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Linear Momentum

l  The linear momentum of a particle, or an object that


can be modeled
r as a particle, of mass m moving with a
velocity v is defined to be the product of the mass and
velocity: ! !
l  p = mv
l  The terms momentum and linear momentum will be
used interchangeably in the text
l  Linear momentum is a vector quantity
l  Its direction is the same as the direction of the
velocity
l  The dimensions of momentum are ML/T
l  The SI units of momentum are kg · m / s
l  Momentum can be expressed in component form:
l  px = m vx p y = m vy p z = m vz
Newton and Momentum
l  Newton’s Second Law can be used to relate the
momentum of a particle to the resultant force acting
! ! !
on it ! ! dv d mv dp ( )=
ΣF = ma = m =
dt dt dt
l  with constant mass
l  The time rate of change of the linear momentum of a
particle is equal to the net force acting on the particle
l  This is the form in which Newton presented the
Second Law
l  It is a more general form than the one we used
previously
l  This form also allows for mass changes

l  Applications to systems of particles are particularly


powerful
Conservation of Linear Momentum
l  Whenever two or more particles in an isolated system interact, the
total momentum of the system remains constant
l  The momentum of the system is conserved, not necessarily the
momentum of an individual particle
l  This also tells us that the total momentum of an isolated
system equals its initial momentum
l  Conservation of momentum can be expressed mathematically in
various ways ! ! !
ptotal = p1 + p2 = constant
l  ! ! ! !
l  p1i + p2i = p1f + p2f
l  In component form, the total momenta in each direction are
independently conserved
l  pix = pfx piy = pfy piz = pfz
l  Conservation of momentum can be applied to systems with any
number of particles
l  This law is the mathematical representation of the momentum
version of the isolated system model
Conserva)on of momentum is required by Newton’s 2nd and 3rd laws:
Newton’s 2nd law shows the net force on a par)cle equals the rate of change of momentum:
dv d(mv) dp
F = ma = m = = (1)
dt dt dt
Consider the gravita)onal a?rac)on between 2 objects:
Gm1m2 Gm1m2
F21 = F12 =
r2 r2
m1 m2

€ r

But F12 = −F21 (2) i.e.

dp1 dp2 d( p1 + p2 )
F12 + F21 = 0 = + = (3)
dt dt € dt
That is, considering the case of a gravita)onal interac)ons, the rate of change of total
momentum is zero, i.e. total momentum is conserved.

More generally, Newton’s 3rd law requires all forces to come in pairs – ac)on and reac)on
are equal and opposite – i.e. for any 2 interac)ng bodies, equa)on (2) applies, so equa)on
(3) applies generally, not just for gravity, so conserva)on of linear momentum is thus
required by Newton’s 3rd law.
Archer Example
l  The archer is standing on a frictionless surface (ice)
l  Approaches:
l  Newton’s Second Law – no, no information about F or a
l  Energy approach – no, no information about work or energy
l  Momentum – yes
mAvAi + mavai = mAvAf + mavaf
0+ 0 = mAvAf + mavaf ⇒ mAvAf = -mavaf
So if mA >> ma then vAf << vaf
l  The final velocity of the archer (A) is
negative
l  Indicates he moves in a direction
opposite the arrow (a)
l  Archer has much higher mass than
arrow, so velocity is much lower
Impulse and Momentum
! ! dp
l  From Newton’s Second Law, F = (F =ma = mdv/dt = dp/dt)
! dt
! !
l  Solving for dp gives dp = ∑Fdt
l  Integrating to find the change in momentum over some time interval
! ! ! tf ! !
Δp = pf − pi = ∫ Fdt = I
! ti
l  The integral is called the impulse, I , of the force acting on an object
over Δt

l  This equation expresses the impulse-momentum theorem: The


impulse of the force acting on a particle equals the change in the
momentum of the particle
l  This is equivalent to Newton’s Second Law
! !
Δp = I
l  Impulse is a vector quantity
l  The magnitude of the
impulse is equal to the area
under the force-time curve
! ! ! tf ! !
Δp = pf − pi = ∫ Fdt = I
ti

l  The force may vary with


time
l  Dimensions of impulse are
ML/T
i.e. kg ms-1, same as momentum

l  Impulse is not a property of


the particle, but a measure
of the change in momentum
of the particle
l  The impulse can also be found by using the time averaged force
! !
I = ∑FΔt
l  This would give the same impulse as the time-varying force does
In many cases, one force acting on a
particle acts for a short time, but is much
greater than any other force present

dp = Fdt ⇒ Δp = FΔt ⇒ mΔv = FΔt


When using the Impulse Approximation,
we will assume this is true

Especially useful in analyzing collisions

The force will be called the impulsive


force
The particle is assumed to move very little
during
! !the collision
pi and pf represent the momenta
immediately before and after the collision
Crash Test Example
l  Assume force exerted by wall is large compared with other forces
l  Gravitational and normal forces are perpendicular and so do not
effect the horizontal momentum
l  Can apply impulse approximation

If wall doesn’t move


Initial momentum, mcvci + mwvwi = mcvci = -15.0mc kg ms-1

Final, mcvcf + mwvwf = mcvcf = 2.60mc kg ms-1


Inelastic
|Final momentum| < |Initial momentum| collision
⇒ Impulse imparted to wall – kinetic
energy
Impulse = Δp = pf – pi = 2.60 –(-15.0) = 17.6 kg ms-1
lost
Average force, FΔt = mΔv ⇒ F = 17.6m/Δt
If car “weighs” 1500 kg and collision lasts for 0.15 s
⇒ F = 17.6x1500/0.15 = 176,000 N
Note, if collision lasted longer, e.g. 1 hour ⇒ F = 17.6x1500/3600 = 7.3
N, which is a lot more gentle. This is why landing on a mattress isn’t as
sore as landing on the road and the idea behind crumple zones in cars
(also why it’s nicer to be slapped with a sponge than a brick).
Collisions – Characteristics
l  We use the term collision to represent an event
during which two particles come close to each other
and interact by means of forces
l  May involve physical contact, but must be generalized to
include cases with interaction without physical contact
l  The time interval during which the velocity changes
from its initial to final values is assumed to be short
l  The interaction forces are assumed to be much
greater than any external forces present
l  This means the impulse approximation can be used
Collisions – Example 1
l  Collisions may be the
result of direct contact
l  The impulsive forces
may vary in time in
complicated ways
l  This force is internal
to the system
l  Momentum is
conserved
Collisions – Example 2
l  The collision need not
include physical contact
between the objects
l  There are still forces
between the particles
l  This type of collision can
be analyzed in the same
way as those that include
physical contact
Types of Collisions
l  In an elastic collision, kinetic energy is conserved (momentum
is always conserved)
l  Perfectly elastic collisions occur on a microscopic level
l  In macroscopic collisions, only approximately elastic
collisions actually occur
l  Generally some energy is lost to deformation, sound, etc.

•  In an inelastic collision, kinetic energy is not conserved,


although momentum is still conserved
•  If the objects stick together after the collision, it is a
perfectly inelastic collision
l  In an inelastic collision, some kinetic energy is lost, but
the objects do not stick together

l  Elastic and perfectly inelastic collisions are limiting cases,


most actual collisions fall in between these two types
l  Momentum is conserved in all collisions
Perfectly Inelastic Collisions
l  Since the objects stick
together, they share the
same velocity after the
collision
! ! !
l 
( )
m1v1i + m2 v 2i = m1 + m2 vf
Elastic Collisions
l  Both momentum and
kinetic energy are
conserved. Typically,
there are two unknowns
to solve for and so you
use both equations:

! ! ! !
m1v1i + m2 v2i = m1v1f + m2 v2f
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
m1v1i + m2 v2i = m1v1f + m2 v2f
2 2 2 2
Ballistic Pendulum
l  Isolated system of projectile
and block
l  Perfectly inelastic collision.
The bullet is embedded in
the block of wood
l  Momentum equation will
have two unknowns
l  Use conservation of energy
from the pendulum to find
the velocity just after the
collision
l  Then you can find the
speed of the bullet
l  Energy is transferred during
the perfectly inelastic
collision
Conservation of momentum:
m1v1A + 0 = (m1+m2)vB
vB = m1v1A/(m1+m2)

Conservation of mechanical energy: KEi + PEi = KEf + PEf


Immediately after the collision KE = ½ (m1+m2)vB2 , all of which
goes into lifting the block to height h, ie.
½ (m1+m2)vB2 = (m1+m2)gh
In ballistic tests want to measure speed of bullet from known
masses and measuring height travelled by block -> get rid of vB

⇒½ (m1+m2) [m1v1A/(m1+m2)]2 = (m1+m2)gh


⇒m12v1A2 = 2(m1+m2)2gh ⇒ v1A = (2gh)½(m1+m2)/m1
Two-Dimensional Collisions
The momentum is conserved in all directions
Use subscripts for identifying the object indicating
initial or final values of the velocity components

If the collision is elastic, use conservation of kinetic


energy as a second equation

l  ! is moving at
Particle 1
velocity v and particle 2 is
1i
at rest
l  In the x-direction, the initial
momentum is m1v1i
l  In the y-direction, the initial
momentum is 0
For example
l  After the collision, the
momentum in the x-
direction is
m1v1f cos θ + m2v2f cos φ
l  After the collision, the
momentum in the y-
direction is
m1v1f sin θ + m2v2f sin φ
l  If the collision is elastic,
apply the kinetic energy
equation
l  This is an example of a
glancing collision
Two-Dimensional Collisions - tips

l  If the collision is inelastic, kinetic energy of the system is not


conserved, and additional information is probably needed
l  If the collision is perfectly inelastic, the final velocities of the
two objects are equal. Solve the momentum equations for the
unknowns.
l  If the collision is elastic, the kinetic energy of the system is
conserved
l  Equate the total kinetic energy before the collision to the total
kinetic energy after the collision to obtain more information on
the relationship between the velocities

Check to see if your answers are consistent with the


mental and pictorial representations
Check to be sure your results are realistic
Example
A 1500 kg car travelling east with a speed of 25 m/s collides at an
intersection with a 2500 kg van travelling north at a speed of 20
m/s. Find the direction and magnitude of the wreckage after the
collision, assuming the vehicles undergo a perfectly inelastic
collision (i.e. they stick together).

l  Ignore friction
l  Model the cars as particles
l  The collision is perfectly
inelastic
l  The cars stick together
FIRST! Draw a diagram and write
down all the information given
Examine momentum in each component

x: 25mc + 0mv = (mc+mv)vfcosθ


Van has no velocity
component in x-direction

Likewise for y: 0mc + 20mv = (mc+mv)vfsinθ


25(1500) = (1500+2500)vfcosθ & 20(2500) = (1500+2500)vfsinθ
37500 = 4000vfcosθ & 50000 = 4000vfsinθ
2 unknowns, but 2 equations – can solve

Divide Eq. 2 by Eq1. ⇒sinθ/cosθ = tan θ = 50000/37500


⇒θ = 53.1o and plugging this into either Eq. 1 or 2 gives vf = 15.6 m/s
Could also be 233.1o, but wouldn’t make sense

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