Queen Street as the main street in a grid pattern of
square blocks [38]. However, the initial grid layout was discontinued in the later
developments of the city, and new grids were put place in response to topography.
As shown in the maps, the street grids of the area have discontinuities due to the
river, open spaces and broken streets. Urban blocks are generally small and rectan-
gular in shape. Very large urban blocks are absent in the area. The axial map col-
ored using the integration values of the axial lines shows that the most integrated
lines are located within the CBD of Brisbane and that, despite discontinuity, the
streets of different parts of the area remain well integrated with the other streets of
the map.
9.22 Brisbane, Australia 279
9.23 Bristol, United Kingdom
Bristol is one of the largest cities in England and the United Kingdom and the most
populous city in Southern England outside London [40]. Traces of settlements
found in the area go back to the Iron Age [40]. Romans built villas in the area.
Bristol received a royal charter in 1155 and was part of Gloucestershire until 1373,
when it became a county [40]. From the thirteenth to the eighteenth century, Bristol
was among the top English cities and was the base for exploratory voyages to the
New World [40]. Today, Bristol is among Britain’s most-sustainable cities. The city
also received the 2015 European Green Capital Award, becoming the first UK city
to receive this award [40].
The area shown in the maps here comprises different quarters, including Old
City, City Center (or simply Center), Broadmead, Redcliffe, St. Paul’s, St. Philips,
St. Jude’s, Kingsdown, Brandon, and Canon’s Marsh. These areas include residen-
tial, commercial, business, higher education, and civic and governmental functions,
as well as parks and transportation hubs.
Dictated by the River Avon, the irregular street grid of the area might have origi-
nated in Old City. Within this mostly irregular grid, pockets of more regular street
layouts can be found in the area. The urban blocks in the area range from very small
to very large. Dead ends are found in many large blocks. The axial map colored
using the integration values of the axial lines shows that the most integrated lines of
the area form a ring around City Center, with spikes that reach into the peripheral
areas.
9.23 Bristol, United Kingdom 281
9.24 Brussels, Belgium
Brussels is the capital and the largest city of Belgium. With the headquarters of
many European institutions, Brussels is also considered a capital for the European
Union [41]. It was founded in the tenth century as a fortress town by a descendant
of Charlemagne. The first wall around the city was built in the twelfth century. In
the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, this wall became too narrow for the city. So,
a second wall was built in last quarter of the fourteenth century, which would con-
tain the city till the end of the eighteenth century [42].
When Brussels became the capital city of a new country in the nineteenth century,
many buildings in the old town were destroyed to make room for new ministries, pal-
aces, schools, army barracks, and office blocks [43]. Influenced by French urban plan-
ning and architecture, Brussels’s authorities demolished medieval and Baroque-era
neighborhoods, created new beaux quartiers (beautiful districts), and cut wide boule-
vards through the city—diminishing its historical character [42]. Today, Brussels is
the administrative, commercial, and financial heart of Belgium, and the majority of
services and institutions of national importance are based in the city.
The area shown in the maps here covers the city center, or the historic city.
Sometimes known as the Pentagon, the area is defined by an inner ring road, which
is a sequence of tree-lined boulevards formally numbered as R20. These boulevards
were built upon the site of the second set of city walls following their demolition.
The street grid of the area is mostly irregular. The urban blocks of the area vary
in size and shape. They vary from being very small to very large. The boulevard
along the site of the city wall and several open spaces create discontinuity in the
street grid of the area. In the axial map colored using the integration values of the
axial lines, the most integrated lines of the area can be found along parts of the
perimeter boulevard. Streets with higher integration values do not branch out of
these lines into the surrounding areas. As a result, many streets remain poorly inte-
grated in the area.
9.24 Brussels, Belgium 283
9.25 Bucharest, Romania
Bucharest is the capital and the largest city of Romania. It is in the middle of the
Romanian Plain, on the banks of the Dâmboviţa, a tributary of the Danube [44].
Bucharest was first mentioned in documents in 1459 [44]. It became the capital of
Romania in 1862 [44]. From the Middle Ages to early nineteenth century, the city
was the most important political, administrative, commercial, and cultural center of
the region [44]. During Nicolae Ceaușescu’s leadership (1965–1989), many
“Socialist realist”-style buildings were built in the city [44]. Since 2000, the city has
been continuously modernized and is still undergoing urban renewal [44].
The area shown here contains the tips of Sectors 1, 2, and 3 of the six administra-
tive sectors of the Municipality of Bucharest. It includes parts of downtown Bucharest,
the Old Town, and the parliament building. The area contains historic residential
neighborhoods, offices and banks, convention facilities, educational institutes, cul-
tural venues, traditional “shopping arcades,” and recreational areas. Overlooked dur-
ing the Communist period, Old Town nowadays is the most attractive area for tourists
in Bucharest. As of 2013, many historic buildings of the area have been restored, and
much of the district has been transformed into a pedestrian zone [45].
The street grid of the area is unlike any other city. It lacks any visible order. Most
streets are short, and they often intersect at acute and/or obtuse angles. The shapes
and sizes of the urban blocks of the area are inconsistent. They vary from being very
small to very large. This is also an area where many urban blocks are not
quadrilaterals. In the axial map colored using the integration values of the axial
lines, the most integrated lines of the area are the longest straight lines in the area.
Streets with higher integration values do not branch out of these lines into the sur-
rounding areas. As a result, many short streets of the area remain less integrated.
9.25 Bucharest, Romania 285
9.26 Budapest, Hungary
Budapest is the capital of Hungary. Continuously settled since prehistoric times, the
town was a Roman capital. After the Romans, the Hungarians ruled the town, but their
settlements were destroyed by the Mongols in 1241–1242. The town rebuilt itself as
a center of Renaissance humanist culture by the fifteenth century and was taken over
by the Ottomans. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries it was the second capital
of Austro-Hungarian Empire. Following the two world wars, it has again reestab-
lished itself as a political, cultural, and financial hub of Central Europe [46].
The city consists of two parts, Buda and Pest, which are situated on opposite sides
of the Danube River and are connected by a series of bridges. Buda is built on the
higher river terraces and hills of the western side, while the considerably larger Pest
spreads out on a flat plain on the opposite bank [46]. Greater Budapest has several
districts. The area shown here includes parts of several districts on both sides of the
Danube. The historic old towns of Buda and Pest are also located here. The old town
of Buda still preserves its twisted layout and cobbled streets. Like most other down-
town areas, this area contains historic residential quarters, offices and banks, educa-
tional institutes, cultural venues, traditional “shopping arcades,” and recreational
areas [47].
Reflecting its topography, the street grid of area shows contrasting characteris-
tics. On the Buda side, the street grid is made up of curvilinear streets on a hilly
terrain. Here, large open spaces create discontinuity in the grid, and most urban
blocks are narrow and irregular. On the Pest side, the street grid is mostly rectilinear.
Here, smaller open spaces become a part of the grid without creating discontinuity,
and urban blocks are mostly rectangular and square in shape. In the axial map col-
ored using the integration values of the axial lines, the most integrated lines of the
area can be found along and around one of the bridges connecting both sides. Many
streets remain poorly integrated on both sides of the river.
9.26 Budapest, Hungary 287
9.27 Buenos Aires, Argentina
Buenos Aires is the capital and the largest city of Argentina. It is located on the
western shore of the estuary of the Río de la Plata, on the continent’s southeastern
coast. The city was first established by the Spanish colonizer Pedro de Mendoza in
1536, only to be abandoned in 1541. A second (and permanent) settlement was
established in 1580 by Juan de Garay [48]. Gradually, the modern city developed
westward on a gridiron pattern from this historic core. A significant transformation
to this pattern occurred in the 1930s when, as a part of the “Haussmannization” of
Buenos Aires, broad avenues were built every four blocks running east and west and
every ten blocks running north and south [49].
With wide avenues and a vibrant urban life, Buenos Aires is more generally
European than Latin American in character [50]. It is divided into 48 barrios, or
districts, for administrative purposes [51]. Among the 48 neighborhoods, the area
shown here includes Balvanera and parts of San Nicolás and Monserrat. San Nicolás
shares most of the city and national government structures with neighboring
Montserrat and is home to much of Buenos Aires’s financial sector. Monserrat fea-
tures some of the most important public buildings in Buenos Aires, including the
city hall, the city legislature, Casa Rosada, the Colegio Nacional de Buenos Aires,
and the Libertador Building (Ministry of Defense), among others. Located to the
west of San Nicolás and Montserrat, Balvanera contains apartment buildings on
small lots [51].
The street grid of the area shown in these maps is one of the most regular and
continuous rectilinear grids so far. Most streets are placed at a regular interval in the
N-S and E-W directions. Open spaces are a part of this grid. Most urban blocks are
square in shape and have the same size. In the axial map colored using the integra-
tion values of the axial lines, the most integrated lines of the area run in the E-W and
N-S directions from one end of the area to the other end. The right-hand side of the
area appears more integrated than the left-hand side owing to the fact that the street
grid on the left-hand side is stretched wider with discontinuities created by alleys.
9.27 Buenos Aires, Argentina 289
9.28 Cairo, Egypt
Cairo is the capital of Egypt and the largest city in the Middle East. Located near the
Nile Delta, Cairo has long been a center of the region’s political and cultural life.
Cairo, or al-Qahira, was founded in 969 near Fustat as the new capital for the
Fatimid dynasty [52]. After the city was burnt down at this location in 1168, the
capital was moved further north. During his reign, Saladin, the first Ayyubid Sultan,
built the Cairo Citadel, which served as the seat of the Egyptian government until
the mid-nineteenth century [52]. The modern era of Cairo started after Muhammad
Ali Pasha became the ruler of Egypt in 1805 and initiated many public buildings in
the city [53]. Drawing inspiration from Paris, his grandson Isma’il Pasha (r. 1863–
1879) continued the modernization process. After the British took control of the city
and the country, the city’s economic center quickly moved away from the historic
Islamic Cairo toward the west, near the Nile, where Isma’il built contemporary
European-style areas [52, 54, 55].
The downtown area shown here includes parts of the historic Islamic Cairo, the
European-style Garden City near the riverbank, and the neighborhoods in-between
that are home to most of Cairo’s embassies. While western Cairo is dominated by
wide boulevards, open spaces, and the modern architecture of European influence,
the eastern half, as shown in these layouts, having grown haphazardly over the cen-
turies, is dominated by narrow lanes and crowded buildings.
The street grid of Cairo is unique among all the cities studied here. With an enor-
mous number of street segments, it is the densest street grid. The street grid of the
area also shows contrasting patterns. While the European west side is laid out on
rectilinear grids, the Islamic east side exemplifies a complex organic pattern of
twisted roads, lanes, and frequent cul-de-sacs. The area also has the highest number
of urban blocks, with numerous very small ones. Since small blocks can easily be
served by surrounding streets, the fact that the area has many cul-de-sacs may indi-
cate a sociological need. In the axial map colored using the integration values of the
axial lines, the most integrated lines of the area run through the Islamic side of the
city, probably because the side contains more streets and intersections than the other
side. While the streets in the European side are well connected, there are clusters of
streets on the Islamic side that remain quite disconnected.
9.28 Cairo, Egypt 291
9.29 Calgary, Canada
Calgary is the largest city in the province of Alberta, Canada. It is situated at the
confluence of the Bow River and the Elbow River in the south of the province.
Though the Calgary area was first visited by a European in 1787, it wasn’t until
1873 that the first European settled here [56]. When the Canadian Pacific Railway
reached the area in 1883, Calgary began to grow into an important commercial and
agricultural center. In 1894, it was incorporated as a city. Between 1896 and 1914
settlers from all over the world poured into the area for free “homestead” land.
Agriculture and ranching became key components of the local economy, shaping
the future of Calgary for years to come [57]. During the oil boom years in the 1970s
and 1980s, the relatively low-rise downtown quickly became dense with tall build-
ings [58], a trend that continues to this day.
In all, there are over 180 distinct neighborhoods within the city limits [57]. The
area shown in the maps here includes Eau Claire with the Festival District, the
Downtown West End, the Downtown Commercial Core, Chinatown, and the
Downtown East Village (also part of the Rivers District), Fort Calgary, Victoria
Park, and Ramsay on one side of the river, and Bridgeland on the other side of the
river. Among them, Ramsay and Bridgeland are two inner-city communities. The
Downtown Commercial Core is divided into a number of districts, including the
Stephen Avenue Retail Core, the Entertainment District, the Arts District, and the
Government District. Office buildings are concentrated within the Downtown
Commercial Core, while residential towers occur most frequently within the
Downtown West End and south of downtown. To connect many of the downtown
office buildings, the city also has an extensive skyway network (elevated indoor
pedestrian bridges).
As shown in the maps, the street grid of the area is laid out in rectilinear patterns
with the streets running E-W and N-S directions. Most urban blocks of the area are
rectangular in shape and mostly uniform in size. In the axial map colored using the
integration values of the axial lines, the most integrated lines of the area creates a
large grid system that spans across the whole area. Being directly connected to this
grid system, most internal streets of the area also remain well integrated. However,
being located on the other side of the river, the streets in the NE and SE corners of
the area remain segregated due to a lack of connections with larger network.
9.29 Calgary, Canada 293
9.30 Canberra, Australia
Canberra is the capital city of Australia. It was selected as the site for the nation’s
capital in 1908 as a compromise between rivals Sydney and Melbourne, Australia’s
two largest cities. Walter Burley Griffin and Marion Mahony Griffin of Chicago
submitted the winning design of the city in an international competition, and the
construction of the city started in 1913 [59]. The city’s design was influenced by the
garden city movement and incorporates significant areas of natural vegetation [60].
The Molonglo River, which flows through the city, has been dammed to form the
national capital’s iconic feature, Lake Burley Griffin [61].
The area shown in these maps covers the central business district (CBD; also
known as City) at the center and the districts (suburbs) of Acton, Braddon, Reid,
and Ainslie around the periphery. City includes shopping centers, theaters, casinos,
museums and galleries, and the National Convention Center. Reid is located directly
next to City and is one of the oldest residential suburbs in Canberra. The area also
includes educational and religious buildings. Acton covers an area west of City. It
includes the national university and a few other cultural intuitions. Braddon is an
inner north suburb of Canberra. It contained Canberra’s first light-industrial area. In
recent years this area is being redeveloped as an entertainment and residential pre-
cinct. It is now Canberra’s most densely populated suburb. Ainslie has many charm-
ing early twentieth-century, heritage-listed houses, mature deciduous street trees,
and a shopping center.
As can be seen in the maps, Griffin’s plan is composed of circles, hexagons, and
rectangles. While the street grid in some parts of the plan is based on rectilinear pat-
terns, it is more sinuously laid out in the other parts with numerous cul-de-sacs. The
urban blocks of the area are inconsistent in shape and size. In the axial map colored
using the integration values of the axial lines, the most integrated lines of the area
run between the hexagonal central area and the rectilinear peripheral areas. While
the streets in the rectilinear segments remain well integrated, the streets in the sinu-
ously laid out segments remain segregated for a lack of direct connections with the
more integrated streets.
9.30 Canberra, Australia 295
9.31 Cape Town, South Africa
Cape Town is one of the largest cities of South Africa. It is also the legislative capi-
tal of the country. Located on the shore of Table Bay, Cape Town was first settled in
1652 by the Dutch East India Company as a supply station for Dutch ships sailing
to East Africa, India, and the Far East. Cape Town quickly outgrew its original pur-
pose, becoming the economic and cultural hub of the Cape Colony. In 1814, Cape
Town was permanently ceded to Britain by the Dutch. It became the capital of the
newly formed Cape Colony, whose territory expanded substantially through the
1800s [62].
The area shown in these maps include parts of the City Bowl, which is a natural
amphitheater-shaped area bordered by Table Bay and defined by the mountains of
Signal Hill, Lion’s Head, Table Mountain, and Devil’s Peak. The area includes the
central business district (CBD) of Cape Town, the harbor, the Company’s Garden,
and the residential suburbs of De Waterkant, Devil’s Peak, District Six, Zonnebloem,
Gardens, Bo-Kaap, Schotsche Kloof, and Tamboerskloof. The Cape Town CBD in
the City Bowl is a major business district and a financial center of the Western Cape
and South Africa. The area also includes the South African parliament building and
the buildings of the Western Cape provincial government and City of Cape Town
metropolitan municipality. The Company’s Garden is a park and heritage site located
in central Cape Town. The garden was originally created in the 1650s by the region’s
first European settlers and provided fertile ground to grow fresh produce [62].
As shown in the maps, the street grid of the area is composed of rectilinear pat-
terns in the center. These patterns become irregular toward the peripheral areas
closer to the surrounding mountains. The street grid is discontinuous at many places
owing to broken streets, railways, and very large urban blocks. Most urban blocks
have regular rectangular or square shapes, but the size of these blocks varies from
being small to very large. In the axial map colored using the integration values of
the axial lines, the most integrated lines form a pinwheel shape in the central parts
of the area with arms extending into the peripheral areas. In general, the streets in
the central parts are more integrated than those in the peripheral parts of the area.
9.31 Cape Town, South Africa 297
9.32 Caracas, Venezuela
Caracas is the capital and the largest city of Venezuela. In 1567, Captain Diego de
Losada of Spain laid the foundations of the city [63]. In 1577, Caracas became the
capital of the Spanish Empire’s Venezuela Province under Governor Juan de
Pimentel (1576–1583) [63]. Caracas became the capital of the Captaincy General of
Venezuela in 1777 and then the capital of independent Venezuela in 1811 [63].
Caracas grew in economic importance during Venezuela’s oil boom in the early
twentieth century. The economic structure of the country changed from being
dependent on primarily agriculture to being dependent on oil production. This made
Caracas a magnet for rural people. They migrated to the capital city searching for
greater economic opportunity. This migration created the rancho (slum) belt of the
valley of Caracas [63]. During the 1950s, Caracas began an intensive modernization
program that continued throughout the 1960s and early 1970s. New working- and
middle-class residential districts were developed, extending the urban area toward
the east and southeast [63].
The area shown in these maps include several universities, including the University
City of Caracas (a World Heritage Site), Caracas Botanical Garden, important finan-
cial and cultural institutions, some barrios, and a mixture of residential and com-
mercial areas.
The street grid of the area shows two different patterns of rectilinear layouts sepa-
rated by a large open space system containing the University City. The layout on the
upper part of the area is characterized by square urban blocks, and that of the lower
part is characterized by rectangular blocks. The blocks are generally medium in size,
containing no dead ends. Toward the center on the left-hand side of the area, there is
a very large irregular urban block representing a barrio. In the axial map colored
using the integration values of the axial lines, the most integrated lines of the area lie
on the extreme left of the area along streets connecting the upper and lower parts.
Other relatively less integrated lines then branch out of these lines into the rest of the
area. As a result, only the streets in the University City and in the extreme right-hand
side remain poorly integrated with the other streets of the area.
9.32 Caracas, Venezuela 299
9.33 Charlotte, North Carolina, United States
Charlotte is the largest city in the US state of North Carolina. The area was settled
by people of European descent around 1755 [64]. In 1770, surveyors marked the
streets of the area in a grid pattern for future development. The already existing east-
west trading path became Trade Street, and the Great Wagon Road became Tryon
Street in the newly laid out street grid [64], with the intersection of the two streets
today commonly known as “Trade and Tryon.” The city’s first boom came after the
Civil War, as a cotton-processing center and a railroad hub [64]. The city’s modern-
day banking industry achieved prominence in the 1970s and 1980s, and it is now the
second largest banking headquarters in the United States, after New York City [64].
The area shown in these maps include the First, Second, Third, and the Fourth
Wards of the city, defined by the intersection of Trade and Tryon Streets. Surrounded
by a ring road, this area includes sport complexes, a convention center, a university
campus, financial and cultural institutions, parks, a cemetery, some high-density
residential areas, and parts of historical streetcar suburbs in and outside the ring
road.
As shown in these maps, the street grid within the ring road is laid out in a recti-
linear pattern defining square urban blocks of the same size. The areas outside the
ring road also use rectilinear grids, but these grids are broken or irregular at several
places primarily owing to the ring road. In the axial map colored using the integra-
tion values of the axial lines, the most integrated lines of the area include Tryon,
Trade and Fourth Street, among other streets. The streets outside the ring road
remain poorly integrated probably because of discontinuities.
9.33 Charlotte, North Carolina, United States 301
9.34 Chicago, Illinois, United States
Chicago is the most populous city in the US state of Illinois. It is located in north-
eastern Illinois on the southwestern shores of Lake Michigan. Chicago was founded
in 1812 and was incorporated as a city in 1837 [65]. Since then, it has experienced
rapid growth. Chicago’s first railway opened in 1848, which also marked the open-
ing of the Illinois and Michigan Canal. The canal allowed steamboats and sailing
ships on the Great Lakes to connect to the Mississippi River [65]. Today, the city is
an international hub for finance, commerce, industry, technology, telecommunica-
tions, and transportation [65].
The area shown in the maps here covers a significant part of the central business
district of Chicago, also known as the Loop. It is one of the city’s 77 designated
community areas. The Loop is home to Chicago’s commercial core, city and county
administration, convention centers, several cultural and educational institutions,
shopping districts, hotels and apartments, and parks. Loop architecture has been
dominated by high-rises since early in its history [66].
As shown in these maps, the street grid within the area is laid out in a rectilinear
pattern defining the initial square urban blocks of the same size. Many of these blocks
were later subdivided by alleys. Only in a handful of cases do blocks here have any
dead ends. The area next to the lakefront contains large open spaces. The area also
has some open spaces along the Chicago River and its branches. In the axial map
colored using the integration values of the axial lines, several highly integrated lines
run E-W and N-S, covering almost every part of the area. While cities that are built
on both sides of rivers show some bridges to be more integrated than others, such
effects of rivers on the syntactic structure of Chicago is almost non-existent. Owing
to several bridges, the rivers cause limited discontinuity in the street grid of the area.
9.34 Chicago, Illinois, United States 303
9.35 Cincinnati, Ohio, United States
Cincinnati is the third largest city in the US state of Ohio. It was founded in 1788 and
was named “Cincinnati” in 1790 [67]. The introduction of steamboats on the Ohio
River in 1811 opened up its trade to more rapid shipping, and the city established
commercial ties with St. Louis, Missouri, and especially New Orleans, Louisiana,
downriver. Cincinnati was incorporated as a city in 1819. Completion of the Miami
and Erie Canal in 1827 to Middletown, Ohio, further stimulated businesses in the
city [68]. By the end of the nineteenth century, Cincinnati’s growth slowed consider-
ably, with railroads drawing off freight shipping from steamboats. Yet Cincinnati did
well during the Great Depression of the early twentieth century, largely because of
resurgence in river trade, which was less expensive than transporting goods by rail
[68]. Throughout the later part of the twentieth century the downtown area of the city
went through many redevelopment and revitalization projects.
Downtown Cincinnati serves as the central business district (CBD) of the city
and is one of its many neighborhoods. Laid out on the north bank of the Ohio River
and surrounded by steep hills [69], it contains a large collection of historic architec-
ture and several historic districts, which are on the National Register of Historic
Places. Most of the tallest buildings of the city are also located here. The area
includes residential areas, mixed-use developments, recreational and sports facili-
ties, office buildings, and many financial and cultural institutions.
As seen in these maps, the streets of the area form a rectilinear grid. Bridges from
downtown Cincinnati span the Ohio River across to Covington and Newport in
Kentucky. Like Chicago, a majority of the initial urban blocks of the area were
square in shape and similar in size. Today, several of these blocks are subdivided
into smaller blocks of different sizes. As a result of numerous subdivisions, the
street grid has become somewhat complex. In the axial map colored using the inte-
gration values of the axial lines, a majority of the highly integrated lines run in the
N-S direction, and a fewer run E-W. These lines still cover most parts of the area,
leaving out only a small area with curvilinear streets on the east side of the area
poorly integrated.
9.35 Cincinnati, Ohio, United States 305
9.36 Cleveland, Ohio, United States
Cleveland is the second largest city in the state of Ohio. The city is located in north-
eastern Ohio on the southern shore of Lake Erie. It was founded in 1796 near the
mouth of the Cuyahoga River and was incorporated as a city in 1836 [70]. It soon
became a manufacturing center owing to its location on the lake shore, as well as
being connected to numerous canals and railroad lines. By 1920, owing in large part
to the city’s economic prosperity, Cleveland became the nation’s fifth largest city
[70]. Since then, the city has gone through several ups and downs. In 1999, the city
was identified as an emerging global city [71].
The area shown here in the maps includes downtown Cleveland with its several
districts. Downtown Cleveland is centered on Public Square, an urban open space.
It is home to the Financial District and Civic Center, as well as the Cleveland Theater
District. Mixed-use neighborhoods in the area such as the Flats and Warehouse
District have many industrial and office buildings as well as restaurants and bars.
The Gateway District and North Coast Harbor District include sports complexes,
museums, retail shops, housing, and a large variety of restaurants. Finally, Campus
District includes Cleveland State University, St. Vincent Charity Medical Center,
Cuyahoga Community College, and more.
As shown in the maps, a significant part of the street grid of the area is composed
of rectilinear patterns. Except for a few bridges, the streets across the river remain
discontinuous. The urban blocks of the area are inconsistent in size and shape. Some
of these blocks are very small, while some others are quite large. In the axial map
colored using the integration values of the axial lines, the two most integrated streets
run along Ninth Street in the N-S direction and along Superior Avenue in the E-W
direction. A few other highly integrated lines run parallel, as well as perpendicular,
to the waterfront. These lines cover almost all of the downtown area. Owing to dis-
continuity in the street grid, peripheral streets of the area remain poorly integrated.
9.36 Cleveland, Ohio, United States 307
9.37 Colombo, Sri Lanka
Colombo is the commercial capital and the largest city of Sri Lanka. It is located on
the west coast of the island and is adjacent to Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte, the legis-
lative capital of Sri Lanka. Owing to its large harbor and its strategic position along
the East-west sea trade routes, Colombo has been known to Indian, Greeks, Persians,
Romans, Arabs, and Chinese traders for over 2000 years [72]. The Portuguese took
control of the area in the sixteenth century. The Dutch captured the island from the
Portuguese in the seventeenth century. It was made the capital of the island when the
Dutch ceded Sri Lanka to the British in 1815 [73]. The city retained its status as the
capital of the island until 1978, long after the nation became independent in 1948.
Unlike the Portuguese and Dutch before them, who used Colombo as a military
fort only, the British constructed houses and other civilian structures around the fort,
starting what is known today as the City of Colombo [73]. The area shown in the
maps here include the central business district (CBD) of Colombo, also known as
“Fort” (not to be confused with the fort itself, which is not included in the maps).
The area includes corporate office buildings, financial institutions, government and
cultural institutions, and residential quarters. Among the other notable neighbor-
hoods included in the area is Slave Island, a suburb located directly south of the Fort
area. The name was given by the British, when slaves were held there under
Portuguese and Dutch administrations [72]. Today, Slave Island is mostly a com-
mercial area with hotels and shopping centers. It contains Beira Lake and its espla-
nade. Pettah, located east of Fort, is famous for the Pettah Market, a series of
open-air bazaars and markets. It is Sri Lanka’s busiest commercial area.
The street grid of the area is irregular. Streets are rarely straight, and they often
intersect at odd angles. The urban blocks are inconsistent in shape and size. Except
for a few rectangular blocks, most urban blocks are oddly shaped. They range from
being very small to very large. Many of the large blocks contain dead ends. In the
axial map colored using the integration values of the axial lines, one line stands out
to be extremely integrated. Streets with higher integration values branch out of this
most integrated line into the surrounding areas, but owing to a broken street network
they have limited reach. As a result, streets remain poorly integrated with the other
streets in many parts of the area.
9.37 Colombo, Sri Lanka 309
9.38 Columbus, Ohio, United States
Columbus is the capital and largest city of the US state of Ohio. Named for explorer
Christopher Columbus, the city was founded in 1812 at the confluence of the Scioto
and Olentangy Rivers and assumed the functions of state capital in 1816 [74].
Served by numerous railroads, Columbus became a major manufacturing city by the
end of the nineteenth century. The city continued to grow throughout the twentieth
century, becoming the largest city in Ohio. However, as people and functions moved
away from the center to the periphery with the construction of interstate highways,
the downtown area showed signs of decay. Efforts to revitalize downtown Columbus
have been under way for decades and have started showing signs of success in
recent decades [74].
The area shown in the maps here includes downtown Columbus. Encompassing
all the area inside the inner belt, it is home to most of the largest buildings in
Columbus. They include government buildings, educational and cultural institu-
tions, sport complexes, and a convention center [75]. Also included in the area are
parts of Brewery District to the south, Franklinton to the west, Arena District to the
northeast, and Short North District to the north of downtown. Brewery District con-
tains many historic industrial and residential buildings. The tightly packed brick
buildings of Short North District include traditional storefronts, old apartment
buildings, row houses, and newer condominiums. Arena District contains mixed-
use buildings centered on sports complexes and a convention center.
The street grid of the area is composed of rectilinear patterns on both sides of the
river. These patterns are made inconsistent and discontinuous by the taking out of
street segments here and there and by open spaces and highways. Most urban blocks
of the area are square in shape and similar in size. The area also has a few large rect-
angular and square blocks created by joining smaller urban blocks. In the axial map
colored using the integration values of the axial lines, the most integrated lines create
a large grid that covers most of the area, with one of these lines extending from one
side of the river to the other side. Most inner streets of the area remain integrated
because they are directly connected to the large grid defined by the most integrated
lines. Owing to discontinuity in the street grid, however, streets in the peripheral
areas remain poorly integrated.
9.38 Columbus, Ohio, United States 311
9.39 Dallas, Texas, United States
Dallas is a major city in the US state of Texas. Indigenous people lived in the area for
thousands of years before Spanish settlers claimed it in the eighteenth century [76].
The area became part of the Republic of Texas in 1836 [76]. Surveyed by Warren
Angus Ferris in 1839, a permanent settlement named Dallas was established by John
Neely Bryan in the area near the Trinity River in 1841 [76]. The Republic of Texas
was annexed by the United States in 1845, and Dallas was formally incorporated as
a city in 1856 [76]. Dallas has become a strong industrial and financial center over
the last 150 years owing to the convergence of major railroad lines, interstate high-
ways, and the construction of one of the largest and busiest airports in the world.
The area shown here is located northeast of downtown Dallas. It includes Belmont
Park and Knox/Henderson from Central Dallas and Old Swiss Avenue and Munger
Place from Old East Dallas. These districts include historic residential neighbor-
hoods, some office buildings, entertainment and shopping centers, and parks.
The street grid of the area is composed of intersecting rectilinear patterns. Except
for a few odd-shaped blocks, most urban blocks of the area are square or rectangular
in shape. The size of the blocks in the area does not vary widely. In the axial map
colored using the integration values of the axial lines, the most integrated lines run
diagonally from one corner to the other in the central parts of the area. The other
streets of the area remain integrated because they are directly connected to the most
integrated lines; and because the area lacks any significant discontinuity in the grid.
9.39 Dallas, Texas, United States 313
9.40 Delhi, India
The National Capital Territory of Delhi—the capital territory of India—contains

New Delhi [77], which served as the central administrative area of the British Raj
and now serves as the seat of the executive, legislative, and judiciary branches of the
Government of India. Much of New Delhi was planned by Edwin Lutyens, a leading
twentieth-century British architect [78]. The old city of Delhi, or Old Delhi, which
now forms the historic core of New Delhi, served as the political and financial cen-
ter of several empires of ancient India, the Delhi Sultanate, and most notably of the
Mughal Empire from 1649 to 1857 [79].
The area shown here includes Old Delhi, or the walled city of Delhi, and its sur-
rounding areas separated by spaces occupied by railways. Named Shahjahanabad
by the Mughal emperor Shahjahan in 1639 [79], Old Delhi remained the capital of
the Mughals until the end of the Mughal dynasty in 1857. Just southwest of Old
Delhi, the British built Lutyens’s New Delhi between 1911 and 1931 (not shown in
the maps). After this, the older city became Old Delhi, as New Delhi became the
seat of national government. Despite having become extremely crowded and dilapi-
dated, Old Delhi still serves as the symbolic heart of metropolitan Delhi [79].
Old Delhi is shaped like a quarter of a circle, with the Red Fort as the focal point.
It was surrounded by a wall with 14 gates [79]. Though the walls have now largely
disappeared, many gates are still present marking the old city. The old city and its
environs in the west, as shown in the maps here, possess extremely dense mixed-use
residential enclaves with numerous mosques, temples, and churches; monuments
and tombs; bazaars and spice markets; and havelis (mansions) and palaces. The
areas in the south of the old city possess residential areas, universities, civic centers,
and shopping centers with more formal layouts.
Except for the parts in the south of the maps, the street grid of the whole area is
characterized by narrow irregular streets, alleys and dead ends that were built over
hundreds of years in response to the social, cultural, and economic needs of its
inhabitants. The railways, placed by the British around the perimeter of the city,
now separate the old city from the newer areas. The street grid of the area is discon-
tinuous owing to a lack of streets connecting the old city to the newer parts. The
urban blocks of the area are extremely irregular in shape and inconsistent in size,
despite having pockets of regularly laid out streets in different parts of the area. In
the axial map colored using the integration values of the axial lines, the most inte-
grated lines run in the space between the old city and the newer areas. Other more
integrated lines run along the historic axes of the old city that used to connect the
fort to the two important gates of the old city.
9.40 Delhi, India 315
9.41 Denver, Colorado, United States
Denver is the capital of the US state of Colorado. It was founded as Denver City in
1858 as a mining town during the Pike’s Peak Gold Rush in the western Kansas
Territory [80]. In 1865, it became the territorial capital and shortened its name to
just Denver. On August 1, 1876, Denver became the temporary state capital when
Colorado was admitted to the Union, and a statewide vote in 1881 made Denver the
permanent state capital [81].
The neighborhoods included in the area shown in the maps are City Park West,
Five Points, Lower Downtown (LoDo), North Capitol Hill, and Capitol Hill. Located
immediately east of the intersection of Cherry Creek and the South Platte River,
LoDo is the oldest settlement of the city [82]. It is a mixed-use historic district. Five
Points, also a historic neighborhood, is located on the northeast side of the down-
town central business district (CBD). It is in the part of Northeast Denver where the
downtown street grid meets the neighborhood street grid of the first Denver suburbs.
Capitol Hill is located just southeast of the CBD. It is a well-established residential
neighborhood, with commercial centers located along major traffic routes. Similar
to Capitol Hill, North Capitol Hill is also a residential neighborhood next to Denver
Downtown. Finally, City Park West is a district of mostly single-family homes,
small apartment buildings, and one very large hospital complex.
Like Dallas, the street grid of the area is composed of intersecting rectilinear pat-
terns. Except for a few odd-shaped blocks, most urban blocks of the area are rectan-
gular in shape. The size of the blocks in the area does not vary widely. The blocks
have two predominant sizes, one being double the size of the other. In the axial map
colored using the integration values of the axial lines, two lines running N-S and one
line running E-W present themselves as the most integrated lines of the area. The
other streets of the area remain integrated because many of them are directly con-
nected to the most integrated lines; and because the area lacks any significant dis-
continuity in the grid for except those caused by the creek toward the SW corner of
the area.
9.41 Denver, Colorado, United States 317
9.42 Detroit, Michigan, United States
Detroit is the most populous city in the US state of Michigan. It is the primary busi-
ness, cultural, financial, and transportation center in the Metro Detroit area and a
major port on the Detroit River, a strait that connects the Great Lakes system to the
Saint Lawrence Seaway. It was founded in 1701 by the French explorer and adven-
turer Antoine Laumet de La Mothe, sieur de Cadillac, and a party of settlers. It was
incorporated as a city in 1815 [83]. The geometric street plan of the city, featuring
grand boulevards, was developed by Augustus B. Woodward. The city had grown
steadily from the 1830s with the rise of shipping, shipbuilding, and manufacturing
industries. Owing to suburbanization, industrial restructuring, and the decline of
Detroit’s economic strength, the city has been steadily losing population for the last
few decades [83].
The area shown here includes Downtown within the ring road and parts of
Lafayette Park, Midtown (Cass Park and Brush Park), and Corktown around the
periphery. Downtown Detroit is the central business district (CBD) and a residential
area of the city of Detroit. While the core areas of downtown contain high-rise
buildings, the majority of the surrounding city consists of low-rise structures and
single-family homes [84]. The Corktown Historic District is largely residential,
although some commercial properties along Michigan Avenue are found in the dis-
trict [85]. Lafayette Park is a high-rise residential neighborhood east of downtown
Detroit. The area is a part of the Mies van der Rohe Residential District listed in the
National Register of Historic Places [86].
The street grid of the area is composed of rectilinear patterns except for the cen-
tral part with a radial layout. These rectilinear patterns are not uniform—some
define smaller square blocks, while others define larger rectangular blocks. The ring
road around downtown creates significant discontinuity in the grid. As a result, as
shown in the axial map colored using the integration values of the axial lines, the
more integrated lines of the area remain confined within the zone defined by the ring
road except for the two or three lines that extend into the peripheral areas beyond
the ring road. Streets in many parts outside the ring road remain poorly integrated.
9.42 Detroit, Michigan, United States 319
9.43 Dhaka, Bangladesh
Dhaka is the capital and the largest city of Bangladesh. It is the seat of the govern-
ment of Bangladesh and the most important financial and cultural center of the
country. It is located on the east bank of the Buriganga River in the central Bengal
delta. The Old City of Dhaka served as the Mughal capital of Bengal in the seven-
teenth century. It grew into an important trading center in the Mughal Empire, par-
ticularly for its famed muslin industry. After a period of decline under British rule
in the early nineteenth century, the modern city began to develop in the late nine-
teenth and early twentieth century. Dhaka was the capital of Eastern Bengal and
Assam between 1905 and 1911. It was the administrative capital of East Pakistan
after the Partition of British India in 1947. After the Bangladesh Liberation War in
1971, Dhaka became the capital of an independent Bangladesh [87]. Today, Dhaka
is one of the fastest growing megacities in the world.
The area shown here includes the Motijheel Commercial Area, which is the
financial and commercial center of the city. It also includes the Bangladesh
Secretariat, which houses most ministries of the Government of Bangladesh. The
Supreme Court, the Dhaka High Court, and the Foreign Ministry are also located
here in Ramna, a mixed use residential neighborhood. The area also includes sev-
eral academic institutions, including the University of Dhaka, and several cultural
institutions, sports complexes, parks, and residential areas.
The street grid of the area is characterized by irregular streets, alleys, and dead
ends that were built over a short period during the twentieth century. The urban
blocks of the area are extremely irregular in shape and inconsistent in size. In the
lines remain concentrated in the central part of the area. Some of these lines extend
out to the peripheral areas, but these areas remain generally less integrated owing to
irregular streets that change directions all too frequently.
9.43 Dhaka, Bangladesh 321
9.44 Dublin, Ireland
Dublin is the capital and the largest city of Ireland. Founded as a Viking settlement
at the mouth of the River Liffey, the Kingdom of Dublin became Ireland’s principal
city following the Norman invasion in the late twelfth century. The city expanded
rapidly from the seventeenth century on and was briefly the second largest city in
the British Empire. Dublin suffered a period of political and economic decline dur-
ing the nineteenth century following the Act of Union of 1800, under which the seat
of government was transferred to Westminster Parliament in London. Following the
partition of Ireland in 1922, Dublin became the capital of the Irish Free State, later
renamed Ireland. Since 1997, the city has observed rapid economic and physical
growth [88].
The area shown here includes parts of City Center South and North. The neigh-
borhoods of “The Liberties” or “The Coombe” and Temple Bar are also located on
the south side of the Liffey in these maps. On the north side of the Liffey in these
maps, such areas as Smithfield, Stoneybatter, Arbour Hill, Mount Joy, and Inns
Quay are located. The area is home to many churches, hospitals, educational and
cultural institutions, historic buildings and monuments, government buildings,
financial centers, and shopping centers nestled in residential areas.
The street grid of the area is a combination of regular and irregular patterns. With
more straight streets the parts on the north bank appear more regular than those on
the south bank of the river. The size and shape of urban blocks are inconsistent on
both sides of the river. The size varies from being very small to large. Many urban
blocks are quadrilaterals, but only a few of them are squares or rectangles. In the
lines are found along the banks of the rivers. They are also found on the streets that
connects the two sides of the river. Areas with poorly integrated lines are more com-
mon on the south side than they are on the north side of the river.
9.44 Dublin, Ireland 323
9.45 Durban, South Africa
Durban is one of the largest cities in South Africa, and the busiest port in Africa.
The modern city of Durban was founded in 1824 by British settlers as Port Natal
[89]. In 1835 the town was renamed Durban [89]. In 1844, it was incorporated into
the British Cape Colony [89]. With the boom of the sugarcane industry toward the
end of the nineteenth century, Durban’s seaport became the largest sugar terminal in
the world [89]. Durban remains an important seaport of the country. It has also
become a major tourist destination because of its warm climate and sea beaches.
The area shown in these maps includes the Durban central business district
(CBD) and parts of Albert Park, the Grey Street Area, the Esplanade (or Victoria
Embankment), South Beach, and North Beach. Most buildings in these areas are
medium and high-rise residential flats with small formal and informal businesses at
the street level. In addition, these areas also include several entertainment, sports,
and educational facilities, religious and government institutions, an international
convention center, railway stations, banks, shopping centers, and parks.
The street grid of the area is composed of straight streets that are laid out in an
irregular way. A lack of a sense of order is enhanced by open spaces and railway
tracks. Like many other cities, the urban blocks of the area are inconsistent in shape
and size. They also have different orientations in different areas. In the axial map
colored using the integration values of the axial lines, the most integrated lines run
parallel and close to the seafront on the southern edge of the area. A few highly
integrated lines also run perpendicular to the seafront and into the more northerly
parts. However, many streets in the northerly part of the area remain poorly
integrated.
9.45 Durban, South Africa 325
9.46 Gaborone, Botswana
Gaborone is the capital of Botswana and is located in the south of the country, close
to South Africa. Gaborone was named after Kgosi (Chief) Gaborone, who led the
Batlokwa tribe into the area in the 1880s. Soon after that, the small town grew into
the administrative center of Bechuanaland, a British protectorate (1885–1966) [90].
Planned to be the country’s capital following independence in 1966, Gaborone is
now a sprawling city of around 250,000 people [91].
As can be seen in the maps here, the center of the city is a long strip of buildings
serving commercial, retail, office, and financial functions called the Mall, and the
semicircular area to the west of the Mall is the Government Enclave, also called
Khama Crescent. The large, long area on the west of the Government Enclave is the
central business district (CBD) and Gaborone West Industrial Estate. Surrounding
the Mall, the Government Enclave, the CBD, and the Industrial Estate are several
residential areas, known as extensions, with a mix of low-, medium-, and high-
income housing [92]. However, owing to a lack of office spaces in the Mall, office
buildings are also found in these residential areas [91].
The urban grid of the downtown area is a combination of both concentric and
gridiron patterns. It is composed of a series of modules, each containing a number of
plots, access roads, pedestrian ways, and open spaces. Two to four of these modules
make a neighborhood, or “environmental unit” [92]. These units are clustered around
major open spaces, primary schools, and civic/community services. These clusters
of neighborhood units then form superblocks with secondary schools, training cen-
ters, and industrial areas [92]. Though geometrically regular, most urban blocks in
the area are inconsistent in shape and size. In the axial map colored using the integra-
tion values of the axial lines, the most integrated lines run around the CBD and
Industrial Estate. In general, the streets in the areas closer to these most integrated
lines remain more integrated than those that are further away, and the right part of
the area where the Mall is located is more integrated than the left part of the area.
9.46 Gaborone, Botswana 327
9.47 Guatemala City, Guatemala
Guatemala City is the capital and the largest city of Guatemala. It is located in a
mountain valley called Valle de la Ermita in the south central part of the country,
where the ancient Maya city of Kaminaljuyu was first occupied around 1500 BCE
and continued to be inhabited until around 1200 CE [93]. Guatemala City was
founded here in the valley in 1776 as the capital of the Captaincy General of
Guatemala to replace the old capital Antigua, which had been virtually destroyed by
an earthquake in 1773 [94]. The independence of Central America from Spain was
declared here, and the city became the capital of the United Provinces of Central
America in 1821. The modern city was largely rebuilt after the disastrous earth-
quakes of 1917–1918, which shook the city intermittently for 6 weeks [94]. Today,
Guatemala City is the focus of highways, railways, and air transport; and it is the
commercial, financial, and cultural center of the country [94].
The city is divided into several zones (zonas) [93]. The area shown here in the
maps includes parts of Zones 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, and 11. These zones radiate from the
intersection of Boulevar Liberación, Calzada Raul Aguilar Batres, Avenida Bolivar,
Calzada Roosevelt, and Calzada San Huan, which is located at the center of the
area. They include residential areas along with banks, hospitals, universities, office
buildings, sports complexes, museums, and shopping malls.
As shown in the maps, the street grid of the area is composed of multiple recti-
linear parts with different orientations. The grid is broken at several places because
of hilly terrain, but the parts remain well connected within and between themselves.
Within any one of these parts, the size and shape of the urban blocks are fairly con-
sistent. Overall, the urban blocks are very small in the area. They are either square
or rectangular in shape. In the axial map colored using the integration values of the
axial lines, the most integrated lines run along the streets where different parts meet
with each other. In general, most streets of the area remain well integrated owing to
numerous connections among the separate parts.
9.47 Guatemala City, Guatemala 329
9.48 Hanoi, Vietnam
Hanoi, the capital of Vietnam, is located in the plains of North Vietnam. It lies at the
center of the triangular basin of the Red River. From 1010 until 1802, it was the
most important political center of Vietnam [95]. The Nguyen Dynasty gave the city
the modern name of Hanoi in 1831, but they made Hue the capital, instead. Hanoi
served as the capital of French Indochina from 1902 to 1954. From 1954 to 1976, it
was the capital of North Vietnam, and it became the capital of a reunified Vietnam
in 1976, after the North’s victory in the Vietnam War [95].
The area shown here includes parts of the Ba Dinh, Hoan Kiem, and Dong Da
Districts. These districts include the old quarter; the central business district; several
government ministries; non-governmental offices; educational, cultural, and reli-
gious institutions; convention centers; shopping centers and mega malls; and parks
and lakes.
As shown in these maps, the street grid of the area is composed of irregular pat-
terns with streets laid out in different directions. Many urban blocks here are quite
large, while others are quite small. In the axial map colored using the integration
values of the axial lines, one long straight street presents itself as the most integrated
line. Additional lines with high integration values then branch out from this line to
various parts of the area.
9.48 Hanoi, Vietnam 331
9.49 Harare, Zimbabwe
Harare is the capital and the most populous city of Zimbabwe. Situated in the north-
east of the country, the city was founded in 1890 by the Pioneer Column, a small
military force of the British South Africa Company [96]. It was named Fort Salisbury
after the British prime pinister Lord Salisbury. Salisbury was the seat of the Southern
Rhodesian (later Rhodesian) government and, between 1953 and 1963, the capital
of the Central African Federation. It was renamed Harare in 1982 on the second
anniversary of Zimbabwean independence [96].
The area shown here covers parts of the districts of Harare Central, Milton Park,
Belvedere, Belvedere South, Avenues, Railway Yard, and Arcadia. The central busi-
ness district (CBD) lies in Harare Central, at the center of the area. The other dis-
tricts are mixed-use suburbs around the CBD that include blocks of apartments and
residences, offices, diplomatic missions, banks, hotels, schools, parks, and many
other commercial and retail facilities.
The street grid of the area shown in these maps is composed of parts with recti-
linear and irregular layouts. Within these parts, urban blocks have different shapes
and sizes. They vary in size from being small to very large. In the axial map colored
using the integration values of the axial lines, the most integrated lines form a large
grid that remains confined within the rectilinear parts of the area. In general, streets
in the rectilinear parts of the area are more integrated than those in the irregularly
laid out parts of the area.
9.49 Harare, Zimbabwe 333
9.50 Houston, Texas, United States
Houston is the most populous city in the US state of Texas [97]. It was founded in
1836 near the banks of Buffalo Bayou, now known as Allen’s Landing; and was
incorporated as a city in 1837 [97]. The city was named after General Sam Houston,
who was president of the Republic of Texas and who had commanded and won at
the Battle of San Jacinto 25 miles (40 km) east of where the city was established.
The booming port and railroad industry, combined with oil discovery in 1901, has
ensured the continual growth of the city. In the mid-twentieth century, Houston
became the home of the Texas Medical Center—the world’s largest concentration of
healthcare and research institutions—and NASA’s Johnson Space Center [97].
The area shown here includes downtown Houston as well as some parts of the
surrounding neighborhoods of Northside Village, East Downtown, Midtown,
Montrose, and the Fourth Ward. Downtown Houston contains the central business
district (CBD). The construction of Interstate 45 in the 1950s separated some of the
old neighborhoods from their former communities and placed them within down-
town area. Additional freeway construction in the 1960s and 1970s formed the cur-
rent boundaries of the downtown area. Originally, the downtown area was the most
important retail area of Houston. Suburban retail construction in the 1970s and
1980s reduced downtown’s importance in terms of retail activity [98]. After exten-
sive redevelopment and reconstruction, the downtown area is now the home of the
headquarters of many large corporations. The downtown also includes an historic
area, sports complexes, convention facilities, banks, hotels, restaurants, apartments,
and entertainment facilities.
The street grid of the area shown in these maps is composed of parts with recti-
linear layouts that meet each other at different angles. Highways and bayous create
discontinuities at several places of the grid. The urban blocks are square and rectan-
gular in shape. The size of the blocks is small, and both square and rectangular
blocks have consistent sizes all over the area. There are a few larger blocks in the
area created by combining the smaller square or rectangular blocks. In the axial map
colored using the integration values of the axial lines, the most integrated lines
remain confined within one of the rectilinearly laid out areas, and the other parts of
the area remain poorly connected with this most integrated set of lines owing to
discontinuities.
9.50 Houston, Texas, United States 335
9.51 Indianapolis, Indiana, United States
Indianapolis is the capital of the US state of Indiana. Founded in 1821 on the White
River, the city was planned as the new seat of Indiana’s state government. By the
turn of the twentieth century, Indianapolis had become a large hub of automobile
manufacturing industries and a major hub of regional transport connecting to
Chicago, Louisville, Cincinnati, Columbus, Detroit, Cleveland, and St. Louis. Its
population grew rapidly throughout the first half of the twentieth century. In the
1970s and 1980s, Indianapolis suffered from urban decay and white flight. Major
revitalization of downtown Indianapolis began in the 1980s, leading to a resurgence
of the area [99, 100].
Alexander Ralston, an apprentice to the French architect and planner of
Washington, DC, Pierre L'Enfant, designed the new capital city [99, 100]. Ralston’s
plan for Indianapolis was for one square mile (2.6 km2) only, known as Mile Square.
The grid included the four diagonal streets, which extend outward from the city
block just beyond the Governor’s Circle in the center. The governor’s mansion in the
Circle was eventually demolished in 1857, and in its place a neoclassical limestone
and bronze monument was put [99, 100]. The central parts of the area include Mile
Square overlapping with the Wholesale District, the Market East District, the Cole-
Noble District, and the Lockerbie Square Historic District. The area also includes
parts of Purdue University, Ransom Place, Fletcher Place, and Babe Denny. The
headquarters of many large corporations, sports and convention facilities, shopping
malls, hospitals, hotels, apartment complexes, and cultural institutions can be found
in this area.
As can be seen in the maps here, Ralston’s basic layout has been extended in all
directions in an inconsistent manner. The street grid shows discontinuities caused
by highways, canals, and open spaces. The square urban blocks in the area have
been subdivided into smaller squares and rectangles. In the axial map colored using
the integration values of the axial lines, the most integrated lines make a large grid.
The number of these lines in this large grid, however, is larger in the upper half of
the area than that in the lower half owing to discontinuities. In general, the streets
within the area remain well integrated because they are easily connected to the large
grid of the most integrated lines.
9.51 Indianapolis, Indiana, United States 337
9.52 Kansas City, Missouri, United States
The Kansas City metropolitan area spans the border of the US states of Missouri
and Kansas. It is the second largest metropolitan area in Missouri and the largest
metropolitan area in Kansas [101]. During their stay at the confluence of the
Missouri and Kansas Rivers in 1804, Lewis and Clark mapped the area of Quality
Hill, which would eventually grow to become Kansas City. In 1854, Kansas was
opened to Euro-American settlement. Soon after, the Missouri-Kansas border
became known for conflicts over slavery leading up to the American Civil War
[101]. Despite this bumpy start, the city grew steadily until the 1950s. The 1960s
were marked by the rapid urban decay of many inner city neighborhoods. During
this period, many historic buildings were demolished to make way for parking lots
and office buildings. In recent years, downtown Kansas City in Missouri has been
undergoing a massive “boom” in renovations and new construction [102].
Downtown Kansas City, shown in the maps here, is the central business district
(CBD) of Kansas City, Missouri. It is the historic center of Kansas City, containing
the original town site, business districts, and residential neighborhoods of the city
[103]. The CBD is defined by the downtown loop formed by Interstates 670, 70 and
35. Within the downtown loop are small, distinct neighborhoods such as the Library
District, the Garment District, the Government District, the Financial District, the
Convention Center District, and the Power and Light District (known for entertain-
ment and sports). Recently, many old historical buildings of the area have been
redeveloped into loft apartments, office space, and restaurants [103].
The street grid of the area is composed of at least two rectilinear patterns meeting
at an odd angle. Disrupting the grid, highways have created some discontinuities in
the area. Most urban blocks in the area are rectangular or square in shape, and both
square and rectangular blocks generally have consistent sizes all over the area. Over
time, several of these blocks have been subdivided into smaller blocks by adding
streets and alleys. In the axial map colored using the integration values of the axial
lines, the most integrated lines form a large grid, and continue underneath the ele-
vated highways. Except for a few areas outside the loop, the streets within the area
remain well integrated because they are easily connected to the grid of the most
integrated set of lines.
9.52 Kansas City, Missouri, United States 339
9.53 Khartoum, Sudan
Khartoum is the capital of Sudan and the state of Khartoum. It is located at the con-
fluence of the White Nile, flowing north from Lake Victoria, and the Blue Nile,
flowing west from Ethiopia. Divided by the both rivers, Khartoum is a tripartite
metropolis, consisting of Khartoum proper and linked by bridges to Khartoum
North and Omdurman to the west [104]. Khartoum was established in 1821 by
Ibrahim Pasha, the son of Egypt’s ruler, Muhammad Ali Pasha. Originally, Khartoum
served as an outpost for the Egyptian Army, but the settlement quickly grew into a
regional center of trade with a focus on slave trade [104]. In 1899, Sudan was pro-
claimed a condominium under British-Egyptian administration, and Khartoum
became the capital. It remained the administrative center and the official capital
after Sudan gained independence in 1956 [105]. In the twenty-first century,
Khartoum’s development has been based on Sudan’s oil wealth.
The area shown here includes parts of Nuzha, Al Emtidad, Al Sahafa, and
Arkaweet residential districts around a commercial center and public park. The area
also includes several hospitals and educational and cultural facilities.
The streets of the area are laid out in a rectilinear grid. The subareas or units
within the rectilinear grid have been subdivided in different ways, creating varia-
tions. Some urban blocks of the area are really big, while others are quite small.
Since many streets in the rectilinear grid stop unpredictably at different places, the
most integrated lines of the area fail to make a large grid found in many cities.
Instead, the most integrated two lines subdivide the area into four quadrants. Within
these quadrants some streets remain more integrated than others, creating different
spatial opportunities.
9.53 Khartoum, Sudan 341
9.54 Kiev, Ukraine
Kiev is the capital and the largest city of Ukraine. The city is in north central Ukraine
on the Dnieper River. It is one of the oldest cities in Eastern Europe, dating back to
the fifth century. Between the tenth and early thirteenth centuries, the city reached
its golden age as the capital of the first Ukrainian state, known as Kievan Rus [106].
In the middle of the thirteenth century, Kiev was destroyed by the Mongols. Later in
that century, it became a part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In 1569 the city was
absorbed into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and in 1654 it was liberated
from the Commonwealth by the Cossack Bohdan Khmelnytskyi. In 1775, Kiev was
annexed by the Russian Empire. After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, it
became the capital of independent Ukraine [106].
The Dnieper River divides Kiev into two parts. Historically located on the west-
ern right bank of the river, the city expanded into the left bank only in the twentieth
century. Most of Kiev’s attractions, as well as the majority of business and govern-
mental institutions, are located on the right bank. The maps here show parts of the
western side of Kiev on the right bank of the river. They include parts of Shevchenko,
Pechersk, and Podil Raions (Districts) with such landmarks as Khreshchatyk,
Maidan Nezalezhnosti (Independence Square), European Square, and Mykhailivska
Square.
The streets of the area are laid out in different patterns—some rectilinear, others
irregular. Generally large in size, the blocks significantly vary in size as well as in
shape. Even the smaller blocks of the area are much larger than those commonly
found in many cities. In the axial map colored using the integration values of the
axial lines, the most integrated lines create a grid covering most parts of the area.
Only a few of the streets of the area remain poorly integrated.
9.54 Kiev, Ukraine 343
9.55 Kuwait City, Kuwait
Kuwait City is the capital and the largest city of Kuwait. It is located on the southern
shore of Kuwait Bay off the Persian Gulf. The city was founded at the beginning of
the eighteenth century by a group of families who migrated from the interior of the
Arabian Peninsula. It remained a small gulf sheikdom known locally as a center for
pearl diving, shipbuilding, and boat construction until the early part of the twentieth
century. In the post-World War II era, Kuwait came to international prominence
largely owing to its enormous oil revenues [107].
Modern Kuwait City is built based on a 1952 a master plan produced by the
British firm Minoprio, Spencely & Macfarlane [108]. The plan consisted of concen-
tric ring roads running parallel to the old town’s wall, and these were intersected by
radial roads extending through the gates and beyond the city wall. The units defined
by the concentric and radial roads were conceived as self-supporting residential
areas with single-family detached housing, open spaces, schools, mosques, and co-
operative markets. The area shown here includes parts of Sharq, Mirqab, and Qibla
within the first ring road, and Dasma, Mansouriya, and Abdulla al Salam between
the first and the second ring road. Each of these units is then subdivided into several
blocks. The inner units of the area include government ministries, shopping malls,
hospitals, office buildings, cultural and educational complexes, and office buildings.
Separated from the inner units by the second ring road containing parks and gar-
dens, the outer units of the area are designated for residential uses.
As can be seen in these layouts, each unit within the ring roads is laid out differ-
ently, giving the area a sense of irregularity not commonly found in a planned city.
In each unit, the urban blocks are irregular in shape and size. In the axial map col-
ored using the integration values of the axial lines, the most integrated lines create
a loop stretching from the inner ring roads to the outer ring roads. A few highly
integrated lines extend from this loop into the peripheral areas. Still, some of the
peripheral areas remain poorly integrated with the other streets of the area.
9.55 Kuwait City, Kuwait 345
9.56 La Paz, Bolivia
La Paz is one of the largest cities in Bolivia and is the seat of the country’s govern-
ment. Located on the western side of Bolivia, the city sits in a bowl, at an elevation
of roughly 3650 m (11,975 ft) above sea level, surrounded by the high mountains of
the Altiplano [109]. Founded in 1548 by the Spanish conquistadors, Juan Gutierrez
Paniagua designed the city in 1549, identifying the sites for public areas, plazas,
official buildings, and a cathedral. La Plaza de los Españoles, which is known today
as the Plaza Murillo, was chosen as the location for government buildings as well as
the Metropolitan Cathedral. In 1898, La Paz was made the de facto seat of the
national government [109].
The area shown in the maps here includes parts of three districts of La Paz. They
are Cotahuma (District 7), Centro (District 6), and Max Paredes (District 5). San
Jorge, Sopocachi, San Pedro, Centro, Casco Viejo, and Miraflores are some of the
important neighborhoods in the area. They include residential neighborhoods, for-
eign embassies, shopping and commercial areas, hotels, banks, corporate offices
and headquarters, universities, hospitals, sport complexes, museums, and the
Government Palace and the National Congress.
The street grid of the area is extremely irregular and broken except a few small
parts with rectilinear layouts. The grid is discontinuous owing to mountainous ter-
rain. Most streets here are short, and they change directions frequently. Most urban
blocks in the area are irregular is shape and inconsistent in size. In the axial map
colored using the integration values of the axial lines, the most integrated lines are
clustered in the center of the area near the old historic core of the city. Streets
become gradually less integrated from the center to the periphery of the area.
9.56 La Paz, Bolivia 347
9.57 Lima, Peru
Lima is the capital and the largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the
Chillón, Rímac, and Lurín Rivers in the central coastal part of the country, overlook-
ing the Pacific Ocean. Lima was founded by the Spanish conquistador Francisco
Pizarro in 1535, as Ciudad de los Reyes. It became the capital and the most impor-
tant city in the Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru. Following the Peruvian War of
Independence, it became the capital of the Republic of Peru. In the 1940s, Lima
started a period of rapid growth spurred by migration from the Andean regions of
Peru, as rural people sought opportunities for work and education. Today, Lima is
the industrial and financial center of Peru and one of the most important financial
centers in Latin America [110].
The area shown here includes parts of the Cercado de Lima District, locally
known as simply Lima, or as “El Centro” (Downtown). Immediately on the right of
the area, not shown here, is the historic core of the city, representing the colonial
past. A large part of the area shown here contains industrial building complexes.
Surrounding these complexes, there are residential and commercial areas dotted
with government buildings, educational facilities, hospitals, sports complexes,
and parks.
The street grid of the area is composed of three distinct patterns. Starting at the
top, the street grid of the residential neighborhood is characterized by small urban
blocks. Just below the area, the street grid of the industrial areas is characterized by
large urban blocks. In the bottom of the area, the street grid of the mixed-use areas
is characterized by medium-sized urban blocks with numerous open spaces. In the
lines are located on the edges of the middle part of the area. The streets in the upper
and lower parts of the area remain less integrated than the middle part because these
streets are short, and they change directions frequently, creating greater syntactic
distances from the most integrated streets.
9.57 Lima, Peru 349
9.58 Lisbon, Portugal
Lisbon is the capital and the largest city of Portugal. It is continental Europe’s west-
ernmost capital city and is one of the largest container ports on Europe’s Atlantic
coast. Lisbon is one of the oldest cities in the world and the oldest in Western
Europe, pre-dating other modern European capitals such as London, Paris, and
Rome by centuries [111]. Julius Caesar made it a municipium. Ruled by a series of
Germanic tribes from the fifth century, it was captured by the Moors in the eighth
century. In 1147, the Crusaders under Afonso Henriques reconquered the city. Since
then, it has been a major political, economic, and cultural center of Portugal [111].
The area shown in the maps here include the bairros (neighborhoods) of Alfama,
Bairro Alto, Baixa Pombalina, Chiado, and Mouraria [111]. The oldest district of
Lisbon, Alfama contains mixed-use buildings occupied by bars, restaurants, and
homes with small shops downstairs. Bairro Alto (literally the upper quarter in
Portuguese) is a residential, shopping, and entertainment district. The heart of the
city is the Baixa, or city center. The Pombaline Baixa is an elegant district, con-
structed after the 1755 Lisbon earthquake. Following the disaster, the First Marquess
of Pombal, Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, took the lead in rebuilding Lisbon,
imposing strict conditions and guidelines on the construction of the city and trans-
forming the organic street plan that characterized the district before the earthquake
into its current grid pattern. The Chiado mixes old and modern commercial estab-
lishments along with museums and theaters. The Mouraria, or Moorish quarter, is
one of the most traditional neighborhoods of Lisbon, although most of its old build-
ings were demolished between the 1930s and the 1970s [112, 113].
The street grid of the area is extremely irregular and broken, except a few parts
with rectilinear layouts. Most streets here are short, and they change direction fre-
quently. Most urban blocks are irregular is shape and inconsistent in size. In the
lines are clustered at Pombaline Baixa near the seafront. These integrated streets
extend into the interior of the area along Avenida da Liberdade and Rua Palma.
Streets become gradually less integrated from these more integrated streets to the
other parts of the area.
9.58 Lisbon, Portugal 351
9.59 Ljubljana, Slovenia
Ljubljana is the capital of Slovenia and the largest city in the country. The city is
situated on the banks of the Ljubljanica River. Urban settlement in Ljubljana started
in the second half of the twelfth century. It acquired town privileges between 1220
and 1243. The Roman Rite Catholic Diocese of Ljubljana was established in 1461,
and the Church of St. Nicholas became the diocesan cathedral. After an earthquake
in 1511, the city was rebuilt with a new wall around it. In 1895, Ljubljana suffered
another serious earthquake, which destroyed 1400 buildings. The rebuilding period
between 1896 and 1910 is referred to as the “revival of Ljubljana.” After World War
II, Ljubljana became the capital of the Socialist Republic of Slovenia, a part of
Communist Yugoslavia, and it remained the capital after Slovenia became indepen-
dent in 1991 [114].
The area shown here includes Old Town, Trnovo, Krakovo, Mirje, Center, Tabor/
Metelkova, Poljane, and parts of Tivoli Park. The Ljubljana Castle, the Parliament
Building, several ministries, universities, and other educational facilities, cultural
institutions (theaters, art galleries, orchestras, museums, and concert halls), corpo-
rate headquarters, churches, hotels, apartments and residential buildings, parks,
hospitals, and shopping centers are located in the area.
The rectilinear street grid of the area is truncated by the river on its inner eastern
side and by a ring road, railways, and open spaces on its outer western side. Defined
by straight streets, most urban blocks are rectangular in shape in the central part of
the area. However, they vary in size from small to large. In the axial map colored
using the integration values of the axial lines, the most integrated lines form a grid
in the area where some of the most important buildings of the city are located. A few
of the highly integrated streets also reach out to different parts of the area.
Consequently, except for some streets in Tivoli Park and some on the other side of
the river, streets in the area remain well connected.
9.59 Ljubljana, Slovenia 353
9.60 London, United Kingdom
London is the capital of England and the United Kingdom. Located on the River
Thames, London has been a major settlement for two millennia. Its history goes
back to the Romans, who founded and named it Londinium [115]. By the eleventh
century, London was beyond all comparison the largest town in England and was
the world’s largest city from 1831 to 1925 [115]. Today’s London is a global city
serving as a center of the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance,
healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism, and
transport [115].
The area shown in the maps includes, on the northern side of the river, parts of
Westminster, Mayfair, Soho/West End, Covent Garden, Holborn, and the City of
London. On the southern side, it includes parts of South Bank. The area is much
smaller than Central London but is characterized by all the socioeconomic attributes
of Central London, including a high density built environment, high land values,
and a concentration of regionally, nationally and internationally significant organi-
zations and facilities [116]. It includes parts of the British Parliament and the Royal
Palaces, the headquarters of the British Government, the Law Courts, the headquar-
ters of a very large number of commercial and industrial firms, numerous world-
class educational and cultural institutions, shopping and entertainment centers,
parks, and mixed-use residential and commercial areas.
The street grid of the area is irregular, created mostly by straight and slightly
curved short and long streets intersecting at odd angles. Despite irregularities, the
grid remains continuous except for the river and a few major urban and/or open
spaces. The urban blocks of the area are mostly rectangular in shape and small in
size. Occasionally, oddly shaped large urban blocks are found in the area. In the
lines radiate out along the major streets from the Trafalgar Square area. Like many
other cities, streets become gradually less integrated from here to the peripheral
parts of the area.
9.60 London, United Kingdom 355
9.61 Los Angeles, California, United States
Los Angeles, often known by its initials LA, is the second-largest city in the United
States and the largest city in the US state of California. It is also the county seat of
LA County. LA was incorporated as a municipality on April 4, 1850, five months
before California achieved statehood [117]. Railroads arrived in LA in 1876. Oil
was discovered in the city and its surrounding areas in 1892. By 1923, California
became the country’s largest oil producer, accounting for about one quarter of the
world’s petroleum output. By 1930, the population of LA surpassed one million.
During World War II, Los Angeles was a major center of wartime manufacturing.
Following the end of World War II, Los Angeles grew more rapidly than ever [117].
The area shown in these maps include the Financial District, Bunker Hill, Little
Tokyo, Skid Row, the Historic Core, Downtown, and the Arts Districts. Once a posh
residential neighborhood, Bunker Hill today is home to many high-rise office tow-
ers, museums, concert halls, and some residential buildings [118]. The Financial
District is home to many corporate offices, hotels, banks, law firms, and other busi-
nesses [119]. Skid Row has numerous facilities providing social services for the
homeless [120]. An area of formerly abandoned industrial buildings, the Arts
District has become a thriving mecca for young professionals working in creative
industries [121]. The Historic Core was the center of the city before World War
II. After World War II, the area declined. With the recent development of sports and
convention centers, the area has become alive once again [122, 123].
The street grid of the area is characterized by rectilinear patterns with occasional
distortions and irregularities. Highways and the LA River produce some disconti-
nuities in the grid. Urban blocks are mostly rectangular in shape, but they vary in
size. In the axial map colored using the integration values of the axial lines, the most
integrated lines run along Main, Spring, Broadway and Alameda Streets in the
SW-NE direction and along Temple and Arcadia Streets in the SE-NW direction.
The syntactic structure of the area remains differentiated, with a mixture of more-
and less-integrated lines owing to distortions and discontinuities.
9.61 Los Angeles, California, United States 357
9.62 Lusaka, Zambia
Lusaka is the capital and the largest city of Zambia. Once a small village named
after its headman, Lusaka is one of the fastest-developing cities in Southern Africa.
It is located in the southern part of the country [124]. It connects to the country’s
four main highways heading north, south, east, and west. In 1935, Lusaka was cho-
sen to replace Livingstone as the capital of the British colony of Northern Rhodesia
owing to its central location. In 1964, Lusaka became the capital of the newly inde-
pendent Zambia [124]. Lusaka was planned by Stanley Adshead in 1931 as an
administrative center. Therefore, space for economic activities was not included in
the plan. J. T. Bowling, the government planner responsible for implementation of
the plan, modified the original plan to include shopping and light and heavy indus-
trial areas [125].
The area shown here in the maps lies at the heart of Lusaka, where the four main
highways of the city meet. It includes the neighborhoods of Mulobela, Thorn Park,
Chilulu, Northmead, Maluba, Luneta, Cathedral Hill, Town, Chinika, and
Namununga. Luneta, Cathedral Hill, and Town are primarily commercial areas with
corporate headquarters, government buildings, and financial, educational, and cul-
tural facilities. Chinika is a mix of residential areas with industrial and commercial
functions. Namununga, Thornpark, and Mulobela are part commercial and part resi-
dential. Chilulu, Northmead, and Maluba are mostly residential areas with schools
and shopping centers.
As a part of the planned city of Lusaks, the area shows a rather heterogeneous
geometric pattern in its grid. Some parts of the area show rectilinear patterns, while
other parts do not. Many streets stop too soon and change direction too often in the
area. Loops and dead ends occur frequently. As a result, the street grid shows dis-
continuities. Urban blocks are inconsistent in shape and size. The size of these
blocks varies between very small and very large. In the axial map colored using the
integration values of the axial lines, the most integrated lines remain confined
around the main commercial areas in the center, and the streets in the peripheral
areas remain poorly integrated.
9.62 Lusaka, Zambia 359
9.63 Madrid, Spain
Madrid is the capital of Spain. It is located on the Manzanares River in the center of
the country. It is possible that the Roman Empire established a settlement on the
banks of the Manzanares River during the second century BCE, but the first histori-
cal document confirming the existence of an established settlement in Madrid dates
from the Muslim age [126]. In 1561, Philip II of Spain moved his court from
Valladolid to Madrid, thus making the city the political center of the Spanish mon-
archy [126]. Yet the city remained relatively small until the twentieth century, when
it experienced unprecedented physical and economic growth [126].
The area shown in the maps here covers the Centro District and parts of the
Retiro District on the east and the Imperial District on the west. From Centro, the
area includes the neighborhoods of Cortes, Embajadores, Barrio de La Latina,
Malasaña (also called Universidad), and Justica. From Retiro, it includes the neigh-
borhoods of Jeronimos and Niño Jesús. From Imperial, it includes the Royal Palace
of Madrid. The area is home to government ministries, universities and educational
facilities, world-class cultural institutions (theaters, art galleries, orchestras, and
museums), banks, churches, hotels, apartments, parks and plazas, hospitals, and
shopping centers.
Except for some rectilinearly laid out neighborhoods on the east, the street grid
of the area is irregular owing to many streets intersecting at odd angles. Despite
irregularities, with several long straight or slightly bent streets the grid remains
continuous. In general, urban blocks have irregular shapes, and they are relatively
small in size. In the axial map colored using the integration values of the axial lines,
the most integrated lines converge around the Puerta del Sol in the area defined by
Calle Gran Via, Calle de Alcala, and Calle Preciados. Like many other cities, streets
become gradually less integrated from these more integrated streets to the other
parts of the area.
9.63 Madrid, Spain 361
9.64 Melbourne, Australia
Melbourne is the capital of the Australian State of Victoria. Founded in 1835, the
city was incorporated as a Crown settlement in 1837 [127]. It was officially declared
a city by Queen Victoria in 1847, after which it became the capital of the newly
founded colony of Victoria in 1851 [127]. During the Victorian gold rush of the
1850s, Melbourne was transformed into one of the world’s largest and wealthiest
cities [127]. After the federation of Australia was formed in 1901, it served as the
nation’s interim seat of government until 1927, when it was moved to Canberra
[127]. In the immediate years after World War II, Melbourne expanded rapidly. Its
growth was boosted by postwar immigration to Australia, primarily from Southern
Europe and the Mediterranean. Melbourne remained Australia’s main business and
financial center until the late 1970s, when it began to lose this primacy to Sydney
despite maintaining significant growth in population and economy [127].
The area shown here includes parts of the two oldest neighborhoods of Melbourne,
the Hoddle Grid and Queen Victoria Market in the City Center District, as well as
parts of the districts of West Melbourne, East Melbourne, and Southbank/Wharf.
The Hoddle Grid in City Center, laid out in 1837 by Robert Hoddle [128], defines
Melbourne’s famed alleyways and arcades. City Center is also renowned for its
distinct blend of contemporary and Victorian architecture as well as expansive parks
and gardens around its edges. Within its districts, the area includes several corporate
headquarters, city administrative centers, sports complexes, universities, hospitals
and healthcare facilities, financial and cultural institutions, hotels, shopping centers,
apartments, and residential areas.
The street grid of the area is defined by several rectilinear patterns that meet at
odd angles, creating discontinuity. Discontinuity is also enhanced by the open
spaces. The rectangular blocks of the area are long and wide. Many blocks are there-
fore subdivided into smaller blocks by alleys. In many cases, dead ends are used to
get inside these blocks. In the axial map colored using the integration values of the
axial lines, the most integrated lines are found along the streets separating the recti-
linear patterns from each other. Other major streets remain well integrated since
they are directly connected to the most integrated lines. In contrast, alleys and dead
ends within urban blocks remain less integrated.
9.64 Melbourne, Australia 363
9.65 Mexico City, Mexico
Mexico City is the capital and the largest city of Mexico. It is located in the Valley
of Mexico (Valle de México) in the high plateaus at the center of the country. The
city, known as Tenochtitlan, was originally built on an island of Lake Texcoco by
the Aztecs in 1325. It was almost completely destroyed in the 1521 siege of
Tenochtitlan by the Spanish. Subsequently, the city was redesigned and rebuilt in
accordance with Spanish urban standards. Although the Spanish preserved
Tenochtitlán’s basic layout, they built Catholic churches over the old Aztec temples
and claimed the imperial palaces for themselves [129]. In 1524, the municipality of
México Tenochtitlán was established, and in 1585 it was renamed Ciudad de México
(Mexico City) [129]. Mexico City served as the political, administrative, and finan-
cial center of the Spanish colonial empire. After independence from Spain, it was
made a Federal District in 1824 [129]. Today, it is the most important political,
cultural, educational, and financial center of Mexico.
The area shown in these maps primarily covers the historic center of Mexico
City. Also known as Centro, or Centro Histórico, it is the central neighborhood in
Mexico City, focused on Zócalo, the main plaza. As the center of the ancient Aztec
Empire and the seat of power for the Spanish colony of New Spain, Centro Historico
contains most of the city’s historic sites from both eras [130]. In addition, the area
also has several museums, cultural centers, educational institutions, churches, and
governmental facilities. In the early twentieth century, Centro Historico declined as
a residential area after the wealthy and elite left the area for suburbs. Recently, many
buildings have been remodeled and restored for residential and commercial use in
the area [130]. Colonia is another neighborhood in the area. It contains many high-
rise residential and office towers [131].
The street grid of the area is laid out in a rectilinear manner. However, streets are
not always straight in the area, creating some irregularities and discontinuities in the
grid. Irregularities are also created by a few diagonal streets. There are several short
streets and alleys in the grid. It is possible that the initial grid defined by the longer
streets was later subdivided using these shorter streets and alleys. Several of the
longer streets are broken, further adding to discontinuities. In the axial map colored
using the integration values of the axial lines, the most integrated lines create a large
grid in the central part of the area. The lines of the large grid created by the most
integrated lines, however, do not extend into the upper parts of the map owing to
discontinuities in the street grid. As a result, the upper parts of the map remain less
integrated.
9.65 Mexico City, Mexico 365
9.66 Miami, Florida, United States
Miami is a major city in the US state of Florida. Located on the southeastern Atlantic
coast of the state, it is the county seat of Miami-Dade County and a leading city in
finance, commerce, culture, media, entertainment, the arts, and international trade
[132]. Though Pedro Menéndez de Avilés first claimed the Miami area for Spain in
1566, the area was successively “controlled” by Spain and Great Britain. Eventually,
Spain ceded the area to the United States in 1821. Miami was officially incorporated
as a city on July 28, 1896 [132]. Since the 1920s, the city has continued growing in
size and economy with occasional slumps.
The east side of the maps shown here covers the Health District of the city.
Located just northwest of downtown Miami, the Health District, also known as the
Civic Center, is a major center for hospitals, research institutes, medical centers,
government offices, and biotechnology industries [132, 133]. On the north of the
maps is the industrial district of Miami, which includes clothing manufacturers,
auto repair, and carpentry and upholstery shops, among others [134]. In the middle
of the maps, several shipyards and dry docks are located along the banks of the
Miami River. The rest of the area includes mixed-use residential neighborhoods.
The grid of the area is defined by straight streets laid out in a rectilinear manner.
The rivers running through the area create significant discontinuities in the grid.
Except for a few streets, most N-S streets break at the river. Open spaces on the
riverfront also create additional discontinuities. Most urban blocks of the area are
rectangular in shape. With the exception of a few large blocks in the Health District
on the east side of the area, most urban blocks have similar sizes but different orien-
tations. In the axial map colored using the integration values of the axial lines, the
most integrated lines create a large grid connecting both sides of the river. Within
this large grid, the streets in the area, more specifically those along the riverbed,
remain relatively less integrated.
9.66 Miami, Florida, United States 367
9.67 Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States
Minneapolis is the largest city in the US state of Minnesota and is the county seat of
Hennepin County. It lies on both banks of the Mississippi River, just north of the
river’s confluence with the Minnesota River. Settlers started coming here after the
US Army built Fort Snelling in 1819 [135]. In 1867, Minneapolis was incorporated
as a city. That year, rail service started between Minneapolis and Chicago, boosting
the local lumber industry [135]. In early years of the twentieth Century, Minnesota
had numerous sawmills and flour mills running on power from Saint Anthony Falls
[135]. Like many American cities, during the 1950s and 1960s, when the Minneapolis
downtown area declined owing to rising suburbs, the city razed about 200 buildings
across 25 city blocks (roughly 40 % of the downtown area) as a part of the urban
renewal program [135]. Today, the Minneapolis-St. Paul area is the second largest
economic center in the Midwest, behind Chicago.
The area shown here in the map covers parts of Downtown West and East, the
Gateway District, North Loop (also known as Warehouse District), Marcy-Holmes,
Nicollet Island, and St. Anthony East and West. Some of these are primarily mixed-
use residential neighborhoods, while others contain the bulk of high-rise office
buildings, museums and cultural institutions, sports complexes, city and county
administrations, hotels, and restaurants. Many old factories and warehouses in some
of these neighborhoods have been converted to commercial space or loft condo-
miniums and apartments in recent years [135–139].
Like many other cities, the grid of the area is composed of straight streets laid out
in rectilinear patterns. The patterns change directions to remain parallel to the river.
Most urban blocks in the area are square in shape and have the same size. Rivers,
highways, and open spaces create discontinuities at several places in the grid. In the
line runs along Hennepin Avenue, where two rectilinear patterns meet and which
connects to a bridge crossing the river. Overall, streets on the west side of the river
are more integrated than those on the east side because the west side has many more
lines than the east side.
9.67 Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States 369
9.68 Monterrey, Mexico
Monterrey is the third largest city in Mexico and the capital of the Mexican state of
Nuevo León. The conquistador Diego de Montemayor founded Monterrey in 1596
[140]. During the years of Spanish rule, Monterrey remained a small city. In the
nineteenth century, after the Mexican War of Independence, Monterrey became a
key economic center for the newly formed nation. The city attracted large-scale
investment after 1882, when Monterrey was linked by rail with Laredo, Texas. By
the turn of the century, thousands of workers were producing iron, brass, steel, wag-
ons, woolen textiles, beer, and flour in this city. In spite of a devastating flood in
1909, the city continued to develop rapidly, particularly after the Inter-American
Highway opened in 1930 [141].
The area shown here covers Centro, the central area of the city. The Macroplaza—
the town square, or plaza—is the cultural and administrative heart of Centro and the
city, featuring monuments, green areas, governor’s palace, city hall, public library,
and a nineteenth-century Catholic cathedral. The rest of the area of Centro is a
mixed-use residential/commercial area dotted with several national museums, uni-
versities, hospitals, banks, hotels, restaurants, shopping centers, churches, and
office buildings.
The grid of the area is composed of straight streets laid out in rectilinear patterns.
It is a rather homogenous pattern except for the part on the north bank of the river,
where many streets are discontinued, creating larger urban blocks. In addition,
many streets along the banks of the river are also not straight, creating some irregu-
larities. Most urban blocks of the area are square in shape and have the same size.
These square blocks are relatively small when compared to the other planned cities
we have seen so far. In the axial map colored using the integration values of the axial
lines, the most integrated lines run along the E-W streets in the upper northern half
of the area, stretching from one end of the area to the other end. Only a few of the
most integrated lines run along the N-S streets through the irregular part of the city
to reach the river. None of the lines, however, crosses the river. As a result, the
streets on the southern side of the river remain poorly integrated.
9.68 Monterrey, Mexico 371
9.69 Moscow, Russia
Situated on the Moskva River in the Central Federal District of European Russia,
Moscow is the capital and the largest city of Russia. Since its first mention in the
chronicles of 1147, Moscow has played a vital role in Russian history [142]. It was
the capital of Great Russia, also known as the Grand Duchy of Moscow (or
Muscovy), from 1340 to 1547. It then became the capital of the Tsardom of Russia
and remained the capital until 1712, when Saint Petersburg replaced it. It was the
capital of the Russian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1918, which then became the
Soviet Union (from 1922 to 1991). Since 1991, it has served as capital of the Russian
Federation [143]. Today Moscow is the country’s most populous city and its politi-
cal, industrial, cultural, scientific, and educational capital.
Much of Moscow is defined by the numerous ring roads that circle the city at
various distances from the center, roughly following the outline of the walls that
used to surround it [144, 145]. With Red Square and the Kremlin forming the very
center, the innermost ring road is the Boulevard Ring (Bulvarnoye Koltso), built in
the 1820s where the sixteenth century walls used to be. The next ring road, the
Garden Ring (Sadovoe Koltso), derives its name from the fact that landowners near
the road in Tsarist times were obligated to maintain gardens to make the road attrac-
tive. In Soviet times, the road was widened, and currently no gardens are found
there. The recently constructed Third Ring is a heavily used motorway. The Fourth
Ring, another freeway, is currently under construction to reduce traffic congestion
[144–146].
The area shown here covers the two innermost rings of Moscow. In addition to
the Kremlin and the Red Square, the area also includes mixed-use residential areas
with many embassies, museums, cathedrals and monasteries, universities, music
schools, theaters and concert halls, hotels and restaurants, offices, and financial
institutions. As described above, the street grid of the area is composed of radial and
concentric streets, which are not always straight and regular. The urban blocks of
the area are generally very large when compared with the other cities, and they vary
in size. Even the smallest blocks here are much bigger than the biggest blocks in
some cities. In the axial map colored using the integration values of the axial lines,
there is only one most integrated line that lies along the innermost ring of the city.
Numerous axial lines of the area remain poorly integrated because of irregular
streets that frequently change direction.
9.69 Moscow, Russia 373
9.70 Nairobi, Kenya
Nairobi is the capital and the largest city of Kenya. It was founded as a rail depot on
the Uganda Railway in 1899 by the colonial authorities in British East Africa [147].
The town quickly grew to replace Machakos as the capital of the colony [148].
Because British explorers started to use Nairobi as their first port of call, the colo-
nial government built several spectacular grand hotels in the city [148]. During
Kenya’s colonial period, the city also became a center for the colony’s coffee, tea,
and sisal industry [148]. After independence in 1963, Nairobi became the capital of
the Republic of Kenya.
The area shown in the maps is centered on City Square in the central business
district (CBD). The Kenyan Parliament buildings, Holy Family Cathedral, Nairobi
City Hall, Nairobi Law Courts, and the Kenyatta Conference Center are located
around this square. Other neighborhoods included in the maps are Nairobi Central
and Kamukunji, with primarily commercial, office, and business buildings; Ngara
West, with commercial, hotel, and residential buildings; Ngara, with lower-middle-
income and upper-middle-income neighborhoods; Kariokor, Majengo, and Nairobi
South, with the Nairobi railway station and museum and low-income and lower-
income estates; Nairobi Upper Hill, with hotels, hospitals, a golf course, banks,
schools, and residential areas; and the neighborhood of Estate, with universities and
embassies.
The street grid of the area is a combination of several planned areas with differ-
ent geometric features. Some parts of the area have rectilinear layouts, while other
parts have curvilinear layouts. As a result, the grid remains discontinuous and irreg-
ular. Urban blocks in some areas are very big, while they are very small in other
areas. In the axial map colored using the integration values of the axial lines, the
most integrated line is located on the street between the Nairobi Railway Station
and the CBD. From this line, other highly integrated lines branch out to different
parts of the area. Still, streets in a large part of the area remain poorly integrated
owing to grid discontinuity.
9.70 Nairobi, Kenya 375
9.71 New York City, New York, United States
New York City is the largest city in the US state of New York and is the most popu-
lous city in the country [149]. It was founded in 1624 as a trading post by the Dutch
and was named New Amsterdam in 1626. The city and its surroundings came under
English control in 1664. New York served as the capital of the United States from
1785 until 1790. It has been the country’s largest city since 1790 [149].
Situated on one of the world’s largest natural harbors, New York City consists of
five boroughs—Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, the Bronx, and Staten Island—
which were consolidated into a single city in 1898 [149]. Manhattan is the most
densely populated borough and is home to Central Park and most of the city’s sky-
scrapers [150]. It is also the administrative and financial center of the city, contain-
ing the headquarters of many major corporations, the headquarters of the United
Nations, a number of important universities, and many cultural attractions.
Manhattan Island is loosely divided into Lower, Midtown, and Uptown regions
[150]. The area shown here includes Lower Manhattan, also known as Downtown
Manhattan, located at the southernmost tip of Manhattan Island [151]. In addition to
the Financial District with the World Trade Center site, the area also includes the
planned community of Battery Park City, Civic Center with the Manhattan Municipal
Building, court buildings and government offices, the South Street Seaport historic
area, the neighborhoods of Soho, Little Italy, Tribeca, Chinatown, Two Bridges, and
the Lower East Side. The area is home to many historic buildings and areas,
churches, shopping malls, hospitals, and museums.
Lower Manhattan has an irregular street grid system, which seems even more
irregular when compared to the neat grid system seen just about everywhere else in
Manhattan. The grid is made up of linear streets, mostly laid out in different recti-
linear patterns. Streets generally continue from one pattern to another, maintaining
continuity in the grid. The Brooklyn Bridge and the Manhattan Bridge create some
disruptions in the grid. Most urban blocks in the area are rectangular in shape. The
size of these blocks is generally small in relation to many other cities. A few large
blocks are also found at different places in the area. In the axial map colored using
the integration values of the axial lines, the two most integrated lines run along
Broadway and Canal Street. Except for areas close to the Brooklyn Bridge and the
Manhattan Bridge, most axial lines in the area remain well integrated owing to grid
continuity.
9.71 New York City, New York, United States 377
9.72 Nicosia, Cyprus
Nicosia is the capital and the largest city on the island of Cyprus. It has been continu-
ously inhabited for over 4500 years and has been the capital of Cyprus since the
tenth century, when Cyprus rejoined the Byzantine Empire [152]. In 1489, when
Cyprus came under Venetian rule, Nicosia became the administrative center and the
seat of the Republic of Venice. In 1567 Venetians built the new fortifications of
Nicosia to fend off Ottoman invasions. The new walls took the shape of a star with
eleven bastions. The Pedieos River, which used to flow through the walled city, was
diverted outside onto the newly built moat for strategic reasons [152]. Despite these
efforts, the Ottomans captured the island in 1570, and Nicosia became the seat of the
Pasha, the governor of Cyprus. When the Turkish population arrived in the city, they
generally settled in the north of the old riverbed. Greek Cypriots remained concen-
trated in the south, where the Archbishopric of the Orthodox Church was built. Other
ethnic minority groups, such as the Armenians and Latins, settled near the western
entry into the city [152]. Nicosia was divided into the southern Greek Cypriot and
the northern Turkish Cypriot parts in 1963 following intercommunal violence.
The area shown here contains the old city with newer developments around it. It
contains the administrative and financial hub of the island, hosting most government
buildings, foreign embassies, banks, and offshore companies. It also has several
hotels, shopping malls, museums, religious buildings, universities, colleges, and
other educational establishments [152].
The street grid of the area is composed of two distinct patterns. The pattern in the
walled city is irregular and is characterized by narrow streets and alleys that change
directions frequently. The pattern outside the old city is also irregular but is charac-
terized by straight streets laid out in different rectilinear patterns separated and/or
connected by longer curvilinear streets. The urban blocks are irregular in shape in
the old city, but they are regular in shape outside the old city. The size of the urban
blocks is generally very small throughout the area, but a few larger blocks can be
found in the area outside the old city. In the axial map colored using the integration
values of the axial lines, the most integrated lines are found in the city center area
located south and southwest of the old city. These lines form a spinning wheel cen-
tered at the intersection two long streets, but whose arms fail to reach deep into
different parts of area owing to broken streets. As a result, areas distant from the city
center are less integrated in the map.
9.72 Nicosia, Cyprus 379
9.73 Oslo, Norway
Oslo is the capital and the largest city of Norway. It is situated in an amphitheater-
like setting, with the city center close to the Oslofjord and residential areas stretch-
ing uphill from there in all directions. Behind the residential areas is the forested
area of Marka [153]. Founded in 1048, the city became capital of Norway around
1300 but lost its privileges during the Danish-Norwegian union from 1348 to 1814.
After a fire devastated Old Oslo in 1624, the city was moved closer to the fortress at
Akershus and was renamed Christiania, after the Danish King Christian IV. The city
was officially renamed Oslo in 1925 [153].
The area shown here contains Sentrum (Central Downtown), parts of Gamle Oslo
and Grünerløkka from the Inner East part of the city, and parts of St. Hanshaugen,
Majorstuen and Frogner from the Inner West part of the city. Sentrum is dominated
by high-rise buildings. It also has Oslo’s main harbor with the Oslo Opera House.
The area is now being rebuilt with many modern high-rises, student apartments,
schools, shopping malls, and museums [154]. Gamle Oslo, or Old Oslo, has several
multicultural neighborhoods. It also has the Oslo Police Headquarters, the Edvard
Munch Museum, and large parks [155]. Grünerløkka is a traditional working-class
district experiencing gentrification [156]. Both Frogner and Majorstuen are exclu-
sive residential and retail districts with several foreign embassies, museums, parks,
sports and recreational facilities, and bars and restaurants [157, 158].
The street grid of the area is composed of several parts that are separated from
one another by open spaces. The urban fabric of the area is discontinuous owing to
the open spaces, but the street grid defining the fabric is continuous. Many urban
blocks are rectangular in shape and small in size. Many others are irregular in shape
and inconsistent in size. In the axial map colored using the integration values of the
axial lines, the most integrated lines cover a significant part of the area because of
the continuous grid. Yet some parts of the area remain poorly integrated owing to
numerous streets that change directions too frequently.
9.73 Oslo, Norway 381
9.74 Ottawa, Canada
Ottawa is the capital of Canada. It is located on the south bank of the Ottawa River
in the eastern portion of Southern Ontario. It was founded in 1826. By 1854, it had
a railway that carried passengers, lumber, and supplies to Prescott on the Saint
Lawrence River and beyond [159]. Incorporated in 1855, the city soon evolved into
a political and technological center of Canada [159].
The area shown here includes the districts of ByWard Market, Sandy Hill, and
Downtown. Downtown Ottawa, like other downtowns, is the political, commercial,
and economic center of the city [160]. It is dominated by government buildings,
including Parliament Hill and the Supreme Court. It also contains historic sites,
foreign embassies, museums, commercial properties, apartments, hotels, and con-
dominiums, as well as older single-family homes and townhouses along its edges.
This area, together with Golden Triangle (a residential neighborhood to the south),
is also known locally as Centertown [161]. ByWard Market [162] is the home of
Canada’s oldest continuously operating farmer’s market. Many restaurants and spe-
cialty food stores make this neighborhood one of the liveliest in Ottawa. Sandy Hill
[163] is a residential neighborhood with the University of Ottawa campus and parks.
The grid of the area is composed of straight streets laid out in rectilinear patterns.
Except for a part on the east part of the area where blocks are oriented differently,
the grid has the same rectilinear pattern on both sides of the river. The river and
highways break the grid in halves since most streets do not cross the river and/or the
highways. Within each half, the grid remains continuous. The urban blocks of the
area are rectangular in shape and have the same size even when they are oriented
differently. In the axial map colored using the integration values of the axial lines,
the most integrated lines run along the two streets (Rideau Street and Laurier
Avenue) that cross the river connecting the two parts of the grid. As shown in the
map, each half of the grid has highly integrated line/s spanning in the N-S direction,
and intersecting many other streets in the peripheral areas. As a result, streets in the
peripheral areas generally remain well integrated.
9.74 Ottawa, Canada 383
9.75 Panama City, Panama
Panama City is the capital and the largest city of the Republic of Panama. The city
is also a hub of international banking and commerce [164]. It has a dense skyline of
mostly high-rise buildings and is surrounded by a large belt of tropical rainforest.
The city was founded on August 15, 1519, by the Spanish conquistador Pedro Arias
Dávila. Within a few years of its founding, the city became a launching point for the
exploration and conquest of Peru and a transit point for gold and silver headed back
to Spain through the Isthmus [164]. The completion of the Panama Canal in 1914
[165] was of great benefit to the infrastructure and economy of the city and the
country [164]. During World War II, the presence of larger numbers of US military
and civilian personnel in military bases brought about unprecedented levels of pros-
perity to the city. Today, tourism is one of the most important economic activities of
the city [164].
The area shown here in these maps is located on the Pacific coast northeast of
Casco Viejo, the historic district of Panama City. It includes the districts of Punta
Paitilla, Punta Pacifica, Boca La Caja, San Francisco, Villa Lilla, Obarrio, Campo
Alegre, El Cangrejo, and El Carmen. Most of the high-rise hotels, apartments, and
office towers of the city are located in these neighborhoods. They nestle among resi-
dential neighborhoods that also include foreign embassies, banks, hospitals, schools,
parks, shopping malls, and supermarkets.
The grid of the area is composed of straight and curvilinear streets laid out in
different patterns. The lower diagonal half on the right side of the area facing the
ocean is more regular, with disconnected rectilinear patterns. The urban blocks in
this half are regular in shape and consistent in size. The upper diagonal half on the
left side of the area away from the ocean is composed of curvilinear streets cut
across by a long street. The urban blocks in this half are different in shape and size.
Some are quite big and irregular, with cul-de-sacs serving the interior. Others are
smaller and fairly regular in shape. In the axial map colored using the integration
values of the axial lines, the most integrated lines form a deformed wheel in the
upper diagonal half on the left side of the area. The wheel does not have any spikes
extending toward the peripheral areas. As a result, streets in the peripheral areas
remain poorly integrated.
9.75 Panama City, Panama 385
9.76 Paris, France
Paris is the capital and the most-populous city of France. Paris was founded in the
third century BCE by the Parisii people of Celtic origin [166]. Under the Romans, it
became a prosperous city with a forum, baths, temples, theaters, and an amphitheater
[166], and it remained prosperous for the next hundreds of years. By the eighteenth
century, it was one of the most important centers of finance, commerce, fashion, sci-
ence, and the arts in the western world [166]. It was during the second half of the
nineteenth century that Paris saw some of the most remarkable urban transforma-
tions. Georges-Eugène Haussmann, the prefect of the Seine during Napoleon III,
launched a gigantic public works project to build new wide boulevards, a new opera
house, a central market, and new aqueducts, sewers, and parks. At this time, Paris
expanded to its current limits by annexing surrounding towns [166].
Today, Paris is officially divided into 20 districts called arrondissements, num-
bered from 1 to 20 in a clockwise spiral from the center of the city located in front
of the Notre Dame Cathedral [167]. The area shown here includes parts of
Arrondissements 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. Along with the central business district and
many residential quarters, the area has government buildings, world-class muse-
ums, libraries, theaters, hotels, shopping streets and malls, schools and universities,
and historical buildings, gardens, parks and places [167].
The grid of the area shown in the map is composed of mostly straight streets laid
out in a disorderly manner. This disorder can partly be attributed to the fact that the
original organic street patterns of the city were later straightened up to improve
access and beauty. The area also contains many diagonal streets, some of which
were built as a part of Haussmann’s project. Many urban blocks of the area are rect-
angles, squares, or simply quadrilaterals. They vary in size from being very small to
very large. In the axial map colored using the integration values of the axial lines,
one of the most integrated lines runs along Rue de la Cité, connecting the parts sepa-
rated by the River Seine. Other most-integrated lines run along Rue de Rivoli on the
north side and Boulevard Saint-Germain and Rue des Écoles on the south side of the
river. The more peripheral parts of the area remain poorly integrated because streets
are broken, and they change directions too frequently.
9.76 Paris, France 387
9.77 Perth, Australia
Perth is the capital city of Western Australia and the fourth largest city in Australia.
It was founded in 1829 as part of the Swan River Colony [168]. First an influx of
convicts, followed by the discovery of gold and other minerals in the colony, helped
the city prosper during the nineteenth century [168]. Owing to the fact that Perth’s
population growth has been relatively recent, it lacks a dense urban core with
numerous institutions commonly found in most large cities [168].
The area shown here includes parts of the districts of Highgate, West Perth,
Mount Lawley, and North Perth. Though dominated by residential buildings,
Highgate and West Perth on the south have more commercial buildings than Mount
Lawley and North Perth on the north. While numerous schools, parks, and other
green spaces can be found all over the area, shopping centers, government build-
ings, hotels, restaurants, and museums are located only along a few specific streets,
such as Beaufort Street, Bulwer Street, and Fitzgerald Street, and at a few specific
locations, such as the intersection of Charles Street, Farmer Street, and Scarborough
Beach Road.
Completed in 1829, the plan of Perth was a semi-regular grid pattern tilted at an
angle so the principal streets ran parallel to the river, which formed the boundary to
the south and the east [169]. For the next few decades the city continued expanding
toward north as the existing swamps and wetlands were gradually drained [169].
The grid of the area as shown in the maps is composed of straight streets laid out in
different rectilinear patterns in different parts. Streets in some parts run to the
cardinal directions, while streets in the other parts run diagonal to the cardinal direc-
tions, creating discontinuity. Discontinuity is further enhanced because many streets
do not continue from one grid to another. The size and shape of urban blocks in the
area are inconsistent. They vary from being very small to very large. In the axial
map colored using the integration values of the axial lines, the most integrated lines
are found along the streets where different rectilinear patterns meet. Except for
some streets in the upper right and lower left corners, most streets in the area remain
well integrated because they are directly connected to the most integrated lines.
9.77 Perth, Australia 389
9.78 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
Located in the northeastern United States at the confluence of the Delaware and
Schuylkill Rivers, Philadelphia is the largest city in the US commonwealth of
Pennsylvania [170]. In 1682, William Penn founded the city to serve as capital of
the Pennsylvania Colony. Owing to its central location in the colonies, Philadelphia
became the largest city and busiest port in British America and the second largest in
the British Empire, behind London, by the 1750s [170]. It served as the temporary
capital of the United States from 1790 to 1800, while the Federal City was under
construction in the District of Columbia. Throughout the nineteenth century,
Philadelphia had a variety of industries and businesses, the largest being textiles
[170]. After many of the old manufacturers and businesses left or shut down,
Philadelphia gradually changed into a center for higher education, healthcare,
finance, professional and business services, high-tech industries, and government
activities [170].
Penn first advertised the layout of his city in Thomas Holmes’s Portraiture of the
City of Philadelphia, published in 1683 [170]. The plan was for a rectangular piece
of land between the Schuylkill and Delaware Rivers, known today as Center City.
Following Penn’s plan, Center City is structured with long straight streets running
E-W and N-S, forming a grid pattern [170]. It is divided into four quadrants by
Broad and High (Market) Streets, crossing each other at Center Square. Each of the
four quadrants is also provided with its own square [170]. The area shown here in
the maps covers parts of Center City [171]. It includes the central business district
(CBD) and the central neighborhoods of Philadelphia. Among them are Old City,
Society Hill, Washington Square West, Market East, Chinatown, Logan Square,
Rittenhouse Square, and Fitler Square [172–178]. Most of these are residential
neighborhoods interspersed with government buildings, world-class museums,
libraries, theaters, hospitals, hotels, shopping streets and malls, schools and univer-
sities, and historical buildings, gardens, parks, and places.
As can be seen in the maps here, over 300 years Penn’s grid of Center City has
become a lot more crowded, with the addition of several streets, alleys, and dead
ends. As a result, urban blocks have become more numerous and smaller. It is
probably one of the densest regular street grids among the cities studied here.
Despite many modifications made to the original grid, the grid remains continuous,
which is reflected in the axial map colored using the integration values of the axial
lines. The most-integrated lines of the map spread in both directions over the
whole area. The less-integrated lines run along those streets that stop on the squares
or those that were added later.
9.78 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States 391
9.79 Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Located on the banks of the Tonlé Sap and Mekong River, Phnom Penh is the capital
and the largest city of Cambodia. It is believed that the city was founded in the four-
teenth century and was made the capital of Cambodia in 1432 by Ponhea Yat, king
of the Khmer Empire [179]. After remaining the royal capital for 73 years, it was
abandoned for hundreds of years before it became the permanent seat of govern-
ment and the capital of Cambodia in 1866. It is during that time the current Royal
Palace was built in the city [179]. Beginning in 1870, the French built new roads,
hotels, schools, prisons, barracks, banks, public works offices, telegraph offices, law
courts, and health services buildings, thus turning a riverside town into a city [179].
Phnom Penh has remained the national capital since then and has grown to become
the center of political, economic, cultural, and industrial activities of Cambodia.
Phnom Penh has 12 districts (or khans), which are further subdivided into neigh-
borhoods (or sangkats). The area shown here includes the districts of Dauhn Penh/
Riverside, 7 Makara/Central Market, Beoung Keng Kang (BKK), Toul Kork, and
Boeung Kork. These districts include many government ministries, luxury hotels
and spas, apartments and luxury residential areas, restaurants and bars, large shop-
ping areas, universities and schools, hospitals, museums, sports complexes, and
parks, along with some of the finest examples of classical Khmer architecture and
sculpture, including the Royal Palace and Imperial Garden and Park.
The grid of the area is composed of straight streets laid out in rectilinear patterns
with different orientations. Discontinuities between these rectangular patterns are
minimized by allowing some streets to continue from one pattern to another.
However, open spaces also create some discontinuities in the grid. The urban blocks
in the area are generally rectangular in shape, but they have different sizes. In the
axial map colored using the integration values of the axial lines, one of the most
integrated lines runs along Preah Monivong Boulevard, which separates the river-
side segment of the grid on the east from the rest of the grid on the west. The other
most integrated line runs along Preah Sihanouk Boulevard, one of the most impor-
tant ceremonial streets of the city. The streets in different rectilinear patterns show
different patterns of distribution of the integration values of the axial lines owing to
their different geometric structures.
9.79 Phnom Penh, Cambodia 393
9.80 Phoenix, Arizona, United States
Phoenix is the capital and the largest city of the US state of Arizona. Settled in 1867
as an agricultural community near the confluence of the Salt and Gila Rivers,
Phoenix was incorporated as a city in 1881 [180]. Its canal system led to a thriving
farming community [180]. The coming of the railroad in the 1880s and 1890s revo-
lutionized the economy of Phoenix. It became a trade center, with its products
reaching eastern and western markets. In 1912, Phoenix became the capital of the
newly formed state of Arizona [180]. Despite many changes, agriculture and mining
remained the driving forces of Phoenix’s economy until after World War II, when
high-tech industries began to move into the area [180]. Recently, downtown Phoenix
and the central core have experienced significant growth, with numerous restau-
rants, stores, and businesses opening or relocating to Central Phoenix [180].
Today, Phoenix is divided into 15 urban villages [180]. The area shown here cov-
ers a significant part of the Central City Village. The area, which includes down-
town Phoenix, has many skyscrapers housing corporate headquarters. Major
universities, arts and cultural institutions, sports complexes, hotels, shopping cen-
ters, and convention centers can also be found here. It is also a prominent center of
banking and finance [181]. Several historic neighborhoods in the area showcase
turn-of-the-twentieth-century Victorian to mid-twentieth-century modern architec-
ture. Some of the neighborhoods are more established and are in demand, while
others are still redeveloping [181–183].
The grid of the area shown in the maps is composed of straight streets laid out in
a rectilinear pattern. Railroads and broken streets create some discontinuities in the
grid. The original urban blocks are square in shape, and they have the same size.
Today, larger urban blocks are created in different shapes by combining the original
blocks, or smaller blocks are created by subdividing the original blocks. In the axial
map colored using the integration values of the axial lines, the most integrated lines
create a large grid covering the area in both directions. However, streets in the lower
part of the area remain relatively less integrated owing to some discontinuities in the
grid.
9.80 Phoenix, Arizona, United States 395
9.81 Portland, Oregon, United States
Located near the confluence of the Willamette and Columbia Rivers, Portland is the
largest city in the US state of Oregon. The area was inhabited for many centuries
before pioneer settlers began arriving in the Willamette Valley in the 1830s via the
Oregon Trail. By the early 1840s a new settlement emerged on the banks of the
Willamette River, which was named Portland in 1845 [184]. In 1851, Portland was
formally incorporated. Fishing, lumber, and agriculture combined with river trade
fueled Portland’s early growth [184]. When railroads arrived here in the 1880s, for
a time Portland was the largest city on the west coast north of San Francisco [184].
It persisted as a booming town for several decades. Today, Portland is recognized as
one of the most environmentally conscious, or “green,” cities in the world.
Portland is divided into five quadrants: North, Northwest, Northeast, Southwest,
and Southeast. The area shown here includes parts of the Southwest and Northwest
quadrants [184, 185]. It includes Downtown, Old Town/Chinatown, Pearl District,
Nob Hill/Alphabet District, Goose Hollow, and Goose Hollow Southwest Hills.
Downtown Portland is the heart of the city, centered on Pioneer Square. It is home
to modern office towers, new condominiums, and converted lofts, along with muse-
ums and urban parks. The other districts are mostly residential in use, but they also
include schools, apartment towers, sports complexes, hotels, retail shops, bars, and
restaurants in old and new buildings.
The grid of the area shown in these maps is composed of straight streets laid out
in rectilinear patterns. These patterns meet at an angle on Burnside Street, one of
the important streets that cross the river to connect both sides of the city. Several
streets in the area continue from one pattern to the other, ensuring continuity.
Discontinuities in the grid, however, are caused by highways and hills. Except for
some rectangular blocks on the upper left-hand corner of the area, most urban
blocks of the area are square in shape, and they have the same size. Within the area,
a few larger blocks are also found. In the axial map colored using the integration
values of the axial lines, the most integrated lines are unevenly distributed over the
map, and they form a grid that covers the lower part of the area better than the upper
part. The streets that are separated by highways and hills in the bottom left-hand
corner remain poorly integrated with the other lines in the map.
9.81 Portland, Oregon, United States 397
9.82 Porto Alegre, Brazil
Porto Alegre is the capital and the largest city of the Brazilian state of Rio Grande
do Sul. The city is situated at the junction of five rivers that flow into the Patos
Lagoon [186]. Founded in 1769 by Manuel Sepúlveda, Porto Alegre became the
capital city of the province in 1773 [187]. Today the city has become an important
port as well as an important industrial and commercial center in Brazil. Products
such as soybeans, leather, canned beef, and rice are exported from Porto Alegre to
many destinations around the world [187].
Porto Alegre has numerous officially distinguished neighborhoods [187]. Among
them, Centro Historico (the historic center), Cidade Baixa (downtown), Bom Fim,
Independencia, Floresta, and Praia de Belas are included in the maps here. These are
primarily residential and commercial areas with corporate headquarters, government
offices, courts, schools, universities, hospitals, arts and cultural institutions, parks
and sports complexes, hotels, banks, shopping centers, and convention centers.
The geometry of the street grid of the area is determined largely by its topogra-
phy. Except for a few curvilinear streets closer to the beaches, most streets in the
area are straight and are laid out in an irregular manner. Discontinuities in the grid
are created by highways, open spaces, and by streets that end abruptly and/or that
frequently change directions. Many urban blocks in the area are rectangular, and
many are not. The blocks vary in size from small to large. In the axial map colored
using the integration values of the axial lines, one of the two most integrated lines
runs N-S, and the other runs E-W, intersecting in Centro Historico. From these two
lines, several moderately integrated lines extend out into the neighboring areas. As
a result, the streets in the area generally remain integrated despite some discontinui-
ties in the grid.
9.82 Porto Alegre, Brazil 399
9.83 Prague, Czech Republic
Prague is the capital and the largest city of the Czech Republic. Located on the
banks of Vltava River, it is one of the largest cities of Central Europe. Prague was
founded in the late ninth century, and soon it became the seat of Bohemian kings,
some of whom ruled as emperors of the Holy Roman Empire. The city thrived under
the rule of Charles IV, who ordered the building of the New Town (Nové Město) in
the fourteenth century. In 1918, after World War I, the city became the capital of
Czechoslovakia. In 1992, its historic center was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage
Site. In 1993, Czechoslovakia split into two countries, and Prague became the capi-
tal city of the new Czech Republic [188, 189].
Prague is divided into ten districts: Prague 1 through Prague 10 [190]. The area
shown in the maps includes parts of Old Town (Staré Město) and Josefov (Jewish
Town), Petrská čtvrť, and Florenc in Prague 1; parts of New Town (Nové Město) in
Prague 1 and Prague 2; and parts of Vinohrady and Žižkov in Prague 3. Among
these mostly residential and commercial neighborhoods, there are world-class
museums, theaters, and concert halls, as well as numerous galleries, cinemas, and
music clubs. The area is also home to many government ministries and offices,
numerous apartments, hotels, banks, and shopping centers. In addition, the area also
contains many historic buildings and places representing a 1000 years of architec-
tural styles [188].
Except for the lower right corner, the street grid of the area shown in the maps is
irregular. Irregularities are more pronounced in the upper left corner, where the old
city is located. In general, streets in the area are short, and they change directions
too frequently creating discontinuities. Discontinuities in the street grid are also
created by railways, highways, and open spaces. Except for a few rectangular
blocks, most urban blocks in the area are irregular in shape and inconsistent in size.
integrated lines are found in the area between the railway station and the old city.
Owing to numerous small streets and intersections, streets remain poorly integrated
in many parts of the area.
9.83 Prague, Czech Republic 401
9.84 Pretoria, South Africa
Pretoria is a city in the northern part of Gauteng Province of South Africa. It is the
administrative capital of the country. (Cape Town is the legislative capital, and
Bloemfontein is the judicial capital.) [191]. Pretoria was founded in 1855 by
Marthinus Pretorius. It became the capital of the South African Republic in 1860. In
1931, Pretoria achieved official city status. When South Africa became a republic in
1961, Pretoria remained its administrative capital [191].
The area shown in these maps include the districts of Gezina, Rietfontein,
Villieria, and Deerness. These are northern and northeastern residential suburbs
located close to the central business district (CBD). These suburbs also include pop-
ular shopping centers, schools, large hospitals, parks, and nature preserves [192].
The street grid of the area is laid out in two different rectilinear patterns that meet
on Frates Road. Since most streets do not continue from one pattern to the other,
significant discontinuities occur in the street grid along Frates Road. Additional dis-
continuities are created by the railway running horizontally in the middle of the area.
Most urban blocks in the area are rectangular in shape, and they have the same size.
integrated lines remain confined on the left side of Frates Road owing to discontinui-
ties. As a result, streets on the left side of Frates Road remain more integrated than
those on the right side.
9.84 Pretoria, South Africa 403
9.85 Rabat, Morocco
Rabat is the capital of Morocco and is one of its largest cities. It is located on the
Atlantic Ocean at the mouth of the river Bou Regreg. Rabat came to importance in
1146 when the Almohad ruler Abd al Mu'min built a fortress as a launching point
for attacks on Iberia. Following this, Rabat was made the capital of the Almohad
Caliphate by Yaqub al Mansur. He built Rabat’s city walls and the Kasbah of the
Qudayas. However, the city declined quickly after Yaqub’s death, and in the thir-
teenth century much of Rabat’s economic power was shifted to Fez [193]. In 1912,
after Morocco became a protectorate, the French administrator of Morocco, General
Hubert Lyautey, decided to relocate the country’s capital from Fez to Rabat, thus
reinstating the importance of the city. Sultan Moulay Youssef followed the decision
of the French and moved his residence to Rabat as well. In 1913, General Lyautey
hired Henri Prost to design the Ville Nouvelle (Rabat’s modern quarter) as an
administrative sector [193]. When Morocco achieved independence in 1956,
Mohammed V, then king of Morocco, kept Rabat as the capital [193]. Today, tour-
ism and the presence of all foreign embassies in Morocco make Rabat one of the
most important cities in the country [193].
The neighborhoods, or quarters, of Rabat included in the area shown in the maps
are Medina (Old Town), Qudayas, Hassan, Ocean, Diour Jamaa, Orange, and the
Administrative Sector. These neighborhoods contain many historical buildings and
places, government offices, foreign embassies, courts, schools, universities, hospi-
tals, arts and cultural institutions, transportation hubs and stations, parks, hotels,
banks, and shopping streets and centers.
The grid of the area shown in the maps is a mixture of curvilinear and straight
streets laid out in different directions in a disorderly manner. Some urban blocks are
irregular in shapes, while others are rectangular. They vary from being very small to
large in size. In the axial map colored using the integration values of the axial lines,
the most integrated lines run along the three most important streets—Avenue de la
victoire, Avenue Ibn Toumart, and Avenue Hassan II—stretching from the west to
the east side of the area. Other highly integrated lines branch out from these most
integrated lines into the surrounding areas. Therefore, except for a few streets on the
periphery, most streets of the area remain well integrated.
9.85 Rabat, Morocco 405
9.86 Reykjavík, Iceland
Reykjavík is the capital and the largest city of Iceland. It is the world’s northernmost
capital for a sovereign state and a popular tourist destination [194]. The city was
founded in 1786 as an official trading town and grew steadily as it transformed into a
regional and, later, national center of commerce, population, and governmental activi-
ties [194]. Reykjavík is a spread-out city. Most of its urban area consists of low-den-
sity suburbs, and houses are usually widely spaced. The outer residential neighborhoods
are also widely spaced from each other; in between them are the main traffic arteries
and a lot of empty space [194]. It is divided into several districts [194]. The districts
included in the maps here are Miðborg (District 2, the city center), Hlíðar (District 3),
Laugardalur (District 4), Digranes, Fossvogur, and parts of Kópavogur.
Miðborg covers much of the central part Reykjavík. It is the administrative cen-
ter of Iceland, containing the national parliament buildings, the cabinet house, and
the Supreme Court of Iceland. It also has schools, hotels, and many other commer-
cial activities. In addition, the area is home to many of the city’s landmarks, includ-
ing Tjörnin (the Pond), the town hall, and the largest church in Iceland [195].
Laugardalur is just east of the city center and contains residential areas along with
schools, hospitals, and industrial and recreational facilities, including the main sta-
dium [196]. Hlíðar and Kópavogur are also residential areas with commercial and
industrial activities [197, 198].
The grid of the area shown in the maps here is composed of straight and curvi-
linear streets laid out in different geometric patterns. Some parts of the area have a
continuous rectilinear pattern, while other parts have discontinuous curvilinear pat-
terns with many dead ends. The urban blocks in the area have different shapes and
sizes. Some are rectangular, while others are oddly shaped. The blocks vary from
being very small to very large. The very large blocks of the area generally have
many dead ends to serve their interiors. In the axial map colored using the integra-
tion values of the axial lines, the longest and most integrated axial line runs along
Miklabraut, the most important street of the city. The other more integrated lines
branch out from this line into the surrounding areas. Except for one or two pockets
of poorly integrated lines, most streets in the area are well integrated with the other
streets in the map.
9.86 Reykjavík, Iceland 407
9.87 Richmond, Virginia, United States
Richmond is the capital of the US commonwealth of Virginia. An important village

of the Powhatan Confederacy, Richmond was briefly settled by English colonists
from Jamestown in 1609 and in 1610–1611 [199]. However, the present city was
laid out in April 1737 and was incorporated in 1742 [199]. It became the capital of
the Colony and Dominion of Virginia in 1780 [199]. After the American
Revolutionary War, Richmond emerged as an important industrial center. It had
ample access to hydropower owing to the James River Falls and became home to
some of the largest manufacturing facilities in the country, including iron works and
flour mills. After the Civil War, Richmond became a railway hub, further boosting
its economy and population. It continued its growth throughout the twentieth cen-
tury, being at the intersection of two major interstates [199].
The area shown here covers most of downtown Richmond, including neighbor-
hoods of Jackson Ward, Monroe Ward, Court End, Capitol District, Shockoe Slip,
Shockoe Bottom, and Oregon Hill [200–204]. Jackson Ward, Monroe Ward, and
Oregon Hills are historic residential neighborhoods. Court End includes several his-
toric buildings as well as a medical college campus. Distributed over several dis-
tricts of the area is the central business district (CBD) of Richmond, where some of
the largest law firms in the United States are located, along with many corporate
headquarters, government offices, theaters, museums and art galleries, condo tow-
ers and lofts, and hospitals. The area also has a large sport facility, a biotechnology
research park, and a large convention center.
The street grid of the area is laid out in a regular rectilinear pattern. The streets
are straight, and they intersect at right angles, defining the square blocks of the area.
The blocks have the same size. A few larger blocks in the area have been created by
joining two or more of these square blocks. Highways and the river create signifi-
cant discontinuities in the street grid of the area. In the axial map colored using the
integration values of the axial lines, out of the four most integrated lines, three—
Broad, Main and Cary Streets—run parallel to the river, and one—Seventh Street—
runs perpendicular to the river. These four streets are also among the streets that
continue under the highways from one end of the area to the other. In general, streets
within the ring defined by highways remain well integrated, and streets outside the
ring remain less integrated.
9.87 Richmond, Virginia, United States 409
9.88 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Rio de Janeiro is the capital of the state of Rio de Janeiro and one of Brazil’s largest
cities. It was founded in 1565 by the Portuguese. The city was initially the seat of
the Captaincy of Rio de Janeiro, a domain of the Portuguese Empire. Later, in 1763,
it became the capital of the state of Brazil, a state of the Portuguese Empire. In
1808, when the Portuguese Royal Court was transferred from Portugal to Brazil,
Rio de Janeiro became the chosen seat of the court of Queen Maria I of Portugal. It
remained the capital of the monarchy until 1822, when the War of Brazilian
Independence began. Rio de Janeiro subsequently served as the capital of the inde-
pendent monarchy, the Empire of Brazil, until 1889, and then it served as the capital
of Brazil until 1960, when the capital was transferred to Brasília [205].
The area shown here includes parts of Centro and Cidade Nova, Saude, Gamboa,
Santo Cristo, and Sao Cristovao of the Central Zone of Rio de Janeiro. Centro is the
commercial and financial center of the city, and it has the largest concentration of
high-rise hotels and offices [206]. Cidade Nova is a middle-class district with sev-
eral new residential and commercial developments. Saude, Gamboa, and Santo
Cristo are middle-class and lower-middle class port districts located on the banks of
Guanabara Bay. Gamboa also has a large number of houses and sheds from the
eighteenth century. Sao Cristovao is a middle-class neighborhood and has the for-
mer Imperial Palace, which currently houses the National Museum.
The grid of the area is composed of straight and curvilinear streets laid out in
inconsistent patterns creating urban blocks that are very different in shape and size.
Only a few of these blocks are rectangular in shape. In the axial map colored using
the integration values of the axial lines, the most integrated lines run along the most
important streets from a center. The other more integrated lines branch out from
these most integrated lines in an irregular manner following the irregular street
layouts.
9.88 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil 411
9.89 Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Riyadh is the capital and the largest city of Saudi Arabia. Established on the ruins of
the old pre-Islamic city of Ḥajr, the mid-seventeenth century Riyadh was a small
fortified village along the eastern side of Wadi Ḥanīfah, a low valley with water and
fertile land. Riyadh was the capital of the Sa‘ūd dynasty from 1824 to 1881, when
the city was taken over by the Rashīd family of Ḥā’il. In 1902, however, Ibn Sa‘ūd
regained control of the city and used the city to create the unified Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia. In 1932, Riyadh was designated as the capital of the country [207, 208].
The physical structure of Riyadh has undergone significant transformations in
the twentieth century [208]. In 1920 it was less than one-half square mile (1 square
km). By the end of the 1940s, much of the original city wall had been demolished,
and the urban area had grown to about 2 square mile (5 square km) [208]. In the late
1960s the Greek city-planning firm, Doxiadis & Associates, developed the first
master plan of the city (later revised by a French consulting group), which proposed
linear developments along a central spine running N-S, parallel to Wadi Ḥanīfah.
The plan used a grid street pattern, made up of 1.25-mile by 1.25-mile (2-km by
2-km) square units [207, 208]. Today, the city has expanded to the north, and, con-
trary to the Doxiadis Plan, it has also grown toward the east and west [208].
The city is divided into 15 municipal districts [207]. The area shown here is
located northeast of the modern business district of Olaya and Suleimaniyah and
includes Al Manar, Ar Rawabi, As Salam, and Ar Rayyan neighborhoods of the Al
Naseem municipality. These neighborhoods and their subdivisions are bounded by
wide roads lined with commercial strip development. They also include several hos-
pitals and educational institutions. The residential villas (often two stories) of the
area are generally built to the maximum plot coverage and are surrounded by high
walls to ensure privacy.
Like most of the planned areas of Riyadh, the area shown here contains 1.25-
mile by 1.25-mile (2-km by 2-km) square units. These units are defined by streets
laid out in a repetitive pattern unlike any other cities. Except for a few, the blocks of
the area are either rectangular or square in shape. They vary in size in a predefined
manner. The street grid has no significant discontinuity except for that created by a
few large blocks. In the axial map colored using the integration values of the axial
lines, the two most integrated lines run perpendicular to each other from one end of
the area to the other along the longest streets in the area. Except for those in the
corners of the area, the streets of the area are well integrated.
9.89 Riyadh, Saudi Arabia 413
9.90 Rome, Italy
Rome, the capital of Italy, has a history that spans more than two and a half thou-
sand years [209]. While Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome around 753
BCE, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest con-
tinuously occupied cities in Europe [209]. The city’s was first a capital of the Roman
Kingdom, then the Roman Republic, and eventually the Roman Empire, and it is
regarded as one of the birthplaces of western civilization [209]. After the fall of the
Western Roman Empire, Rome slowly fell under the political control of the Papacy.
Though the Papacy had settled in Rome since the first century CE, only in the eighth
century did Rome became the capital of the Papal States, which lasted until 1870
[209]. In 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 it
became the capital of the Italian Republic [209].
Today, Rome is divided into several districts [210, 211]. The area shown here
includes parts of Modern Center, Old Rome, Colosseo, and Esquilino-San Giovanni.
Modern Center, the hub of the city, was first laid out in the late 1860s, during the last
years of the Papal States, in order to accommodate the city’s first train station,
Termini. After the annexation of Rome by the Kingdom of Italy (September 20,
1870), the area grew exponentially, as it was designed to house (along with the
Esquilino and Prati Districts) the civil servants of the newly established Italian state.
The area also includes many historic squares, streets, buildings and monuments,
hotels, apartments, shops, and museums [212]. Old Rome has the medieval and
Renaissance-era center of the city. Like Modern Center, this area also includes
many historic squares, streets, buildings and monuments, hotels, apartments, shops,
and museums [213]. Colosseo contains the archeological sites of the ancient Rome,
the Colosseum, the Imperial Fora and the Markets of Trajan, and the Capitoline Hill
and its museums [214]. Finally, Esquilino-San Giovanni has two adjacent immi-
grant neighborhoods with an indoor market, Piazza Vittorio Emanuele II, and many
other historic buildings [215].
With the exception of a few parts with rectilinear layouts, the street grid of the
area is irregular defined by straight and curvilinear streets. Archeological sites, open
spaces, and railways create significant discontinuities in the grid. Most urban blocks
in the area are irregular in shape. The size of these blocks varies from being very
small to very large. In the axial map colored using the integration values of the axial
lines, the most integrated lines create a grid of irregular shapes covering a large part
of the area.
9.90 Rome, Italy 415
9.91 San Diego, California, United States
San Diego is a major city in the US State of California, on the coast of the Pacific
Ocean in Southern California, approximately 120 miles (190 km) south of Los
Angeles and immediately adjacent to the border with Mexico. Historically home to
the Kumeyaay people, San Diego was the first site visited by Europeans on the
West Coast of the United States [216]. Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo claimed the entire
San Diego Bay area for Spain in 1542. More than 200 years later in 1769, the
Presidio and Mission of San Diego formed the first European settlement in
California. In 1821, San Diego became part of newly independent Mexico. In 1850,
it became part of the United States following the Mexican-American War and the
admission of California to the union [216]. Today, San Diego thrives on military
and defense-related activities, tourism, international trade, manufacturing, and bio-
medical research.
The area shown here covers downtown San Diego and its peripheral areas.
Founded in 1850, downtown San Diego serves as the cultural and financial center
and as the central business district (CBD) of San Diego County with thousands of
businesses in its nine districts [217]. The districts and neighborhoods of the area
include Columbia, Core District, Cortez Village, East Village, Gaslamp Quarter,
Little Italy, Marina, Horton District and Seaport Village, where many government
buildings, historic neighborhoods and buildings, theaters, a symphony hall, a con-
vention center, a sport complex, museums, high-rise office buildings, condomini-
ums and hotels, shopping complexes, and restaurants are located.
The street grid of the area is composed of straight streets, spaced at regular inter-
vals and intersecting each other at right angles. There is almost no discontinuity in
the grid except for that created by highways and open spaces in the upper right-hand
corner. Most urban blocks of the area have the same square shape and size. In the
lines run along Broadway and Market in the E-W direction and along First, Fifth,
and Sixth Streets in the N-S direction from one end of the area to the other. Except
for the streets within open spaces and parks, most streets in the area remain well
integrated with the other streets.
9.91 San Diego, California, United States 417
9.92 San Francisco, California, United States
San Francisco is a major city in the US state of California. It is located on the West
Coast of the country at the north end of the San Francisco Peninsula. San Francisco
was founded in 1776 by Spanish colonists [218]. Upon independence from Spain in
1821, the area became part of Mexico [218]. In 1835, a street plan was laid out for
a town, named Yerba Buena, to attract American settlers [218]. Yerba Buena was
renamed San Francisco 1 year after Mexico officially ceded the territory to the
United States at the end of the Mexican-American War in 1846 [218]. San Francisco
became a consolidated city-county in 1856 [218]. After three-quarters of the city
was destroyed by the 1906 earthquake and fire, San Francisco was quickly rebuilt
[218]. In ensuing years, the city solidified its standing as a financial capital. During
the last 20–30 years, San Francisco has seen economic and housing booms driven
by the Internet and tech industries.
Among the 36 official neighborhoods of the city [219], the area shown here
includes parts of Financial District, Chinatown, Nob Hill, Tenderloin, Western
Addition, and South of Market. Financial District—the central business district
(CBD) of San Francisco—has the largest concentration of corporate headquarters,
financial institutions, government buildings, foreign consulates, hotels, restaurants,
shopping malls, parks, and plazas in the city [220]. Western Addition has several
smaller neighborhoods with minority populations [221]. South of Market, which
was once San Francisco’s industrial core, has AT&T Park, startup companies, sky-
scrapers, live-work lofts, and condominiums [218]. Finally, Chinatown, Nob Hill,
and Tenderloin are very densely built residential neighborhoods with apartments,
hotels, and restaurants.
The street grid of the area is defined by at least three rectilinear patterns. They
meet each other at an angle along Market Street, which is the longest diagonal street
in these maps. Since the streets of one pattern do not always continue into the adja-
cent patterns, some discontinuities are found along Market Street. Highways also
create some discontinuities in the grid. Most urban blocks of the area are rectangu-
lar in shape. Smaller blocks are created by subdividing the initial rectangular blocks,
and bigger blocks are created by merging two or more rectangular blocks. In the
line runs along the diagonal Market Street where different rectilinear patterns meet.
Streets directly connected to Market Street generally are more integrated than those
that are not. Except for a few dead ends, streets on the both sides of Market Street
are well integrated with the other streets in the area.
9.92 San Francisco, California, United States 419
9.93 Sana’a, Yemen
Sana'a is the capital and the largest city of Yemen. It is one of the oldest populated
places in the world. According to popular legend, it was founded by Shem, the son
of Noah [222]. It occupies the site of the ancient pre-Islamic stronghold of Ghumdān,
which may date back to the first and second century BCE [223]. Located at the
crossroads of two major ancient trade routes linking Marib in the east to the Red Sea
in the west, the city emerged as a center of inland trade by the first century CE [222].
The remains of the pre-Islamic period, however, were largely destroyed as a result
of profound changes made to the city from the seventh century onward, when Sana’a
became a major Islamic center. The archaeological remains found within the Great
Mosque are said to have been constructed while the Prophet was still alive [224].
The early Islamic heritage in the city can also be seen in the 103 mosques, 14 ham-
mams (public baths), and over 6000 houses, all built before the eleventh century
[224]. Beginning in the sixteenth century, successive reconstructions of Sana’a
under the Ottomans changed the appearance of the city and expanded it significantly
while preserving the early Islamic features [224].
Sana'a is divided into two parts: the Old City District (al Qadeemah) and the new
city (al Jadid). The old city is much smaller and retains the city’s ancient heritage
and mercantile way of living. The new city around it has been built since the 1960s,
when Sana'a was chosen as the capital of the country [222]. Most of the newer
neighborhoods are mixed-use commercial and residential areas with government
buildings, embassies, mosques, schools, hospitals, shopping facilities, museums,
open spaces, and parks.
The street grid of the area shown here is irregular. With the exception of a few
long streets, streets in the area are very short. These streets are straight as well as
curvilinear. Most urban blocks in the area are extremely small. There are a few
large, irregular urban blocks. In the maps, the old city is shown as having relatively
large blocks because it is almost impossible to identify the alleys and cul-de-sacs in
the dense urban fabric of the area. In the axial map colored using the integration
values of the axial lines, the most integrated lines run along Highway A-1 in the N-S
direction and along Zubayri Street in the E-W direction. Other more integrated lines
that branch out of these most integrated lines do not extend deep into the fabric of
the city. As a result, streets in many parts of the area remain poorly integrated.
9.93 Sana’a, Yemen 421
9.94 São Paulo, Brazil
São Paulo is the capital of the state of São Paulo in southeastern Brazil. It is one of
the most important financial and industrial centers in Latin America [225]. The city
was founded by Jesuit missionaries in 1554, who built a mission on a small hill,
close to the River Tietê. The mission developed into a small trading post, and was
incorporated as the city of São Paulo in 1711 [225]. In the seventeenth and early
eighteenth centuries, the trading post was a preferred starting point for explorers
traveling into the interior of the country [225]. With the arrival of the railway in
1867, large-scale coffee cultivation exploded in São Paulo, making it one of the
largest coffee exporters in the world. When slavery was abolished in Brazil in 1888,
Italians and Japanese, and, later, eastern Europeans, Spanish, Portuguese, and
Germans came to work in São Paulo’s coffee businesses [226]. As a result, to this
day São Paulo remains the most culturally diverse city in Brazil. In the mid-1950s
São Paulo surpassed Rio in population. Today, with the headquarters of many major
corporations and the country’s most renowned banks and financial institutions, it is
considered the financial capital of Brazil [225].
The area shown here covers São Paulo’s downtown area (Centro), where the city
was founded. Centro is composed of the Sé and República districts, plus the sur-
rounding districts of Bom Retiro, Santa Cecília, Consolação, Bela Vista, Liberdade,
and Cambuci [227]. The area has many historical buildings and high-rise office
towers. It is also home to several ethnic neighborhoods, government institutions,
universities and educational institutions, cultural centers and theaters, hotels and
restaurants, churches, museums, shopping malls and centers, hotels, condomini-
ums, parks, and squares.
Despite having several parts with rectilinear layouts, the street grid of the area is
irregular, to say the least. Its irregularity is comparable only to Rio de Janeiro, another
Brazilian city. The streets of the area run in all different directions. The continuity of
the grid is disrupted by the ring roads and highways as well as by the irregular way
in which streets are laid out. A large number of urban blocks are rectangular in shape,
but a large number of them are also irregular in shape. The size of the blocks varies
from being very small to very large. In the axial map colored using the integration
values of the axial lines, the most integrated lines run along parts of the ring roads.
Other more integrated lines branch out of these most integrated lines in an unpredict-
able manner. Overall, a significant part of the area remain well integrated despite
irregularities and discontinuities in the grid.
9.94 São Paulo, Brazil 423
9.95 Seattle, Washington, United States
Seattle, the largest city in the US state of Washington, is a coastal seaport. It is situ-
ated on a narrow isthmus between Puget Sound (an inlet of the Pacific Ocean) and
Lake Washington, near the Canada–US border [228]. The Seattle area was previ-
ously inhabited by Native Americans for at least 4000 years before the first perma-
nent European settlers landed at Alki Point on November 13, 1851 [228]. The
settlement was moved to its current site and named “Seattle” in 1852, after Chief
Si’ahl of the local Duwamish and Suquamish tribes [228]. Logging was Seattle’s first
major industry, but by the late nineteenth century the city had become a commercial
and shipbuilding center [228]. By 1910, Seattle was one of the largest cities in the
country [228]. However, the Great Depression severely damaged the city’s economy.
Growth returned during and after World War II, owing partially to aircraft manufac-
turing industries [228]. A stream of new software, biotechnology, and Internet com-
panies has led to the economic revival of the city in the late twentieth century.
The downtown area shown here is Seattle’s central business district (CBD) and
retail core. The area is home to the waterfront, the Pike Place Market, and many
high-rise buildings [229]. The area also includes public libraries, theaters, and sev-
eral local and federal government administration buildings. To the north of
Downtown is Belltown, one of the densest urban neighborhoods in the city. To the
south of Downtown is the Pioneer Square-International District, which includes the
city’s oldest neighborhoods, art galleries, and innumerable restaurants. To the east
of Downtown is the Capitol Hill-Central District, which is a diverse, densely packed
cluster of neighborhoods [229, 230].
The street grid of the area is composed of several rectilinear patterns. Some of
these patterns run parallel to the seafront. Like many other cities, streets from one
pattern do not always continue into the next pattern, creating disruptions and dis-
continuities in the grid. Streets in each pattern are straight, and they intersect at right
angle. Most urban blocks in each rectilinear pattern have the same shape and size.
Most urban blocks have either square or rectangular shape. In the axial map colored
using the integration values of the axial lines, the most integrated lines remain con-
fined in the middle segment of the area. They include Second, Fifth, and Beron
Streets in one direction and Madison Street, James Street, and Yesler Way in another
direction. In general, the streets defining the rectilinear patterns in the peripheral
area remain poorly integrated owing to grid discontinuities.
9.95 Seattle, Washington, United States 425
9.96 St. Louis, Missouri, United States
St. Louis is the largest city in the US state of Missouri. The city developed along the
western bank of the Mississippi River, which forms Missouri’s border with Illinois.
St. Louis was founded in 1764 by the French, who ceded the town and its surround-
ing territory to Spain following the Seven Years’ War [231]. The territory remained
a part of Spanish Louisiana until 1803 [231]. After the United States acquired the
territory in the Louisiana Purchase, St. Louis developed as a major port on the
Mississippi River. In the late nineteenth century and the early twentieth century, St.
Louis was one of the largest cities in the United States [231]. The city’s population
peaked in the 1950s. With the loss of heavy industry-based jobs and postwar subur-
banization, it began a long decline that continues into the 21st century [231].
The area shown here includes downtown St. Louis with its central business dis-
trict (CBD) and parts of Soulard, Lafayette Square, Old North, and West Downtown
neighborhoods [232, 233]. After many urban revitalization projects, downtown St.
Louis is now home to tens of thousands of residents, many living in warehouses that
have been converted to affordable and luxurious apartments and condominiums.
The area also features professional sporting teams’ stadiums, dozens of hotels, cor-
porate headquarters, dining and shopping, entertainment, and the Gateway Arch.
Soulard is St. Louis’s oldest neighborhood, featuring the famous Soulard Farmers
Market and many trendy restaurants. Lafayette Square, the oldest park in St. Louis,
has tree-lined streets with townhouses, some shopping and dining, and bed and
breakfasts in the surrounding neighborhood. Old North Saint Louis, just north of
downtown, includes a significant number of old brick buildings with new businesses
and a diverse community of residents. Finally, West Downtown is home to a boom-
ing performing arts, theater, and museum district and Saint Louis University.
The street grid of the area is characterized by rectilinear patterns. They are
formed by straight streets intersecting each other at right angles. The streets, how-
ever, are not spaced equally. As a result, the size and shape of urban blocks vary.
Some blocks are square, while others are rectangular. Some are small, while others
are large. Railways and broken streets make the grid discontinuous at several places.
In the axial map colored using the integration values of the axial lines, the two most
integrated lines run along Tucker Boulevard in the N-S direction and along Market
Street in the E-W direction. These are among the streets that run continuously from
one end of the area to the other. Despite some discontinuities, streets are generally
well integrated in the area.
9.96 St. Louis, Missouri, United States 427
9.97 Sydney, Australia
Sydney is the state capital of New South Wales in Australia. Indigenous Australians
inhabited the area for at least 30,000 years before the British founded Sydney as a
penal colony in 1788 [234]. After Lachlan Macquarie became governor in 1810, he
authorized convicts to reenter society as free citizens and used them to build roads,
bridges, wharves, and public buildings. As a result, the town had banks, markets,
and well-established thoroughfares by 1822 [234]. Sydney was incorporated in
1842 as Australia’s first city [234]. By the time convict transportation ended in
1850, Sydney had a population of 35,000 [234]. After gold was discovered in the
colony in 1851, thousands more came to the city [234]. Despite the depressions of
the 1890s and 1930s, Sydney’s population continued to boom, reaching one million
in 1925 [234]. During World War II, Sydney experienced a surge in industrial devel-
opment to meet the needs of a wartime economy. Following the end of the war, the
city continued to expand. Today, it remains Australia’s largest city.
The area shown here includes Sydney’s central business district (CBD) and parts
of the surrounding suburbs of Darlinghurst and Potts Point to the east, Haymarket
to the south, Pyrmont to the west, and Millers Point and The Rocks to the north. The
Sydney CBD is densely built with skyscrapers and other buildings interspersed with
several parks. These skyscrapers are home to corporate headquarters, hotels, apart-
ments, and financial institutions. The area also serves as the retail and commercial
hub of the city. Many government buildings, aquariums, museums and art galleries,
libraries, and theaters are located in the area [235]. Most of the suburbs around the
CBD have undergone significant gentrification and redevelopment in recent decades
[235, 236].
Broken into three parts, the street grid of the area is discontinuous. Streets in
each of the three parts are laid out in rectilinear patterns with significant irregulari-
ties. Many streets are broken. Many diagonals and curvilinear streets cut across the
area. Many urban blocks are quadrilaterals with different shapes, and they vary from
being very small to large. There are many dead ends in the area, even in smaller
blocks. In the axial map colored using the integration values of the axial lines, the
lines in the eastern and middle parts appear better integrated than those in the west-
ern part of the area. This may be due to the fact that streets bend as they continue
from the middle part to the western part, whereas streets continue without bending
as they go from the middle part to the eastern part. As a result, the most integrated
lines—which are concentrated in the central area—easily extend into the eastern
part but not into the western part of the area.
9.97 Sydney, Australia 429
9.98 Toronto, Canada
Toronto is the most populous city in Canada and the capital of the province of
Ontario. Various Aboriginal peoples lived in the area now called Toronto for thou-
sands of years before the British negotiated the Toronto Purchase with the
Mississaugas of New Credit and established the Town of York in 1787 [237]. The
town was renamed and incorporated as the City of Toronto in 1834 and became the
capital of the province of Ontario in 1867 [237]. Toronto’s population grew to more
than one million in 1951 when large-scale suburbanization began, and it doubled to
two million by 1971. By the 1980s, Toronto had surpassed Montreal as Canada’s
most populous city and the chief economic hub [237].
The area shown here covers most of the neighborhoods of what is sometimes
called the “old” City of Toronto, “Toronto proper,” the Central District, or simply
“Downtown” [238]. It includes as many as 30 neighborhoods, including Alexandra
Park, Annex, Baldwin Village, Cabbagetown, CityPlace, Chinatown, Corktown,
Discovery District, Distillery District, Entertainment District, East Bayfront,
Fashion District, Financial District, St. Lawrence, University, and Yorkville. This
downtown area is, by far, the most populous and dense part of the city, with many
historic buildings and landmarks. It is the primary central business district (CBD) in
Toronto. Made up of the city’s largest concentration of skyscrapers, the area con-
tains financial institutions, corporate headquarters, hotels and apartments, retail
centers and malls, restaurant, museums and art galleries, theaters, and entertainment
and sporting facilities. It also contains buildings of the municipal government of
Toronto and the provincial government of Ontario [239, 240].
The street grid of the area shown in the maps shows rectilinear patterns defined by
straight streets intersecting each other at right angles. Except for a few, urban blocks
in the area are rectangular or square in shape. The size of these blocks varies from
being small to quite large. Some of the blocks are narrow, while others are deep. In
the axial map colored using the integration values of the axial lines, the most inte-
grated lines form a large rectangle with radiating arms that reach into the peripheral
areas. These lines run along Yonge Street and University Avenue in the N-S direction
and along King, Queen, and Gerrard Streets in the E-W direction. Many interior
streets within the grid remain less integrated with the other streets in the area.
9.98 Toronto, Canada 431
9.99 Tunis, Tunisia
Located on the northern African coast of the Mediterranean Sea, Tunis is the capital
and the largest city of Tunisia. Tunis was founded by the Libyans long before the
Romans destroyed it along with Carthage during the Third Punic War between
Carthage and Rome in 146 BCE [241]. The city was rebuilt and flourished under
Roman rule, but its importance dates chiefly from the Muslim conquest in the sev-
enth century CE. The Ottomans took control of the city in 1539 and ruled it until
1881, when it became a French protectorate during Europe’s “Scramble for Africa”
[241, 242]. Soon after it became a French protectorate, the modern Ville Nouvelle
(new town) was established next to the Medina. It then expanded rapidly beyond the
ancient city walls, becoming an important Mediterranean port town. After World
War II, Tunis experienced rapid industrialization and finally became the capital of
an independent Tunisia in 1956 [241].
The area shown here is located north of the Medina (Old City) of Tunis [241].
The central feature of the area shown here is Belvédère Park, which was founded in
1892 overlooking Lake Tunis. It is the oldest and the largest park of the city. To the
east of the park is La Fayette, which is a part of the modern city built by the French
Protectorate at the end of the nineteenth century. This residential and business
district includes major hotels, shopping centers, and cultural institutions. To the
south, Bab Souika and Bab El Khadra are also residential and commercial neighbor-
hoods with numerous souks and mosques. To the north of the park are Notre Dame
and Mutuelleville, which are upscale residential neighborhoods with several foreign
embassies and luxury hotels. To the west of the park are El Omrane and Jbal Lahmar.
El Omrane has a large cemetery, military facilities, government buildings, schools,
sports complexes, and some factories and warehouses. Jbal Lahmar is a middle-
class residential neighborhood.
Despite having many residential areas laid out in rectilinear patterns, the street
grid of the area is irregular. The grid is defined by straight and curvilinear streets
that run in different directions, and is made discontinuous by large open spaces and
many broken and/or short streets. Many urban blocks of the area are regular in shape
and size, and many others are irregular in shape and size. These blocks vary from
being very small to very large. In the axial map colored using the integration values
of the axial lines, the most integrated lines toward the bottom right-hand side of the
area take a tree shape with numerous smaller streets branching out from fewer
stems. These stems are formed by Ahmed Amine Street, Ouled Hafouz Avenue, and
Taieb M'Hiri Avenue, which are among the important streets in the area. These most
integrated lines, however, are geographically confined, leaving the streets in most of
the upper part of the area poorly integrated with the other streets.
9.99 Tunis, Tunisia 433
9.100 Vancouver, Canada
Vancouver is a major urban center of British Columbia (B.C.), Canada. Originally a

small sawmilling settlement, called Granville in the 1870s, the city was incorpo-
rated in 1886 [243, 244]. Soon it became the western terminus of the first trans-
Canada railway, the Canadian Pacific, and was renamed Vancouver [243]. The city
became a prosperous port, aided in part by the opening of the Panama Canal (1914),
which made it economically feasible to export grain and lumber from Vancouver to
the east coast of the United States and to Europe [243]. By the 1930s Vancouver was
Canada’s major Pacific coast port. After World War II, it developed into Canada’s
main business hub for trade with Asia and the Pacific Rim [243].
The area shown here is located on the south side of False Creek. It includes parts
of Fairview, Mt. Pleasant, Riley Park, South Cambie, and Shaughnessy [245]. South
False Creek, which covers parts of Fairview and Mt. Pleasant and includes the
Olympic Park, is a medium-density area with bike paths, parks, unique three-story
homes, and a public market [246]. Mount Pleasant is a community with mixed resi-
dential and business developments [247]. Fairview has Vancouver City Hall,
Vancouver General Hospital and other health-related institutions, and large shop-
ping malls, co-ops, apartments, and condos [248]. South Cambie includes some
historic structures, as well as some of the province’s top medical facilities, including
Shaughnessy Hospital, B.C. Children’s Hospital, and B.C. Women’s Hospital and
Health Center [249]. Riley Park is a middle class neighborhood [245], while
Shaughnessy is home to the city’s rich. Large detached homes as well as some his-
toric properties from the pre-1950s are found here [250].
Except for a small part, the street grid of the area is laid out in a rectilinear pat-
tern with straight streets running in E-W and N-S directions. The street gird is
mostly continuous with a few broken streets. Almost all urban blocks in the area are
rectangular in shape. In several cases, the original urban blocks are subdivided into
smaller blocks by additional streets. In a few cases, the original urban blocks are
combined to make larger blocks. As a result, the urban blocks in the area vary in
size. In the axial map colored using the integration values of the axial lines, many
highly integrated lines run in the E-W direction. In contrast, only one highly inte-
grated line runs in the N-S direction. Except for the area with curvilinear streets and
except for a few internal streets, most streets in the area remain well integrated with
the other streets in the area.
9.100 Vancouver, Canada 435
9.101 Vienna, Austria
Vienna is the capital and the largest city of Austria. It was founded by the Romans
in the first century BCE as Vindobona, a defensive outpost to protect against
Germanic tribes [251]. After more than a thousand years, Vienna gained promi-
nence when the ruling Babenberg family residence was moved there from
Klosterneuburg in 1145 [251]. It remained the center of the Babenberg dynasty until
Vienna became the resident city of the Habsburg dynasty in 1440 [251]. The city
eventually grew to become the de facto capital of the Holy Roman Empire (1483–
1806), then the capital of the Austrian Empire, and then the capital of the Austro-
Hungarian Empire, which finally fell in 1918 with the abdication of the last emperor,
Karl I [251].
Today, Vienna is composed of 23 districts [252]. The area shown here covers the
historic first district, or Inner City, and its surrounding areas. The centralized layout
of the city radiates from Inner City with the Stephansdom and Stephansplatz at the
center. It is encircled by the Ringstraße (Ring Road), a grand boulevard constructed
along the old city walls, which were torn down at the end of the nineteenth century.
Many famous and grand buildings are located along the Ringstraße, including the
Rathaus (City Hall), the Austrian Parliament, the Hofburg Palace, the Natural
History Museum, the Museum of Art History (Kunsthistorisches Museum), and the
State Opera House [253]. The area is also home to many corporate headquarters,
schools, hotels, banks, churches, residential buildings, and shopping areas. Inner
City is a World Heritage Site, and much of the area is a high-rise-free zone [253].
The street grid of the area is irregular. Streets in the area run in different direc-
tions, and they change directions frequently. With the exception of a few rectangular
blocks, most urban blocks in the area are irregular in shape. They vary in size from
being very small to large. However, most urban blocks are small enough to be con-
sidered “fine grained.” Discontinuities in the grid are created by rivers, ring roads,
broken streets, and open spaces. In the axial map colored using the integration val-
ues of the axial lines, the most integrated lines form a wheel that includes parts of
the ring road and a part of Rotenturmstraße—one of the streets that connects the two
sides of the river. A few highly integrated lines extend into the surrounding areas
from the wheel, but they do not reach very far. As a result, most streets in the periph-
eral areas remain poorly integrated.
9.101 Vienna, Austria 437
9.102 Warsaw, Poland
Warsaw is the capital and largest city of Poland. It is located on the Vistula River,
between the Baltic Sea in the north and the Carpathian Mountains in the south
[254]. Warsaw replaced Krakow as the capital of the country in 1611 [255]. During
the Swedish and Prussian occupation of 1655–1656, the city was significantly dam-
aged. It was damaged once again in 1794 by the Russian Army. More recently, it
was destroyed by the Nazis during World War II [254, 255]. But the city rebuilt
itself repeatedly. Today, the city has expanded beyond its prewar size in both area
and population with almost every building in Warsaw dating to the post-World War
II era. Most old structures remaining in Stare Miasto (the Old City) and Nowe
Miasto (the New City) have also been restored to their original forms [254].
The area shown here includes a major part of the Śródmieście district of Centrum
on the left bank of the river [256]. Among the neighborhoods located in the area are
Filtry, Solec, Powiśle, Mariensztat, and north Śródmieście [257]. Warsaw Old
Town, not included in these maps, is located immediately north of the area. In addi-
tion to many housing estates, the area is also home to the most important national
and municipal institutions, many high-rises offices, higher education establish-
ments, churches, museums, art galleries, theaters, shopping centers, and parks.
Most of the historic buildings and monuments of the city, including the Palace of
Culture and Science, Ogród Saski (a public park dating back to 1713), and the
Warsaw Presidential Palace, are also found here [258].
The rectilinear street grid of the area is irregular and discontinuous with many
undulating, broken, and/or short streets. The urban blocks of the area are mostly
rectangular in shape, but they have different sizes. In the axial map colored using the
integration values of the axial lines, the four most integrated lines run along
Świętokrzyska, Marszałkowska, Mikołaja Kopernika, and Emilii Plater Streets.
They remain geographically limited with no extensions into the peripheral areas.
9.102 Warsaw, Poland 439
9.103 Washington, DC, United States
Washington, in the District of Columbia (DC), is the capital of the United States. It
is located on the northern shore of the Potomac River on the land ceded by the US
state of Maryland [259]. The centers of all three branches of the federal government
of the country—Congress, the president, and the Supreme Court—are located in the
district. Named in honor of George Washington, the city was founded in 1791 to
serve as the new national capital [259]. In 1791, Pierre (Peter) Charles L’Enfant, a
French-born architect and city planner, was commissioned to design the new capital
[259]. L’Enfant’s plan featured a gridiron street layout cut across by avenues radiat-
ing out from rectangular urban spaces. L’Enfant’s plan also featured a “grand ave-
nue” approximately 1 mile (1.6 km) in length and 400 ft (120 m) wide in the area
that is now the National Mall [259].
The downtown area shown here includes parts of the National Mall, East End,
West End, and the Waterfront of the city [260, 261]. The National Mall is the
national park at the center of the city, surrounded by many institutional buildings of
the US government, and an extraordinary collection of monuments, memorials, and
museums. East End is Washington’s cultural center, containing the main theater
district, great museums, a convention center, many hotels and restaurants, and
Chinatown. West End is home to Washington’s central business district (CBD), the
White House, George Washington University, and Kennedy Center. The area is also
dotted with many foreign embassies, corporate headquarters, and office buildings.
As planned, the area includes straight streets running N-S and E-W and diagonal
streets that cut across the straight streets. The National Mall, the White House and
the open space containing the Ellipse and the President’s Park create discontinuity
in the street grid. Most urban blocks in the area are rectangular in shape. However,
some of the blocks are oddly shaped along the diagonal streets. Since the streets are
not spaced equally, the rectangular blocks vary in size. Some blocks in the area are
much larger than others. In the axial map colored using the integration values of the
axial lines, the most integrated lines run along the streets on the edges of the National
Mall and the large open space perpendicular to the Mall. Other more integrated
streets include I, K, and L Streets on the north of the White House. Except for a few
small streets here and there, most streets in the area are well integrated with the
other streets.
9.103 Washington, DC, United States 441
9.104 Wellington, New Zealand
Wellington is the capital city and a major port and commercial center of New
Zealand. It lies on the shores and hills surrounding Wellington Harbor (Port
Nicholson) at the southern tip of the North Island. European settlement in the area
began in 1839 [262]. Wellington was made a borough in 1842 and a city in 1886. In
1865 the seat of the central government was transferred to Wellington from
Auckland [263]. Today, Wellington houses the parliament, the head offices of all
government ministries and departments, and the bulk of the foreign diplomatic mis-
sions [262].
The area shown here includes Wellington Downtown, or the city center, sur-
rounded by Te Aro to the south, Kelburn to the west, and Thorndon and Pipitea to
the north. The Wellington city center is home to many historic buildings and land-
marks, several foreign embassies, the civic center, the city art gallery, and the state
opera house. It also includes Lambton Quay, which is the commercial and retail
center of the city [264]. Te Aro is a small inner-city suburb with many restaurants
and bars. Kelburn features some of the best parks and gardens of the city along with
the Victoria University (VUW) and the New Zealand Astronomy Center. Thorndon
is one of the city’s oldest and most historic areas with some of the best examples of
traditional Victorian and Colonial architecture in New Zealand. Pipitea is a suburb
that includes the parliament buildings and the national library.
Except for the eastern old part along the seafront, the street grid of the area is
composed of curvilinear streets located on a hilly terrain. As a result, a large part of
the grid is irregular and discontinuous, and most urban blocks of the area are irregu-
lar in shape and size. In contrast, the part along the seafront has a rectilinear street
grid with rectangular urban blocks of different sizes. In the axial map colored using
the integration values of the axial lines, the most integrated lines are found on the
east side of the area, covering the rectilinear street grid as well as some parts of the
irregular grid toward the top of the area. They however, do not reach deep into the
west side of the area with the discontinuous street grid. Therefore, streets in the west
side of the area remain poorly integrated with the other streets of the area.
9.104 Wellington, New Zealand 443
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Chapter 9

A Compendium of the Urban Layout Maps

Name of the City

Street Map Urban Block Map

Street Centerline Map Axial Map

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017 235

9.1 Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

9.2 Abuja, Nigeria

9.3 Accra, Ghana

9.4 Ad Doha, Qatar

9.5 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

9.6 Algiers, Algeria

9.7 Amman, Jordan

9.8 Amsterdam, Netherlands

9.9 Ankara, Turkey

9.10 Atlanta, Georgia, United States

9.11 Auckland, New Zealand

9.12 Baghdad, Iraq

9.13 Bangkok, Thailand

9.14 Beirut, Lebanon

Located on a peninsula at the midpoint of Lebanon’s Mediterranean coast, Beirut is

9.15 Belo Horizonte, Brazil

9.16 Berlin, Germany

9.17 Bern, Switzerland

9.18 Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan

9.19 Bogotá, Colombia

9.20 Boston, Massachusetts, United States

9.21 Bratislava, Slovakia

9.22 Brisbane, Australia

9.23 Bristol, United Kingdom

9.24 Brussels, Belgium

9.25 Bucharest, Romania

9.26 Budapest, Hungary

9.27 Buenos Aires, Argentina

9.28 Cairo, Egypt

9.29 Calgary, Canada

9.30 Canberra, Australia

9.31 Cape Town, South Africa

9.32 Caracas, Venezuela

9.33 Charlotte, North Carolina, United States

9.34 Chicago, Illinois, United States

9.35 Cincinnati, Ohio, United States

9.36 Cleveland, Ohio, United States

9.37 Colombo, Sri Lanka

9.38 Columbus, Ohio, United States

9.39 Dallas, Texas, United States

9.40 Delhi, India

The National Capital Territory of Delhi—the capital territory of India—contains

9.41 Denver, Colorado, United States

9.42 Detroit, Michigan, United States

9.43 Dhaka, Bangladesh

9.44 Dublin, Ireland

9.45 Durban, South Africa

9.46 Gaborone, Botswana

9.47 Guatemala City, Guatemala

9.48 Hanoi, Vietnam

9.49 Harare, Zimbabwe

9.50 Houston, Texas, United States

9.51 Indianapolis, Indiana, United States

9.52 Kansas City, Missouri, United States

9.53 Khartoum, Sudan

9.54 Kiev, Ukraine

9.55 Kuwait City, Kuwait

9.56 La Paz, Bolivia