STATES OF MATTER - collection of charged gaseous particles

1. SOLID containing nearly equal number of – & + ions

- Particles close together and organized - 1st state of matter in the universe; Sun & all
- Can compress less than liquids other stars, lightning, aurora borealis, etc.
2. LIQUID
- Particles close together but disorganized 5. BOSE-EINSTEIN CONDENSATE (Satyendra
- Only compress slightly Nath Bose & Albert Einstein)
3. GAS - Gases turn into this state when they’re cooled
- Particles far part and disorganized and compressed
- Highly compressible - Dilute gas of Bosons cooled very close to
4. PLASMA absolute zero
- Have high amount of kinetic energy & highly - Gas=freeze=SUPERATOM
charged; Ionized gas

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

- A substance shows by itself, w/o changing into or
interacting w/ another substance
- Observed in the absence of any change in
composition
- i.e. color, hardness, boiling point, melting point,
electrical&thermal conductivity, density
PHYSICAL CHANGE
- occurs when a substance alters its physical
form, not its composition
- mostly reversible; e.g. phase change
- may suggest that a chemical change has also taken
place
- exhibited by matter as it undergoes changes in
composition
- related to the kinds of chemical changes that
substances undergo
- i.e. flammability, corrosiveness, reactivity with
acids
CHEMICAL CHANGE
- “Chemical Reaction”
- one or more substances are used up
- one or more substances are formed
- energy is absorbed and released

 Properties of matter can be further classified according to whether they depend on the amount of substance
present or not:

EXTRINSIC/EXTENSIVE PROPERTIES INTRINSIC/INTENSIVE PROPERTIES

- Properties w/c depend on the amount of material - Properties independent of the amount of material
examined examined
- E.g. mass, volume. length - E.g. ALL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES (melting
point, odor, combustibility, color, taste, density,
hardness)

PHASE CHANGES
 The relative magnitude of kinetic and potential energy among particles determine a substance’s state and also
changes of state
 In a closed system, each type of phase is REVERSIBLE, that is, reaches a state of dynamic equilibrium

2 TYPES OF ELECTROSTATIC FORCES:

1. INTRAmolecular forces (bonding forces)
- Exist within each molecule and influence the chemical properties of the substance
- Are relatively strong as they involve larger charges that are close together
- Due to attraction between: 1cations and anions (ionic bonding), 2nuclei and electronic pairs (covalent bonding), or
3
metal cations and delocalized valence electrons (metallic bonding)

2. INTERmolecular forces (nonbonding forces)

- are electrostatic forces that combine with the particles of kinetic energy to create the properties of phase as well as
phase changes. Have little effect on gases because their particles are so far apart
- exist between molecules and influence the physical properties of the substance
- due to 1attraction between molecules as a result of partial charges or 2attraction between anions and molecules
- relatively weak as they involve smaller charges that are farther apart
  Bond length- distance between 2 covalently bonded atoms
 Covalent radius- ½ of bond length; always less than its VDW radius
 Van der Waals distance- distance between 2 nonbonded atoms in adjacent molecules
 Van der Waals Radius- ½ of VDWD; always larger than its covalent radius; radii decrease across a period and
increase down in a group

TYPES OF PHASE CHANGES:

1. MELTING/FUSION (solid to liquid) 6. DEPOSITION (gas to solid directly)
2. FREEZING (liquid to solid) 7. IONIZATION (gas to plasma)
3. EVAPORATION (liquid to gas) 8. RECOMBINATION (plasma to gas)
4. CONDENSATION/LIQUEFACTION (gas to 9. COOLING AND COMPRESSION (gas to
liquid) BEC)
5. SUBLIMATION (solid to gas directly)

HEATING COOLING-CURVE
- Depicts the change in temperature with heat gain or loss
- Within a phase change, temp changes as heat is added or removed
- During a phase change, temp is constant but Ep changes
PHASE DIAGRAM

 SOLID- stable at low temp & high pressure

 LIQUID- intermediate conditions
 GAS- high temp & low pressure

 Critical Point
- Where liquid-gas line ends
- Critical temperature- 2 densities are equal and phase boundary disappears= supercritical fluid
- The pressure at this temperature is the Critical pressure
- at this point, vapor cannot be condensed
 Triple Point
- Where the 3-phase transition curves meet
- Pressure and temperature at w/c 3 phases are in equilibrium
- Phase diagrams for substances with several solid forms i.e. sulfur, have more than 1 triple point

COMPOSITION OF MATTER
1. ATOMS
- smallest unit of matter that retains its chemical properties (10nanometer)
- all atoms are composed of the same particles, but only differ in their number of PROTONS; it’s the number of
protons in an atom of an element that determines its identity
- atoms are electrically neutral; an atom contains equal numbers of electrons and protons
- made up of:
 nucleus
-within the nucleus are protons and neutrons(uncharged)
-the dense core of an atom; contains most of the mass
 electron
-orbit around nucleus; mass is much smaller than the nucleus
-equal in magnitude but opposite in sign, to the charge on a proton
- ATOMIC NUMBER(Z): number of protons in an atom (in the nucleus); same atomic number, same chemical
properties
- ATOMIC MASS: sum of masses of protons and neutrons of an atom
- ATOMIC WEIGHT: the average weight of an atom of an element taking into account the masses of all its
isotopes
- ISOTOPES: atoms of the same element having the same #of protons but different #of neutrons; same chem
properties but diff physical properties
 2. MOLECULE
- Smallest unit of a compound that can have a stable independent existence
- Molecules that contain 2 or more atoms are called polyatomic molecules

MODELS OF THE ATOM

DEMOCRITUS: all matter is THOMSON’S JAMES CHADWICK’S MODEL

composed of atoms (“not “PLUM-PUDDING -discovered neutron and measured its
divided/indivisible”) MODEL”: atom is mass
DALTON (Father of Modern Atomic made up of electrons
Theory): unknown electrons & that float in a soup
nucleus; atoms of an element have of positive charge
identical properties but differ from
the other elements; relative
numbers&kinds of atoms are constant
in a given compound
BOHR’S MODEL ERNEST RUTHERFORD’S ERWIN SCHRODINGER’S
-quantized the orbits to explain the MODEL MODEL: replaced orbits with
stability of -Atom as a tiny, orbitals where electrons were most
the atom dense, positively likely to be found
-electrons charged nucleus
only orbit surrounded by
the nucleus electrons
in certain -Like a solar
orbits at system with the electrons moving like
diff. energy planets around the nucleus;
levels around the nucleus “Planetary Model”

a
XZ z= #protons/#electrons (atomic number)
a= protons+neutrons

12
c 6 12 is the mass number; C is the name of atom; 6 is the atomic number

1. PURE SUBSTANCE
- Matter having an invariant chemical composition and distinct properties
- Made of only 1 type of atom or only 1 type of molecules (group of atoms bonded together)
- Cannot be separated into simpler substances by physical means, only by chemical methods
- Fixed composition; properties do not vary

A. Element
- Fundamental substance; cannot be decomposed into simpler substance
- 118 known elements in the periodic table arranged according to their atomic numbers
- Named by International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)
B. Compound
- Can be decomposed by chemical means into simpler substances; always in the same ratio by mass
- Composed of 2 or more elements in fixed ratio
- Organic: Carbon + O, H, N
- Inorganic: some contain carbon i.e. carbon monoxide/dioxide/sulfide, carbonates, cyanides

 LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTIONS/CONSTANT COMPOSITION

: “ Different samples of any pure compound contain the same elements in the same proportions by mass”
 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS
: total mass in any chemical or physical change remains constant; atoms are not lost, just rearranged
  MULTIPLE PROPORTION
: if 2 elements combine to form a compound, then the masses of the elements are given in a small whole number
ratio

CHEMICAL BONDS
- Attraction between atoms that results in formation of compounds
- Bonding lowers potential energy between positive and negative particles
- Type and strength of chemical bonds determine the properties of a substance
- strongest are ionic and covalent; weak bonds- indispensable bonds that temporarily adhere biomolecules in the
cell i.e. hydrogen bonds

 ELECTRONEGATIVITY- measure of ability of an atom attract electrons from other atoms in a molecule
 Van der Waals Forces- electrostatic forces described as asymmetrical distribution of the charge in the h2o
molecule, w/c holds it together
 Formula unit- molecular/ionic compounds
 Molecule- applies only to elements&compounds that exist as discrete molecules
 ANY COMPOUND IS ELECTRICALLY NEUTRAL

3 TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDING:

A. IONIC BONDING
- Electron transfer; metal to nonmetal
- complete transfer of electrons from 1 atom to another, forming oppositely charged ions that attract each other to
form a solid
- Ion- atom(s) that carries an electric charge
 cation (+) and an anion (-)
 forms when neutral atoms lose or gain electrons
- atom giving up electron becomes (+) and vice versa
- Polyatomic ions- group of atoms that bear an electric charge

B. COVALENT BONDING
- Electron sharing; mostly nonmetal with nonmetal; most common type of bonding
- Shared electron pair is localized between 2 atoms as it spends most of its time there, linking them in a bond of a
particular length and strength
- VALENCE ELECTRON: refers to the shared electron
- SINGLE CB: 1 electron pair is shared between 2 atoms
- DOUBLE CB: 2 electron pairs shared between 2 atoms; i.e. alkenes
- TRIPLE CB: 2 atoms involve in 6 bonding electrons; i.e. alkynes

C. METALLIC BONDING
- electron pooling; metal with metal
- metals lose outer electrons easily but regains them not very readily
- electrons are delocalized, moving freely throughout the piece of metal

2. MIXTURE
- 2 or more substances mixed together but not chemically combined, in w/c each substances retains its own
composition and properties
- Composition is variable
- Can be separated by physical means

A. Homogenous
- Uniform properties and composition all throughout; have a single phase
 Solutions- contain 1 or more solutes in a solvent; all particles are individual atoms, ions, or small
molecules
 Solvent: substance capable of dissolving another substance; most abundant component of
a solution
 Solute: substance dissolved in the solvent
  Like-dissolves-like- solute & solvent have similar types & strengths of intermolecular
forces
 Miscible: soluble in each other in any proportion
 Solubility: maximum amount of solute that dissolves in a fixed amount of solvent
o Dilute- contains less dissolved solute than concentrated one
o Concentrated
 Unsaturated: solution contains less solute than solvent
 Saturated: contains maximum amount of dissolved solute; equilibrium concentration
 Supersaturated: solution that contains more than the equilibrium concentration

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES IN SOLUTION

1. Ion-dipole forces
- principal force involved in the solubility of ionic compounds in water
2. Hydrogen bonding
3. Dipole-dipole forces
- For solubility of polar organic molecules in the absence of H bonding
4. Ion-induced dipole forces
- Ion’s charge distorts the electron cloud of a nearby nonpolar molecule
- Essential in binding iron and an oxygen molecule in the bloodstream
5. Dipole-induced dipole forces
- A polar molecule distorts the electron cloud of a nearby nonpolar molecule
6. Dispersion forces
- Contribute to the solubility of all solutes in all solvents but they are the principal type of intermolecular force in
solutions of nonpolar substances

 Alloy- mixture of 2 elements, with 1 being a metal

 Gold (less than 24k): Au+Ag/Cu
 Stainless steel: Fe+Cr+Ni
 Amalgam: Hg+other metals
 Brass: Cu+Zn

B. Heterogenous
- Has 2 or more phases; components can be easily separated from one another
- Can be classified depending on the size of the particle
 Suspension- particles spread through a liq. or gas but settle out after some time
 Colloids- “Colloidal suspension”;
 particles don’t settle over time; particles are intermediaries between those in a
solution&suspension
 larger than the size of molecule but smaller than what can be seen
 e.g. smoke, jelly, paper
 Emulsion- fine dispersion of a liquid in another in w/c it is not miscible
 e.g. mayonnaise, bile

 SEPARATION OF MIXTURES THROUGH PHYSICAL MEANS

1. Filtration
2. Distillation- based on the differences in the volatility/boiling point of materials
a. Simple distillation
-vapor is immediately channeled into a condenser
b. Steam distillation
- distilling compounds that are heat-sensitive; allows high rate of heat transfer w/o heating at a very high
temp.
c. Vacuum distillation
-for compounds with high boiling points, it’s easier to lower the pressure
d. Air-sensitive vacuum distillation
-compounds w/ high boiling points+air sensitive
 e. Short path distillation
-involves the distillate travelling a short distance (cm) done at reduced pressure allowing a lower
operating temp range
f. Zone distillation
-in a long container w/ special arrangement; partial melting of refined matter in moving liquid zone and
condensation of vapor in the solid phase at condensate pulling in cold area
g. Fractional distillation (rectification)
-by repeated vaporization-condensation cycles within a packed fractioning column
lubricating
crude oil Bitumen fuel diesel fuels Kerosene Naphtha petrol/gas LPG
oils/waxes

3. Extraction- based on differences in the solubility of materials

4. Chromatography- based on differences in the IMFA(intramolecular force attraction) of materials

CHEMICAL FORMULAS
- it shows a substance’s chemical composition; represents the elements present& the ratio
- Noble gases (He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn) are usually isolated atoms in nature (single atom)
- Subscript=number of atoms in a molecule
- Allotropes/allotropic modifications: diff. forms of the same element in the same physical state (i.e., O2, O3)

STRUCTURAL FORMULA
- shows the order in w/c the atoms are connected
- the lines connecting atomic symbols represent chemical bonds between atoms; the ff. show the 1bonding sequence
and 2geometrical arrangements
o Ball-and-stick molecular model-balls to represent atoms and sticks for bonds (3D shapes)
o Space-filling molecular model- show (approximate) relative size of atoms and shapes of molecules

BALANCING EQUATION

ELECTRON CONFIGURATION
- Electron configuration and strength of nucleus-electron attraction determine the properties of an atom.
- How electrons are distributed among the various atomic orbitals in an atom

ELECTRON CAPACITY= 2n2
o E.g. What is the maximum number of electrons in the 5th energy level?
 2(5)2= 50

PERIODIC TABLE TRENDS

 SHIELDING EFFECT
 o How much outer electrons are repelled by inner electrons & how much control the nucleus has on outer
electrons
o DOWNWARDS=INCREASES as there is an extra energy level of electrons that will shield the outer
electrons from the nucleus
o TO THE LEFT=INCREASES SLIGHTLY as nucleus loses protons
 IONIC RADIUS
o Size of a CHARGED ION, not neutral atom
o Increases for anions (-) as they gain electron = more shielding
o Decreases for cations (+) as lose an electron = less shielding
 st
1 IONIZATION ENERGY
o Amount of energy needed to remove an outer electron from an atom and make it into an ion
o TO THE RIGHT=INCREASES as there are more protons in the nucleus pulling electrons, requiring more
energy
o UPWARD=INCREASES as there are fewer energy levels and less shielding, so outer electrons are more
tightly held by nucleus
 METALLIC CHARACTER/REACTIVITY
o the tendency of an atom to lose an electron (a key characteristic of metals is they lose electrons to
become cations)
o TO THE LEFT= INCREASES as metals are on the left side of the periodic table and have fewer protons
holding the electrons
o DOWNWARD=INCREASES as there is more shielding so outer electrons are easier to lose
 FORCE OF ATTRACTION
o How much the electrons are attracted to the nucleus
o UPWARD=INCREASES
o TO THE RIGHT=INCREASES as nucleus gains protons and atom has the same number of energy levels
 ATOMIC SIZE/RADIUS
o measure of a neutral atom’s size based on the radius of its volume as a sphere
o Down a group= INCREASES
o TO THE LEFT= INCREASES as nucleus lose protons making electrons less tight and compact
 ELECTRONEGATIVITY
o ability of an atom to attract a shared electron in a chem bond
o TO THE RIGHT=INCREASES
o UPWARD=INCREASES
o Fluorine has the greatest electronegativity because noble gases are not included due to the fact that they
have a full shell of valence electrons and cannot attract more
 NON-METAL REACTIVITY/ELECTRON AFFINITY
o Tendency of an atom to gain electron (a key characteristic of non-metals is they gain electrons to become
anions)
o TO THE RIGHT= INCREASES as non-metals are on the right side of the PT having more protons to
attract outer electrons
o UPWARD=INCREASES as there are less energy levels and greater nucleus-electron attraction

ACCURACY- refers to how closely a measured value agrees with the correct value
PRECISION- refers to how closely individual measurements agree with one another

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES: NOT SIGNIFICANT

1. Non-zero digits
2. Zeroes between nonzero digits (e.g. 106)
3. Zeroes at the end of a number that contains a
decimal point/ at the right of a decimal point
and a non-zero digit (e.g. 38.00 = 4 SF)
1. Terminal zeroes/ zeroes following a non-
zero digit (e.g. 4000= 1 SF)
2. Zeroes at the beginning of a number that is
used to position decimal point (0.052= 2 SF)

CONVERSION OF UNITS
MOLECULAR FORMULA- gives the exact number of atoms of each element in a compound
EMPIRICAL FORMULA- simplest ratio of atoms in a compound
1. Divide % composition of the element by its Assume 100g of the sample
atomic mass C=40.0g/ 12g= 3.33
H=6.67g/ 1g= 6.67
O=53.33g/ 16g= 3.33

2. The obtained quotients in step 1 are divided C= 3.33/3.33=1

by the lowest quotient obtained H= 6.67/3.33=2
3. If the result are not whole numbers, multiply O= 3.33/3.33=1
each by a common factor that will make
them all whole numbers Therefore, the empirical formula is CH2O

MOLECULAR/EMPIRICAL WEIGHT
Chemical reactions&solutions/NUCLEAR REACTION
REDOX REACTION
Quantum numbers
stoichiometry
GAS LAWS
BASIC ORGANIC CHEM
minerals and nucleotides