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Theoretical Concepts:
Distance protection, is a non-unit system of protection offering considerable economic and
technical advantages.
Distance protection is comparatively simple to apply and it can be fast in operation for faults
located along most of a protected circuit. It can also provide both primary and remote back-up
functions in a single scheme. It can easily be adapted to create a unit protection scheme when
applied with a signalling channel.
In this form it is eminently suitable for application with high-speed auto-reclosing, for the
protection of critical transmission lines.
The distance relay is based on evaluation of apparent impedance seen by the relay which is defined
as the ratio of phase voltage to line current of a transmission line (Zapp).
For the unloaded system, I = 0, and the apparent impedance seen by the relay is infinite.
For a loaded system, the apparent impedance seen by the relay reduces to some finite value
(Zload+Zline) where Zload is the load impedance and Zline is the line impedance.
For a fault at a per-unit distance ‘m’, the impedance seen by the relay drops to a m*Zline as shown
in figure below.
The apparent impedance seen by the relay (Zapp) reduces drastically in the presence of a line fault.
The distance relay compares the ratio of phase voltage to line current with the positive sequence
impedance (Z1) of the transmission line.
If the fraction Zapp/Z1 is less than set value, it indicates a fault in the zone of set vale. This ratio
also indicates the distance of the fault from the relay.
Because, impedance is a complex number, the distance protection is inherently directional. The
first quadrant is the forward direction i.e. impedance of the transmission line to be protected lies
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ETAP Workshop Notes
Figures below shows a characteristic of an impedance relay and ‘mho relay’ both belonging to this
class.
The impedance relay trips if the magnitude of the impedance is within the circular region.
Since in impedance relay, the circle spans all the quadrants, it leads to non-directional protection
scheme.
In contrast, the mho relay which covers primarily the first quadrant is directional in nature.
Thus, the trip law for the impedance relay can be written as follows:
|Zapp| = |VR| / |IR| < |Zset| ; then trip; else restrain.
While impedance relay has only one design parameter, Zset; ‘mho relay’ has two design
parameters Zn, λ.
As shown in the Figure, θ is the angle of transmission line, and λ is also called ‘torque angle’ or
characteristic angle.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
Relays measure the positive sequence impedance of the line up to the fault point (Refer
derivation of impedance in next page for the equations)
Phase to ground distance elements
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
Quadrilateral Characteristics
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ETAP Workshop Notes
Lenticular characteristic
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ETAP Workshop Notes
Under-Reach Overview
A distance relay will under-reach if the impedance presented to the relay is greater than the
impedance to the fault.
One of the cause of under-reaching is the effect of fault current infeed at remote busbars as
per details shown in figures below for both with & without infeeds:
Because of no infeed as shown in SLD above, the relay will operate for faults upto its reach of ZA
+ZC.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
In this example the relay at A will not measure the correct impedance for a fault on line
section ZC due to current infeed IB.
which is more than reach setting ZA + ZC for a fault at reach point ZA+ ZC
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ETAP Workshop Notes
Under-Reach occurs if the apparent impedance is greater than the reach impedance setting
of the relay.
Over-Reach occurs if the apparent impedance is less than the reach setting of the relay.
Consider the system in Figure below with a ground fault F1 towards end B.
The zero sequence current IL0C in the healthy line CD at C, is in the same direction as the
fault current IL0A at A and IL0B at B is in the opposite direction.
The zero sequence current in the healthy line induces a zero sequence voltage in the faulty
line resulting in a higher voltage at A.
At end B, the zero sequence voltage induced opposes the voltage at B, resulting in a reduced
voltage and hence a reduced apparent impedance. (Over-Reach)
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ETAP Workshop Notes
The current magnitudes depend on the source impedances. The relay tends to Under-Reach
with a strong source and overreach for a weak source end. It should be noted that the relay
at the opposite end tends to overreach when the local relay Under-Reaches.
For a solid phase to earth fault at the theoretical reach of the relay, the voltage and current
in the faulty phase at the relaying point are given by:
I A I A1 I A2 I A0
The voltage and current fed into the relay are given by:
VR =VA
I R = I A +KR I A0 + KM IB0
where:
KR is the residual compensation factor
KM is the mutual compensation factor
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ETAP Workshop Notes
100*(ZF- ZR) / ZR
where:
ZR = intended relay reach (relay reach setting)
ZF = effective reach
An example of the over-reaching effect is when distance relays are applied on parallel
lines and one line is taken out of service and earthed at each end.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
It is apparent from the above formulae that the relay has a tendency to over-reach.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
To overcome this possible over-reaching effect, some utilities reduce the reach of earth
fault relays to a % of ZL1 when lines are taken out of service for maintenance.
However, the probability of having a fault on the first section of the following line while
one line is out of service is very small, and many Utilities do not reduce the setting under
this condition. It should be noted that the use of mutual compensation would not overcome
the over-reaching effect since earthing clamps are normally placed on the line side of the
current transformers.
This phenomenon is Usually associated with three terminal line applications and
paralleling of line segment.
In the Example shown above,
Voltage as seen by relay VG = 2(1) + 2(1) = 4 V
Current as seen by relay IG = 2 A
ZG (As seen by Relay) = VG / IG = 4/2
ZG (As seen by Relay) = 2 ohms
As per settings fault is outside of Zone Z1 but due to Out-Feed effect, Relay will
overreach and see the fault.
This aspect is covered in Annexure-2.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
Numerical distance relays may have additional impedance zones other than Zon1, Zone 2
& Zone 3 that can be utilised to provide additional protection functions.
For example, where the first three zones are set as discussed previously, Zone 4 might be
used to provide back-up protection for the local busbar, by applying a reverse reach setting
of the order of 25% of the Zone 1 reach.
Alternatively, one of the forward looking zones (typically Zone 3) could be set with a small
reverse offset reach from the origin of the R/X diagram, in addition to its forward reach
setting.
An offset impedance measurement characteristic is nondirectional.
Under close up fault conditions, when the relay voltage falls to zero or near-zero, the
distance relay may fail to operate when it is required to do so. Methods of covering this
condition include the use of non-directional impedance characteristics, such as offset mho,
offset lenticular, or cross-polarised and memory polarised directional impedance
characteristics
One advantage of a non-directional zone of impedance measurement is that it is able to
operate:
for a close-up, zero-impedance fault, in situations where there may be no healthy phase
voltage signal or memory voltage signal available to allow operation of a directional
impedance zone.
Numerical relays are provided with healthy phase voltage polarisation and/or memory
voltage polarisation. The prime purpose of the relay polarising voltage is to ensure
correct relay directional response for close-up faults, in the forward or reverse
direction, where the fault-loop voltage measured by the relay may be very small and
not meeting the relay minimum voltage criterion for distance relay operation
under Switch-on-to- Fault’ (SOTF) conditions when closing command is given to the
Circuit Breaker to close after line maintenance with earth switch closed inadvertently
or when earth clamp used during maintenance is not removed before CB closing. In
such case there is nothing or no logic to prevent closing of Breaker and as soon as one
closes the Circuit Breaker, The CB in such a case will immediately trip on SOTF
Protection
With the offset-zone time delay bypassed, there can be provision of ‘Switch-on-to-
Fault’ (SOTF) protection. This is required to provide fast tripping in the event of
accidental line energisation with maintenance earthing clamps left in position.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
Cross country faults are more likely to occur on double circuit lines located on the same
tower structures and may result due to bush fires under the lines, lightning, as well as
broken conductors.
Cross country faults result in unusual current distributions that compromise the seen
impedance by units not directly involved in the fault loop, giving fault selector problems
for close-in faults as shown
The above type of A-B-G cross country faults are difficult to distinguish for a distance
relay and undesired three pole tripping may occur during simultaneous line to ground faults
on two different phases of a double circuit line.
For an A-G fault on feeder 1 and a B-G on feeder 2, the relays at end R will correctly
measure that it is a single phase fault. Relays at end S could determine an A-B-G fault and
would issue a three pole trip if the zone 2 element is for instance picked-up whilst receiving
a permissive trip from the remote end.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
During severe power swing conditions from which a system is unlikely to recover, stability
might only be regained if the swinging sources are not separated at an ideal location in the
system to ensure load generation balance is available in the sections split.
This type of disturbance cannot normally be correctly identified by an distance protection.
It is therefore usual to prevent distance protection schemes from operating during stable or
unstable power swings, in order to avoid cascade tripping.
The main purpose of the power-swing blocking function is to differentiate faults from
power swings and block distance or other relay elements from operating during stable or
unstable power swings.
However, faults that occur during a power swing must be detected and cleared with a high
degree of selectivity and dependability.
The PSB function is designed to detect power swings, differentiate power swings from
faults, and block distance relay elements from tripping during power swings.
In such situations, the PSB function therefore should unblock and allow the distance relay
elements to operate and clear any faults that occur in their zone of protection during a power
swing condition. Most PSB elements are based on traditional methods that monitor the rate
of change of the positive-sequence impedance.
This detection method is based on the fact that it takes a certain time for the rotor angle to
advance because of system inertias. In other words, the rate of change of the impedance
vector is slow during stable or unstable power swings, because it takes a finite time for the
generator rotors to change position with respect to each other because of their large inertias.
On the contrary, the rate of change of the impedance vector is very fast during a system
fault.
Actual implementation of measuring the impedance rate of change is normally performed
though the use of two impedance measurement elements together with a timing device.
If the measured impedance stays between the two impedance measurement elements for a
predetermined time, the relay declares a power-swing blocking condition and issues a
power-swing blocking signal to block the distance relay element operation.
The ohm impedance elements divide the R/X impedance diagram into three zones, A, B
and C.
As the impedance changes during a power swing, the point representing the impedance
moves along the swing locus, entering the three zones in turn and causing the ohm units to
operate in sequence. When the impedance enters the third zone the pole slip detection
sequence is completed as shown below:
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ETAP Workshop Notes
Only an unstable power swing condition can cause the impedance vector to move
successively through the three zones.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
2. Add Positive and zero sequence impedance details for each OHL (Over Head Line) as
follows:
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ETAP Workshop Notes
5. Similarly add the relay2 of Schneider Electric make, P441 type at the end of Line1 at XYZ
bus. Connect this relay2 to 2000/1A CT2 and 230kV / 120V PT2.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
6. Disable the over current (OCR) and over load (OLR) settings for relay1 and relay2.
7. The distance relay has the feature to add digital input (DI) & digital output (DO) along
with CT & PT inputs. Set the inputs to relay1 as shown below:
Current Transformer (CT) input:
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ETAP Workshop Notes
8. Go to the output page and assign each output of relay1 (DO1 to DO4) to trip CB1.
Note:
The screen displays that DO1 output has assigned to trip CB1 on logic operation.
Now, similarly assign the DO2 to DO4 output by clicking it individually to trip CB1 on
logic operation.
9. In similar manner give the inputs to relay2 as well. Assign each output of relay2 (DO1 to
DO4) to trip the CB2.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
Pick up DO1
option from the
drop down list
Note: Relay 1 (local relay) will have DI signal from relay2 (remote relay).And
Relay 2 will have DI signal from relay1.
Also note that, for this step, relay 2 (remote relay) output DO’s should be assigned.
11. See the calculation of Zero sequence compensation factor (Kz0), Zone1, Zone 2 and zone3
settings as below:
Compensation factor of line1 at ABC (relay1):
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ETAP Workshop Notes
Sometimes, the two requirements are in conflict. In this case, both requirements can be met. A
setting of the whole of the line between substations ABC and XYZ, plus 50% of the adjacent line
section to substation PQR is used. Hence, Zone 2 reach of line1 at ABC (relay1):
The resistive reach setting represents the maximum amount of additional fault resistance (in excess
of the line impedance) for which a zone will trip, regardless of the fault within the zone.
Warrington formulae:
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ETAP Workshop Notes
Where,
Ra = arc resistance (ohms)
L= spacing between two conductor (meters)
I = arc current (A)
Load Impedance:
To give maximum expected load current, the minimum load impedance calculated is 130 ohm.
The resistive reaches will be set to avoid the minimum load impedance by a 40% margin for the
phase elements, leading to a maximum resistive reach setting of 78ohm.
Therefore, the resistive reach setting lies between 8ohm (more than arc resistance Ra) and 78ohm
(less than min load impedance).
This ensures that load does not encroach into quadrilateral characteristics of Schneider Electric
make P441 type distance relay.
While each zone can have its own resistive reach setting, for this simple example they can all be
set equal. Hence Phase fault resistive reach settings are as follows:
The margin for avoiding the minimum load impedance need only be 20%.
Hence the settings are
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ETAP Workshop Notes
12. The above calculated values of zero sequence compensation factor, zone1, zone2 and zone3
settings, phase & earth fault resistive reach settings etc. are summarized in below table. These
values are need to be entered into relay1 & relay2.
Settings (on
Label Unit
primary base)
Line Angle 79.41 degrees
Z1 38.74 Ohms
R1Ph 78 Ohms
tZ1 0 s
Z2 62.95 Ohms
R2Ph 78 Ohms
tZ2 0.25 s
Z3 83.29 Ohms
tZ3 0.8 s
Z4 200 Ohms
tZ4 1 s
Note: In this example all the settings are calculated on primary base.
Hence in ETAP, primary impedance settings are entered but in relay, the secondary base settings
also can be entered.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
13. The direction of relay should be forward (Forward means looking towards Transmission
line). The CT polarity should be towards busbar at both the ends of Transmission line.
14. The settings for Zone P directional; Zone Q directional & series compensated line are
ignored in this exercise. These values have to be calculated properly and entered into relay
as per requirement.
15. Go to the scheme logic page of the relay 1 and see the logic applied to relay1 (allowing
permissive Under-Reach transfer tripping):
Note: Please see the subsequent pages where all the steps are shown in picture
format.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
Click to add
new row
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ETAP Workshop Notes
Go to Output heading
Double click on Z1
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
16. For permissive Under-Reach tripping the signal logic implemented above is as follows:
DO1
DO3
DO4
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ETAP Workshop Notes
After selecting the fault location, go to the next page to activate the associated relay.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
20. You can also see the R-X diagram in star Z view.
Select the Line1 and then click on create star Z view.
Enable the relay 1 and associated protected zones i.e. Z1, Z1X, Z2 & Z3
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
o Creating fault on Line -1 (ABC to XYZ): Sliding fault step is chosen as 5%.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
It can be observed that when fault location is at 0% from ABC, i.e., at the start of the line,
Zone-1 of Relay1 picks up and the associated Circuit Breaker CB1 operates
instantaneously (60ms, i.e., addition of Relay pickup delay and Circuit breaker operation
time).
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ETAP Workshop Notes
Also Zone-2 of Relay2 picks up and as per the Permissive Under-Reach tripping logic
(Zone 1 of Relay1 picks up along with Zone 2 of Relay2), Relay2 also gives tripping
signal to the associated Circuit Breaker CB2 which also operates instantaneously.
o Now move the slider to attain the fault location at 25% from Substation ABC.
In this condition, it can be observed that Zone-1 of Relay1 picks up and the associated
Circuit Breaker CB1 operates instantaneously.
Also Zone-1 of Relay2 picks up and the associated Circuit Breaker CB2 operates
instantaneously.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
o Now move the slider to attain the fault location at 80% from Substation ABC.
In this condition, it can be observed that Zone-1 of Relay2 picks up and the associated
Circuit Breaker CB2 operates instantaneously.
Also Zone-2 of Relay1 picks up and as per the Permissive Under-Reach tripping logic
(Zone 1 of Relay2 picks up along with Zone 2 of Relay1), Relay1 also gives tripping
signal to the associated Circuit Breaker CB1 which also operates instantaneously.
The same sequence of operation can be observed when the fault location is at 100% from
Substation ABC (at Substation XYZ).
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ETAP Workshop Notes
o Creating fault on Line -2 (XYZ to PQR): Sliding fault step is chosen as 5%.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
In this condition, it can be observed that Zone-2 of Relay1 picks up and the associated
Circuit Breaker CB1 operates after a time delay of 310ms, i.e., addition of time delay of
250ms for Zone 2 operation and Relay pickup delay and Circuit breaker operation time.
o Now move the slider to attain the fault location at 50% from Substation XYZ.
In this condition, it can be observed that only Zone-3 of Relay1 picks up and the
associated Circuit Breaker CB1 operates after a time delay of 860ms, i.e., addition of time
delay of 800ms for Zone 3 operation and Relay pickup delay and Circuit breaker operation
time.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
o Creating fault on Line -3 (PQR to Grid U2): Sliding fault step is chosen as 5%.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
In this condition, it can be observed that only Zone-3 of Relay1 picks up and the
associated Circuit Breaker CB1 operates after a time delay of 860ms, i.e., addition of time
delay of 800ms for Zone 3 operation and Relay pickup delay and Circuit breaker operation
time.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
iv. 3 phase fault on Line -2 (XYZ to PQR) with source at Substation ABC, XYZ and
PQR (INFEED EFFECT) (UNDER-REACH OF RELAY) (Continued)
o Creating fault on Line -2 (XYZ to PQR): Sliding fault step is chosen as 5%.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
iv. 3 phase fault on Line -2 (XYZ to PQR) with source at Substation ABC, XYZ and
PQR (INFEED EFFECT) (UNDER-REACH OF RELAY) (Continued)
In this condition, it can be observed that Zone-2 of Relay1 picks up and the associated
Circuit Breaker CB1 operates after a time delay of 310ms, i.e., addition of time delay of
250ms for Zone 2 operation and Relay pickup delay and Circuit breaker operation time.
o Now move the slider to attain the fault location at 15% from Substation XYZ.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
In this condition, it can be observed that only Zone-3 of Relay1 picks up and the
associated Circuit Breaker CB1 operates after a time delay of 860ms, i.e., addition of time
delay of 800ms for Zone 3 operation and Relay pickup delay and Circuit breaker operation
time.
This represents Under-Reach of the Zone 2 of Relay1 which is because of the INFEED
effect, i.e., current infeed from source U3 at Substation XYZ.
Similarly, when you move the slider to attain fault location at 35% from Substation XYZ,
then it is observed that Zone 3 of Relay1 also does not pick up the fault.
This represents Under-Reach of the Zone 3 of Relay1 which is because of the INFEED
effect, i.e., current infeed from source U3 at Substation XYZ.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
o Now go to Relay-1, StarZ | Distance and make Residual Compensation factor (KZ1,
KZ2 and KZ3) as zero (0).
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
It can be observed that when fault location is at 0% from ABC, i.e., at the start of the line,
Zone-1 of Relay1 picks up and the associated Circuit Breaker CB1 operates
instantaneously (60ms, i.e., addition of Relay pickup delay and Circuit breaker operation
time).
o Now move the slider to attain the fault location at 45% from Substation ABC.
In this condition, it can be observed that Zone-1 of Relay1 does not pick up the fault. This
is because we have not considered Residual Compensation factor which results in Under-
Reach of the relay.
Similar results can be obtained for Zone-2 and Zone-3 by further increasing the distance
of fault location from Substation ABC.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
o Creating fault on Line -1 (ABC to XYZ): Sliding fault step is chosen as 5%.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
It can be observed that when fault location is at 0% from ABC, i.e., at the start of the line,
Zone-1 of Relay1 picks up and the associated Circuit Breaker CB1 operates
instantaneously (60ms, i.e., addition of Relay pickup delay and Circuit breaker operation
time).
o Now move the slider to attain the fault location at 75% from Substation ABC.
Same sequence of operation as previous condition is seen in this condition which proves
satisfactory operation of Relay1.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
Spurious tripping of Distance Relay due to large loads falls within the Zone, said to be
tripping due to Load Encroachment.
With the present setting of the relay, the Quad Characterstics is as below:
Now we will be considering the following load at bus XYZ (Constant Impedance loads):
Rload (ohms) MW MVar
60 881.6666667 0
30 1763.333333 0
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ETAP Workshop Notes
o Connect a lump load at bus XYZ with only source at bus ABC (Grid U1) in service,
as shown below.
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o Now open Study Scenario and select “Load flow (No Fault)” under Study Type.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
Hence, in this case the load does not encroach the Relay Characterstics and no maloperation
of relay is observed.
b) Case -1: Rload = 30 ohms
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
It can be observed that, as the load resistance is reduced to 30 ohms, Relay1 trips even if
there is no fault in the system.
This condition of Distance Relay is known as tripping due to load encroachment.
22. Distance Protection Settings of Other makes for the Example Transmission System:
For the Example Transmission System, settings for other makes has also been provided in
the same ETAP file as Revisions.
OTI File Name: NPAG DIST.oti
The same can be seen as below:
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ETAP Workshop Notes
Simulate the Revision files as explained before and analyse the results for all the cases.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
DISTANCE PROTECTION
ANNEXURE – 1
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ETAP Workshop Notes
ANNEXURE – 1
DISTANCE RELAY UNDER-REACH AND OVER-REACH EFFECT DUE TO MUTUAL
COUPLING BETWEEN PARALLEL LINES:
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
S.
Configuration of Line-1 Ckt-1 X coordinate Y coordinate Unit
No.
1 Conductor A (A1) : -3.7 31.6 m
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ETAP Workshop Notes
Now Click OK and Copy and Paste this Transmission Line “Line-1 Ckt-1”.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
Select None as there is no Ground Wire in Line-1 Ckt-2, i.e., Group-2 (Refer Figure
-2 for details).
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ETAP Workshop Notes
S. X Y
Configuration of Line-1 Ckt-2 Unit
No. coordinate coordinate
1 Conductor A (A2) : 3.7 31.6 m
Deselect Ground Wires as there is no Ground Wire in Line-1 Ckt-2 and click OK.
The Configuration Page will be as shown below:
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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Now in Grouping Page, select Name under “Group” as “COUPL1”. and Click OK.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
7. Now to model Outgoing line from Bus XYZ to PQR, copy Transmission Line “Line-1 Ckt-
2” & Paste and rename it as Line-2.
8. Open Transmission Line “Line 2” and go to Grouping Page & Select Name under
“Group” as “None”. and Click OK. This is done as NO COUPLING between Line-2 and
Line-1 is required.
9. In ETAP file, add the distance relay at Line1 of ABC bus. Pick up the Schneider Electric
make, P441 type distance relay from the default library. This is quadrilateral type relay.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
10. Connect this Relay1 to 100/1A CT1 and 132kV / 110V PT1.
11. Disable the over current (OCR) and over load (OLR) settings for Relay1.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
14. Now go to StarZ | Distance Page of Relay1 and enter the settings as shown below:
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
Now move the fault location to 93% of the Transmission Line “Line-1 Ckt-2”. It
can be observed Relay1 still operates instantaneously for the fault.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
Now move the fault location to 94% of the Transmission Line “Line-1 Ckt-2”. It can be
observed Relay1 does not operate for this fault location.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
For Earthing Transmission Line “Line-1 Ckt-1” at both ends without isolation it from
the circuit in ETAP, it has been earthed using a Generator with very small rated
voltage (0.01kV) and Solidly Earthed.
Now go to Study Case and follow the following steps:
Study Type: Sliding Fault
Click on “Select” under Fault/Study Location and Select “Line-2” and select step
as “1 %”.
Select Fault Type as “Line-to-Ground” and Click OK.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
Now move the fault location to 30% of the Transmission Line “Line-2”. It can be
observed Relay1 still operates instantaneously for the fault.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
3. All the Lines have the same Impedance parameters. The length of the lines are entered as shown
below:
1 Line_1_Sec_1 30
2 Line_1_Sec_2 70
3 Line_2_Sec_1 35
4 Line_2_Sec_2 35
5 Line_3 60
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
9. Now go to StarZ | Distance Page of Relay1 and enter the settings as shown below:
To show the phenomenon of Distance Relay Over-Reach due to Out-Feed, only Zone-1 of
Relay is activated (Zone-2 and Zone-3 deactivated) and is provided with settings such that
Zone-1 covers 100% of Transmission Line “Line_1” (Line_1_Sec_1 + Line_1_Sec_2).
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
From this, it can be concluded that Relay1 is set to cover 100% of Transmission Line
“Line_1” (Line_1_Sec_1 + Line_1_Sec_2) in Zone-1.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
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ETAP Workshop Notes
From this observation, it can be concluded that Out-Feed effect causes the Distance Relay
to Over-Reach. Now, we can also check the extent of Over-Reach.
Now move the fault location to 59% of the Transmission Line “Line_3”. It can be observed
Relay1 operates instantaneously for the fault.
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ETAP Workshop Notes
Even though with Zone-1 of Relay1 set to cover 100% of Transmission Line “Line_1”
(Line_1_Sec_1 + Line_1_Sec_2), it operates for a fault at 59% of Line_3 (60km).
Now Percentage Over-Reach can be calculated as below:
59% of Line_3 = 0.59*60 = 35 km (approx.)
% Over-Reach = (59% of Line_3) / (Line_1_Sec_1 + Line_1_Sec_2)
% Over-Reach = 35/100
% Over-Reach = 35 %
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