Forensic Science International 302 (2019) 109903

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Forensic Science International

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/forsciint

Forensic palynology and the search for geolocation: Factors for analysis
and the Baby Doe case
Andrew R. Laurencea,* , Vaughn M. Bryantb
a
U.S. Customs and Border Protection, Laboratories and Scientific Services Directorate, Chicago, IL 60607, USA
b
Palynology Laboratory, Department of Anthropology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: First used over 50 years ago, forensic palynology is an important tool for law enforcement agencies. In
Received 26 April 2019 most countries that use forensic palynology, microscopic pollen grains and spores are traditionally used
Received in revised form 24 June 2019 in criminal investigations to link suspects to crime scenes or items. While still underutilized in many
Accepted 27 June 2019
parts of the world, forensic palynology is increasingly being used to determine the region of origin, or
Available online 27 July 2019
geolocation, for persons and items of interest. Drawing upon the experience of the authors using trace
pollen and spores to geolocate forensic samples, the types, methods, and variables of this type of analysis
Keywords:
are discussed and demonstrated using the Baby Doe case from Massachusetts, USA as a case study. This is
Forensic science
Pollen
not an exhaustive list and every forensic sample is unique so the methods and experience presented here
Spores are intended to be a guide for future forensic and anti-terrorism investigations as forensic palynology
Geolocation becomes more commonplace in law enforcement agencies around the world.
Sampling © 2019 Published by Elsevier B.V.
Interpretation

For the last 50 years, pollen and fungal spore studies have
gained an increasingly important role as trace evidence used in
forensic applications [1–4]. Forensic palynology has traditionally
focused on the use of pollen and spore evidence to associate
suspects or items with a specific crime scene [5]. Other
applications have centered on using trapped pollen and spores
on or in an item as a way to determine the probable geolocation of
that item’s origin [6]. In this regard, during the past few decades,
forensic palynology has been most often used in situations
pertaining to homicides, acts of terrorism, war crimes and
genocide, to detect the forgery of documents, help solve crimes
related to theft, kidnapping, rape, arson, and identifying the
manufacturing and distribution sources of counterfeit medications
sold worldwide [7]. Other applications have focused, to a limited
degree, on the source and distribution of illegal drugs such as
marijuana, heroin, cocaine, and methamphetamine as well as
investigated cases of assault, hit and run, poaching, and identity
theft [2,5,8–10,11]. Currently, the application of pollen and spore
evidence in forensics is highly underutilized in some regions of the
developed world, especially in the United States [6,12].
The use of forensic palynology in criminal cases is well
documented but there are few published examples or discussions
that detail cases involving the resolution of geolocation using pollen
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: andrew.r.laurence@cbp.dhs.gov (A.R. Laurence).
and spores [13]. A primary reason for this lack of published
information is the sensitive nature of many cases or the varied
situations where those techniques have been used. For this
contribution, we will detail some of the factors involved in analyzing
forensic pollen samples for geolocation. For this, we will draw upon
our experiences and use the Baby Doe case as an example.
1. Sample collection
Ideally, forensic pollen samples should be collected in the field
by a forensic palynologist or someone trained under his/her
direction. Many different methods for collecting forensic pollen
samples have been published elsewhere (e.g. Refs. [14,11]) so they
will not be discussed here. When possible, sample collection
strategies should be developed and agreed upon before inves-
tigators arrive at a crime scene in order to avoid contamination.
Every case is different, so sampling strategies are usually
developed on a case-by-case basis.
2. Forensic samples: pollen sampling and processing
We have analyzed a wide range of sample types including many
different types of drugs (such as marijuana, cocaine, heroin, crystal
methamphetamine, etc.), explosives, clothing, and human hair.
Because every sample is different and even similar sample types
can have unique challenges, forensic palynologists need to adapt
their in-lab sampling and processing methods based on the

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.forsciint.2019.109903
0379-0738/© 2019 Published by Elsevier B.V.
2 A.R. Laurence, V.M. Bryant / Forensic Science International 302 (2019) 109903
individual characteristics of the sample. Due to the need to adapt to
the characteristics of each sample, we usually modify the methods
of Brown [15] Erdtman [16] and Faegri et al. [17] to process sample
types. Whenever possible, the same methods should be used
for similar sample types to maintain consistency and to adhere
to standard protocols. All methods used during sampling and
processing are documented in the final report. Furthermore, if
multiple types of analyses are to be performed in conjunction with
pollen analysis, (such as DNA or fiber analysis), subsamples need to
be taken so each analysis can be undertaken with minimal risk of
contamination or destruction of other evidence.
3. Analysis
Most microscopic examinations of forensic pollen samples are
performed using a light microscope rather than scanning electron
microscopy [17,18]. Normally for samples, a total of at least 200–
300 palynomorphs (pollen and spores) should be counted [19].
Higher palynomorph counts can be used in exceptional circum-
stances, but higher counts increase both the time, expense of the
analysis, and often do not change the inferred geolocation. They
can, however, increase the number of rare taxa seen in a sample,
and in special cases must be conducted to conclusively prove a
specific geolocation. Because time is often a factor in our casework,
we typically count 200–300 palynomorphs and then scan
additional slides for new pollen and spore types, which might
help to identify a site’s location.
Pollen and spore identifications are often a problem, especially
when forensic samples are from areas of the world where there is
little published information on the palynomorphs characteristic of
those regions. A number of published pollen atlases, modern pollen
and spore reference collections can aid in identification. In addition,
there are web sites that provide images of some pollen and spore
taxa, and published articles in professional journals with informa-
tion about pollen and spore types in some regions of the world are
often helpful. Nevertheless, one of the greatest concerns in forensic
palynology is the accuracy of identification. Inaccurate palynomorph
identifications can result in misleading interpretations; therefore, it
is imperative that the individuals conducting the collection,
processing, and analysis of forensic samples be thoroughly trained
and highly competent to conduct these types of studies. Even with
the aid of digitized reference collections, the most accurate way to
identify palynomorphs is through direct comparisons with slides of
modern pollen and spores prepared as reference material.
4. Interpretations
Analysts examining forensic pollen samples need to understand
aspects related to pollen production, dispersal, long distance
transport, pollen degradation, recycling of dispersed pollen and
spores, and the potential for different items retaining different
amounts of pollen and spore spectra. For example, we know that
different types of fabrics potentially retain different amounts and
types of pollen and spores [14,20,21].
Every forensic pollen sample is unique. The retained pollen
spectrum of a sample results from a number of variables some of
which may not precisely reflect the pollen spectrum at the original
location. Therefore, the following discussion is by no means
exhaustive, but it does point out some of the more common
variables that forensic analysts should consider when analyzing
samples for geolocation purposes.
5. Types of geolocation
There are essentially two main types of forensic samples used
for geolocation purposes. The first type includes samples where an
agency or an individual believes the sample originated from a
specific location. The goal of the pollen analyst examining those
samples is to search for confirming pollen types, or the lack of
them, that might confirm or reject the suspected location. The
second type of sample is one that has no known point of origin, but
it is hoped that a location can be established.
The first type of samples pertains to very specific situations
involving victims, suspects, crime scenes, and items suspected of
being associated with one of the previous situations [22–25]. For
this first type of investigation, the successful use of pollen and
spores will depend on the palynologist’s knowledge, experience,
and familiarity with the crime scene and/or other places of interest
related directly to answering specific questions about a victim,
suspect, or aspect related to those situations. The palynologist
must understand the plant ecology and plant communities in and
around a crime scene, and be aware of other ecological, soil, and
climatic features, including topographic features of the landscape
in and around the general region.
For the second type of samples, there are various steps that one
can follow. Generally, the first step is to scan one or more
microscope slides made from the processed sample in search of
“marker pollen and spore types.” Marker types are pollen grains
and spores that come from plants that either have specific
ecological needs or are the most prominent in one geographical
region. Marker types would include pollen taxa such as Abies (Fir),
which would suggest a location in a cold or northern area of the
Northern Hemisphere. On the other hand, finding Phoenix (date
palm) pollen would suggest a tropical and perhaps semi-arid
region. When a series of marker pollen types are identified in a
sample and they all come from the same general type of
environment, then that becomes the first major clue needed to
narrow the origin of a sample. Although the key marker types may
suggest a specific “type” of environment, it often takes a group of
marker types to narrow the search to a specific continent or even
a specific region within a continent. Next, the amounts of each
pollen type in a sample might further narrow the search area.
For example, high percentages of Artemisia (sagebrush), grass,
Sarcobatus (greasewood), sedges, and low or trace amounts of Pinus
(pine), Picea (spruce), Pseudotsuga (Douglas fir) and fir would
suggest a probable area in the steppe regions of North America
[26].
6. Variables while searching for geolocation
Examining forensic pollen samples (e.g. clothing, hair, vehicle
air filters, sediment, electronics, etc.) for geolocation purposes
differs from many of the other types of pollen analyses (e.g. based
on swamp or lake deposits) because it must account for
anthropogenic variables and samples and are often not a complete
pollen record, as might be found typically in a core from a bog or
lake. One of the most common encountered problems when
searching for geolocation is the presence of pollen from
ornamental plants. In some situations, that information becomes
invaluable because the pollen from a specific type of ornamental
might come from a plant at a specific crime scene [3,27–29]. At
other times, ornamental pollen can add confusion when attempt-
ing to determine the geolocation of a sample from its pollen
spectrum. For example, palm trees, pine trees, Eucalyptus (gum)
trees, Callistemon (bottlebrush), and many other plants are now
grown as ornamentals in areas outside their normal ecological
range. Because the pollen from many of those plant types are often
considered marker pollen in samples, their presence in some
samples could provide misleading geolocation interpretations
The other major problem in trying to establish the geolocation
of a sample relates to the practice of plant introduction and
landscape modification. At one time, it would have been
 A.R. Laurence, V.M. Bryant / Forensic Science International 302 (2019) 109903
reasonable to assume that Casuarina (she oak) pollen indicated
either Australia or a very limited area in Southeast Asia, but today,
that plant has become a pandemic ornamental in the warm and
arid regions of the world. Likewise, there were no pine trees or pine
pollen in prehistoric or even historic Australian and New Zealand
sediments until Europeans introduced that plant [30,31]. Humans
have been modifying the landscape for over 200,000 years [32],
which has altered and transformed vegetation communities to the
point that sometimes the pollen profiles of the area no longer
reflect the expected pollen rain of the natural landscape [33]. This
becomes a special problem when searching for the geolocation of
pollen samples from urban areas. Often, pollen samples taken in an
urban area contain a pollen spectrum influenced by pollen from
trees and other vegetation lining the streets, including introduced
ornamentals in parks and in the yards of local residents, and
sometimes even remnant traces of the original vegetation. Green
Lake Park in Seattle, Washington (USA), for example, has had a
continuous introduction of many non-native and exotic trees and
other vegetation since it was established in 1903 [34]. Thus, the
current pollen profiles for some areas of Seattle do not reflect the
Pacific Northwest but instead could be mistaken for locations in
California or even the Southeastern United States.
Apart from the pollen and spores observed in forensic samples,
there are often other clues that can help determine a specific
geolocation. Since most forensic samples are modern samples, the
condition of the pollen grains themselves can offer clues about
recycling, possible microbial degradation, and differential preser-
vation of fragile types. The presence of certain types of debris in a
sample, such as soot from diesel-powered vehicles or coal dust
from industrial activities, might help to include or exclude
potential regions of origin.
Finally, the type of item from which a sample was collected may
provide information as to the types of pollen grains that should be
expected. For example, a vehicle seized in a rural coastal area
Fig. 1. Location where body was found.
3
should contain pollen evidence of that coastal area. However, it
might contain pollen and spore evidence suggesting the vehicle
had been driven in high-elevation forests or in nearby urban
regions rather than being used exclusively along local coastal areas.
Similarly, forensic pollen sampling of rare paintings that were
painted in areas of Europe, or antique furniture purported to come
from France may contain marker pollen types confirming those
points of origin or might instead provide questions about their
authenticity [14]. A final point that must be considered is the
potential biases that may be inherent in the type of forensic sample
that is collected. Samples exposed for long periods will often
contain a much richer suite of pollen taxa than a sample that was
only briefly exposed. Furthermore, samples from certain seasons of
the year will often reflect a bias skewed toward local plants that
were pollinating at that time. Pollen grains can also be transported
long distances by wind, animals, or human activities, so the
presence of a few non-local pollen grains does not necessarily
suggest that a sample travelled to another region. Finally, the
surface areas from which samples are collected might retain
certain types of pollen more effectively than other types [21,29].
7. Case study: Baby Doe
The Baby Doe case from Massachusetts provides an example of
how forensic palynology is used effectively for geolocation. June
25, 2015, a jogger and her dog discovered a sealed, black trash bag
that had floated to the shore of Deer Island in Boston Harbor
(Fig. 1). The trash bag contained the remains of a murdered female
child that was partly decomposed. Wave action had distorted
the child’s facial features and fingerprints making an initial,
positive identification unlikely. The infant, estimated to have been
2–4 years of age, was wearing a pair of black polka-dot pants and
was wrapped in a Zebra pattern blanket, but no other items were
present. The clothing did not provide immediate clues because the
4 A.R. Laurence, V.M. Bryant / Forensic Science International 302 (2019) 109903
Fig. 2. Composite image of Baby Doe produced by NCMEC.
Polka-dot pants were sold at Wal-Mart stores throughout the
Northeastern U.S. and the Zebra-Stripe blanket was a popular item
sold in K-Mart stores in the same region. It was a composite facial
reconstruction for Baby Doe by a forensic specialist that was of the
most value and the picture was put on posters, large billboards and
on the Boston and Massachusetts State Police web site (Fig. 2).
The U.S. Coast Guard was asked to determine potential places
along the eastern coast of the United States where the plastic bag
might have originated. Based on ocean currents, the estimated
time since the trash bag was thrown into the ocean, and wind and
wave action, the Coast Guard estimated that the potential origin
could have been hundreds of miles north or even south of the
Boston Harbor area and Deer Island where the body was
discovered.
The Boston Police Facebook Page describing the Baby Doe case
and their request for information about the baby received over 50
million hits, and hundreds of tips poured in from all over the
eastern region near Boston as well as other countries. Unfortu-
nately, none of the suggested tips proved successful in determining
either where the baby had been killed, or where it had been
discarded into the ocean.
John Walsh, co-founder of the National Center for Missing and
Exploited Children that was working with the Boston and
Massachusetts State Police, suggested asking help from federal
agencies in hopes of solving the murder of Baby Doe. One of the
suggested forensic tests focused on the potential information that
might be gained from a pollen study of the garments and blanket
associated with the dead baby. Those agencies sent the girl’s
clothing, blanket, and a sample of her hair to the U.S. Customs and
Border Protection Laboratories and Scientific Services Directorate
lab in Houston, Texas, hoping that maybe pollen evidence might
provide new clues. When the items arrived, one of the authors
(Laurence), who was working at the Houston lab at the time,
processed and analyzed the samples.
8. Methods
A forensic vacuum with a cellulose filter cartridge was used to
remove pollen and other particulates from the blankets and pants
Fig. 3. Forensic vacuum used to remove pollen from Baby Doe’s pants.
(Fig. 3). Separate filter cartridges were used to process each
sample. Once vacuumed, the filter element from each cylinder was
carefully removed and placed into a separate, sterile 15 ml
centrifuge tube filled with 95% ethanol (EtOH). Ethanol is our
preferred sample liquid because its lower specific gravity ensures
that all palynomorphs will sink to the bottom of a centrifuge tube
during centrifugation [18]. The samples were centrifuged and the
supernatant decanted. Each sample was then filled with glacial
acetic acid, centrifuged, and decanted. Once these steps were
completed, the residue was treated with acetolysis to remove
unwanted cellulose and lipids in the pollen grains, which could
obscure the identity of the recovered pollen. The standard
acetolysis procedure is to use a mixture of 9:1 acetic anhydride
to sulfuric acid. The acetolysis mixture with the samples was then
heated in an aluminum-heating block for 10 min at a temperature
of 85  C.
After acetolysis, the samples were rinsed and washed in EtOH
several times. Once that was completed, the residue was washed
again in distilled water and then heated in 48% hydrofluoric acid
(HF) at 85  C for 30 min to remove silicates. After HF, each sample
was rinsed several times with distilled water, and then rinsed in
36.5% hydrochloric acid (HCl) to remove any fluorosilicates. The
samples were again rinsed in distilled water and a final rinse of
EtOH. Some large organic debris remained so the samples were
carefully screened using continuous sprays of EtOH to remove
debris larger than 150 mm. The final step was to stain the residue
with organic stain, Safranin-O, rinse a final time in EtOH, and then
store it in a 2 ml plastic centrifuge tube before adding three drops
of glycerin. Each sample tube contained a top with an O-ring to
ensure secure closure and to prevent possible airborne palyno-
morph contamination.
The hair sample was placed in a beaker containing a 50:50
mixture of EtOH and water, then agitated until it appeared to
be clean (Fig. 4). Next, the recovered liquid was transferred to
centrifuge tubes and concentrated by centrifugation. Once
concentrated, the sample was processed in the same manner as
the vacuum filters.
9. Results
There was enough pollen in all samples, except for the hair, to
complete a standard pollen count of 200–300 pollen grains
(Table 1). Additional slides from each sample were scanned for
additional pollen taxa which might provide clues for geolocation.
The pollen spectra recovered from all clothing samples were very
similar and suggested a suburban Northeastern U.S. environment.
The clothing samples were dominated by background pollen types
 A.R. Laurence, V.M. Bryant / Forensic Science International 302 (2019) 109903 5

found, such as spruce and hemlock, their frequency was minimal

(Table 1).

9.1. Analysis

Our initial impression of the pollen analyses suggested a typical

Fig. 4. Baby Doe’s hair soaking in 50:50 distilled water and EtOH solution.
including oak (Quercus) and pine pollen grains along with minor
amounts of composite (Asteraceae) and grass pollen (Poaceae). No
pollen from known cultivated or agricultural plants was found
during the initial counts or during the additional scanning of slides.
Other pollen taxa recovered from the samples were types native to
the Northeastern U.S., such as maple (Acer), walnut (Juglans),
hickory (Carya), birch (Betula), basswood (Tilia), ash (Fraxinus),
spruce, hemlock (Tsuga), elm (Ulmus), alder (Alnus), and beech
(Fagus). Although pollen from taxa common in boreal forests was
type of pollen rain (all the pollen deposited at a location) found in
North American temperate, deciduous-pine forests [35] that are
common along the eastern seaboard of the United States from
Georgia to Maine (Fig. 5). The lack of pollen from any agricultural or
commonly cultivated plants suggested an urban rather than a rural
location. The samples contained high quantities of soot, which is
often common in forensic samples from urban regions. The lack of
many pollen grains from taxa such as such as weedy plant
members of the composites (Asteraceae) and amaranths (Amar-
anthaceae), suggested an urban area that did not contain disturbed
areas or vacant lots full of weeds and debris.
The combination of pollen data from our samples suggested
that the child had lived in a developed urban or suburban area.
Usually, homes and yards in more affluent areas of a city, have few
weeds growing in vacant lots and unkempt vegetation along
roadsides, but still have enough vehicle traffic to contribute high
amounts of soot into the atmosphere that can become part of the
pollen rain or embedded in the fabric of people’s clothing. Had the
child been from a forested area, we would have expected higher
ratios of arboreal pollen that were found.
Although most of the recovered pollen suggested a northeast-
ern U.S. urban or suburban area south of the conifer forest zone, the

Table 1
Palynomorphs recovered from Baby Doe samples.

Pollen taxa % % % %
Sample name Baby blanket Zebra-print blanket Pants Hair
Acer (maple) 3 1.2% 1 0.4% 3 1.2% 0 0.0%
Alnus (alder) 0 0.0% 3 1.2% 0 0.0% 0 0.0%
Artemisia (sagebrush) 0 0.0% 1 0.4% 1 0.4% 0 0.0%
ASTERACEAE (ragweed-type) 1 0.4% 1 0.4% 2 0.8% 1 2.7%
ASTERACEAE (dandelion-type) 1 0.4% 3 1.2% 2 0.8% 0 0.0%
Betula (birch) 17 6.7% 14 5.6% 20 7.8% 2 5.4%
Cannabis/Humulus 0 0.0% 2 0.8% 0 0.0% 2 5.4%
CARYOPHYLLACEAE (carnation family) 2 0.8% 0 0.0% 1 0.4% 0 0.0%
Carpinus (hornbeam) 0 0.0% 2 0.8% 0 0.0% 0 0.0%
Carya (hickory) 3 1.2% 1 0.4% 2 0.8% 1 2.7%
Cedrus (cedar) 0 0.0% 1 0.4% 2 0.8% 0 0.0%
CHENO-AMS (goosefoot) 1 0.4% 1 0.4% 2 0.8% 1 2.7%
Diporate 1 0.4% 1 0.4% 3 1.2% 0 0.0%
ERICACEAE (heath family) 1 0.4% 1 0.4% 0 0.0% 0 0.0%
EUPHORBIACEAE (spurge family) 0 0.0% 1 0.4% 1 0.4% 0 0.0%
FABACEAE (bean family) 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 1 0.4% 0 0.0%
Fagus (beech) 0 0.0% 2 0.8% 3 1.2% 1 2.7%
Fern spores 2 0.8% 1 0.4% 1 0.4% 0 0.0%
Fraxinus (ash) 3 1.2% 8 3.2% 5 2.0% 2 5.4%
Juglans (walnut) 1 0.4% 1 0.4% 1 0.4% 0 0.0%
Ligustrum (privet) 2 0.8% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0%
Liquidambar (sweetgum) 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 1 0.4% 0 0.0%
Lycopodium (clubmoss) 2 0.8% 0 0.0% 1 0.4% 0 0.0%
Picea (spruce) 1 0.4% 1 0.4% 1 0.4% 1 2.7%
Pinus (pine) 38 14.9% 44 17.6% 47 18.4% 7 18.9%
Pinus body/bladder 6 2.4% 10 4.0% 12 4.7% 2 5.4%
Plantago (plantain) 1 0.4% 13 5.2% 1 0.4% 1 2.7%
POACEAE (grass family) 43 16.9% 8 3.2% 2 0.8% 1 2.7%
Populus (cottonwood) 0 0.0% 3 1.2% 1 0.4% 3 8.1%
Quercus (oak) 90 35.3% 94 37.6% 112 43.8% 8 21.6%
Rhus (sumac) 11 4.3% 8 3.2% 10 3.9% 2 5.4%
Tilia (basswood) 1 0.4% 0 0.0% 0 0.0% 0 0.0%
Trifolium (clover) 0 0.0% 2 0.8% 0 0.0% 0 0.0%
Tsuga (hemlock) 1 0.4% 1 0.4% 1 0.4% 0 0.0%
Typha tetrad-type (cattail) 1 0.4% 3 1.2% 0 0.0% 0 0.0%
Typha monad-type (cattail) 4 1.6% 2 0.8% 0 0.0% 0 0.0%
Ulmus (elm) 15 5.9% 13 5.2% 17 6.6% 2 5.4%
Unknown pollen (other) 3 1.2% 3 1.2% 0 0.0% 0 0.0%
Totals 255 100% 250 100% 256 100% 37 100%
6 A.R. Laurence, V.M. Bryant / Forensic Science International 302 (2019) 109903
Fig. 5. Location of deciduous-pine forest (Appalachian oak section) from Dyer [38].
recovery of two different species of cedar (Cedrus) pollen was a
significant clue for determining the geolocation (Fig. 6). Current
taxonomic information list only four species of true cedar, all of
which are native to temperate mountain zones of North Africa and
the Mediterranean region such as the mountainous regions in
Lebanon and the island of Cyprus [36]. Historical records suggest
that the first cedar trees were imported into the Southeastern and
Western United States during the 1800s for their economic utility
[36]. Later, additional cedar trees were planted in more regions of
the U.S. where they were often used in parks and in urban areas as
ornamental plants [37]. A major problem was that these initial
species of cedar trees were not acclimatised to extremely cold
winters and thus could not survive in many of the colder areas of
North America.
Fig. 6. Types of Cedrus pollen grains recovered from Baby Doe samples. Note the
different surface features between A and B.
In the 1900s, seeds from a new variety of Lebanon cedar (Cedrus
libani A. Rich.) from the Taurus Mountains in Turkey were imported
and planted at Harvard University’s Arnold Arboretum in 1902. The
success of that initial planting produced seeds that became the
“breeding stock” for cedar trees planted in parks and arboretums
throughout many regions of the United States, including the Morris
Arboretum of The University of Pennsylvania [36]. Unfortunately,
our available modern pollen reference slides included only two of
the four recognized species of cedar; therefore, we took the con-
servative approach and listed the cedar pollen only at the generic
level even though it was apparent from the pollen morphology
there were two distinct species represented.
Because the cedar pollen grains were in pristine condition and
showed no damage that often results during recycling, we believed
the cedar pollen came from ornamentals close to where the victim
had lived, perhaps near an arboretum or near a park. Because the
recovered pollen profiles contained soot, suggesting an urban or
suburban environment, it was not likely that the cedar pollen was
the result of long distance transport from a distant source.
Most parks and personal residences in the Northeastern region
of the U.S. only contain the variety of the Lebanon cedar that can
grow without extensive habitat modification, but arboretums
often contain several species of cedar. For the Northeastern region,
there are only three arboretums that grow multiple species of
cedars. These three include the New York Botanical Gardens in New
York City, the Morris Arboretum of The University of Pennsylvania
in Philadelphia, and the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University in
Boston. Of these, the Arnold and Morris Arboretums have three
different species of cedar, which could account for the two
different types of cedar pollen found in these samples. Based on
our pollen records it was less likely the victim came from the areas
of either New York City or Philadelphia. Instead, it appeared more
likely that the child may have come from an area near the Arnold
 A.R. Laurence, V.M. Bryant / Forensic Science International 302 (2019) 109903
Arboretum in Boston since the body was found just outside of
Boston.
Armed with the new information, provided by the pollen
samples, the Boston Police Department began a thorough search
for a missing baby from the areas closest to the Arnold Arboretum.
Their initial earlier questioning of residents in that region had not
provided any usable clues, but many recent immigrants live in
those areas, and some may be illegal and thus did not want to talk
to the police. Nevertheless, with a probable geolocation of the
victim, additional and thorough questioning did provide needed
clues to arrest the mother of the baby and her boyfriend. A
neighbour in one of the apartment houses told police she has not
seen one of the residents and her baby in weeks. That information
encouraged the police to interview and then arrest the mother of
Baby Doe, Rachelle Bond, who pleaded guilty of accessory after the
fact and with a plea bargain was given two years of probation plus
credit for time served in jail. Her live-in boyfriend (Michael
McCarthy) was high on drugs when he abused Baby Doe, causing
her death. He has been convicted of second-degree murder and is
serving a minimum sentence of 20 years. Finally, it should be noted
that while we observed a few marijuana-type (Cannabis) pollen
grains in two of the samples, it is unknown if they were related to
McCarthy’s drug use. Male marijuana plants produce copious
amounts of pollen and, apart from illicit and licit growing
operations, the plants themselves grow feral throughout North
America, including in cities. For this reason, marijuana pollen is a
very common component of modern pollen profiles throughout
North America, and such low amounts are consistent with modern
air and sediment samples from the northeastern United States.
10. Conclusions
Baby Doe was only two years old when she died and lived about
4 km southeast of the Arnold Arboretum in Boston. In this case, the
geolocation information provided by forensic pollen analyses of
the victim’s clothing, associated blanket, and hair helped inves-
tigators narrow their search to a few specific areas in Boston, and
helped them identify and arrest suspected individuals responsible
for the victim’s death.
The value of using forensic palynology as an important
geolocation tool for generating investigative leads, or eliminating
some suspected locations was dramatically shown and demon-
strated by the solving of the Baby Doe case. However, as with other
types of forensic trace evidence, pollen studies cannot always be
applied in every situation and to all types of investigations [11].
Nevertheless, when investigating various types of crimes, one
should always consider the potential value of pollen studies and
perhaps discuss the possible use of palynology with individuals
familiar with that forensic technique. Under ideal circumstances,
forensic palynology can focus and guide the efforts of law
enforcement personnel to a particular area, or eliminate suspected
areas thereby saving time and resources. Adopting forensic
palynology has been slow in some countries, such as the U.S.,
mainly because it remains unknown and because there are so few
individuals trained to assist in the collection and analysis of
forensic pollen samples (6,39]). We hope that as this technique
becomes more publicized, the potential use will increase and it
may become more commonplace as an important forensic tool.
Acknowledgements
The information reported here was conducted as part of the
authors’ duties working with the Department of Homeland
Security, U.S. Customs and Border Protection. Earlier drafts of this
article benefitted substantially from comments by anonymous
reviewers that helped us clarify our discussion and better explain
7
our results. We would especially like to thank Crawford White for
making the map in Fig. 1, the National Centre for Missing and
Exploited Children (NCMEC) for allowing us to use their composite
image of Baby Doe, and NCMEC and the Massachusetts State Police
for allowing us to present results from the Baby Doe case. We also
extend our thanks to Patricia Hawes, Steven Goldfarb, Robert
Harvey, and Melanie Glass for their tireless promotion of the
benefits of forensic palynology.
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