CELLULAR RESPIRATION
 Overview of Cellular Respiration
 Glycolysis- glucose (6 C sugar) undergoes a series of
chemical transformations. In the end, it gets
converted into two molecules of pyruvate, a three
carbon organic molecule. In these reactions, ATP is
made and NAD+ is reduced to NADH
 Pyruvate oxidation- each pyruvate goes into the
mitochondrial matrix. It is converted to a two carbon
molecule bound to Coenzyme A known as acetyl
CoA. Carbon dioxide is released and NADH is
generated
 Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)- acetyl CoA combines
with a four carbon molecule and goes through a cycle
of reactions, ultimately generating the four carbon
starting molecule. ATP, NADH and FADH2 are
produced and carbon dioxide is released
 Oxidative phosphorylation- the NADH and FADH2
made in other steps deposit their electrons in the
ETC, turning back to NAD+ and FADH2. As electrons
move down the chain, energy is released and use to
pump protons out of the matrix, forming a gradient. At
the end of the ETC, oxygen accepts electrons and
takes up protons to form water
 Cells use energy in food to make ATP.
 All plants and animals, as well as many microbes, use
food (such as glucose) and oxygen gas to produce
ATP, an energy carrier used to power cell activities.
 The process of using glucose and oxygen to produce
ATP is called aerobic respiration.
 C6H12O6 + 6O2 (Glucose)  6CO2 + 6H2O +
36ATP
 Cellular respiration is linked to breathing.
 Inhaled oxygen is consumed in cellular respiration.
Carbon dioxide, produced as a by-product, is then
exhaled.
 The cell uses the ATP formed during cellular
respiration to do work, such as muscle contraction.
 Cellular respiration includes 3 main processes.
 ATP synthesis requires energy input. Cellular
respiration releases energy from glucose in several
steps.
 During glycolysis, glucose is split into two, 3-carbon
molecules of pyruvate.
 The pyruvate molecules then enter a mitochondrion,
where they are disassembled into carbon dioxide
molecules during the Krebs cycle.
 Glycolysis and the Krebs cycle transfer some of the
potential energy in glucose to ATP. Meanwhile,
electrons are transferred to NADH and FADH2.
 NADH and FADH2 unload electrons at the electron
transport chain, where the potential energy in the
electrons is used to produce more ATP.
 Mitochondria produce most ATP.
 Many of the reactions of cellular respiration occur in
mitochondria.
 Mitochondria have two phospholipid bilayers: an
outer membrane and an inner membrane.
 Many enzymes span the inner membrane, catalyzing
the reactions of the electron transport chain.
 Between the mitochondrial membranes is an
intermembrane compartment.
 The space within the inner membrane is the
mitochondrial matrix, which houses the reactions of
the Krebs cycle.
 Glycolysis breaks down glucose to pyruvate.
 Glycolysis occurs outside of the mitochondrion, in the
cytosol.
 During glycolysis, a glucose molecule is split into two,
3-carbon pyruvate molecules.
 The enzymes of glycolysis extract some of the
potential energy stored in glucose. The process yields
two ATP molecules and two electron-carrying NADH
molecules.
 Glycolysis requires an input of two ATP to “activate”
glucose.
 The activated glucose is then split into two, 3-carbon
molecules.
 Each of the 3-carbon molecules proceeds to the
energy extraction reactions of glycolysis.
 First, each 3-carbon molecule is oxidized, producing
two NADH molecules. (NAD+ is reduced to NADH)
 Then, each 3-carbon molecule donates its phosphate
groups to ADP molecules, producing ATP molecules.
 In total, four ATP are produced. Recall that two ATP
were used to start the reactions. The net yield is two
ATP.
 Note that these reactions do not require oxygen.
Glycolysis can therefore occur in anaerobic
conditions.
 Glycolysis yields two ATP molecules, two electron-
carrying NADH molecules, and two pyruvates.
 Aerobic respiration yields many ATP.
 The reactions of Krebs cycle and the electron
transport chain require oxygen gas. These reactions
yield much more ATP than glycolysis.
 The two pyruvate molecules produced in glycolysis
undergo an oxidation reaction as they enter the
mitochondrion.
 A carbon atom is stripped from each pyruvate, and
leaves the cell as a carbon dioxide molecule. At the
same time, NAD+ is reduced to NADH.
 Through this process, each pyruvate molecule is
converted to an acetyl CoA molecule.
 Each acetyl CoA molecule then enters the Krebs
cycle.
 During the Krebs cycle, the two acetyl CoA molecules
are oxidized, yielding 4 CO2, 2 ATP, 6 NADH, and 2
FADH2.
 Acetyl CoA combines with a 4-carbon molecule,
yielding citrate.
 Citrate is then rearranged and oxidized, yielding 3
NADH, 1 FADH2 (Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide) and 1
ATP per turn.
 The original four-carbon molecule is re-created, and
the cycle starts anew.
 Keep in mind that two acetyl CoA molecules are
produced from each glucose.
 NADH and FADH2 donate their electrons to the
electron transport chain, where energy from the
electrons is used to produce many ATP.
 As electrons travel through the transport chain, carrier
molecules use the potential energy of the electrons to
transport hydrogen ions into the intermembrane
compartment.
 At the end of the transport chain, electrons are
donated to an oxygen atom (final electron acceptor),
which combines with hydrogen to form water.
 The hydrogen ions move down their concentration
gradient from the intermembrane compartment into
the matrix through ATP synthase, producing ATP.
 The electron transport chain produces 34 ATP.
 Oxidation of pyruvate to acetyl CoA
 Pyruvate’s carboxyl group which is oxidized is
removed and given off as a molecule of CO2
 The remaining two-carbon fragment is oxidized
forming acetate. The extracted electrons are
transferred to NAD+ , storing energy in the form of
NADH
 Coenzyme A, is attached via its sulfur atom to the
acetate forming acetyl CoA (has high potential
energy)
 Substrate level phosphorylation- process of forming
ATP by the physical addition of phosphate group to
ADP
 Oxidative phosphorylation
 Electron transport chain and chemiosmosis
(movement of ions down the gradient)
 Metabolic pathway that uses energy released by
oxidation of nutrients to produce ATP
 Accounts for 90% of the ATP generated by respiration
 Glycolysis and Krebs cycle each produce two ATP,
and the electron transport chain produces 34 ATP
(via NAD+ shuttling- efficient) or 32 ATP (via FAD
shuttling- less efficient). Making the total production
of 36 ATP or 38 ATP.
 Proteins and fats are also used as energy sources for
the cell. These molecules enter the energy-extracting
pathways and produce ATP.
 Catabolism
 When fats is used as an energy source, it breaks
down to glycerol and three fatty acids
 Glycerol can be converted to pyruvate and enter
glycolysis
 The fatty acids are converted to 2-carbon acetyl CoA
that enters Krebs Cycle
 An 18-C fatty acids results in nine acetyl CoA
molecules
 Respiration of these can produce a total of 108 ATP
molecules
 Proteins are less frequently used as an energy source
but are available as necessary
 Carbon skeleton of amino acids can enter glycolysis,
be converted to acetyl groups or enter Krebs cycle
Carbon skeleton is produced in the liver when an
amino acid undergoes deamination- removal of
amino group
 Anabolism
 Building new molecules requires ATP produced
during breakdown of molecules
 Excessive carbohydrate intake can result in the
formation of fat
 Extra G3P from glycolysis can be converted to
glycerol and acetyl groups from glycolysis can be
joined to form fatty acids, which in turn are used to
synthesize fat
 Some substrates of the citric acid cycle can be
converted to amino acids through transamination -
the transfer of an amino group to an organic acid,
forming a different amino acid
 Fermentation Generates ATP Only in Glycolysis
 Organisms produce ATP in the absence of oxygen,
as well.
 Glycolysis produces ATP and does not require
oxygen.
 However, glycolysis does require NAD+, which is re-
created in the electron transport chain of cells
undergoing respiration.
 In the absence of oxygen, a cell can recreate NAD+
by another pathway, called fermentation.
 In alcoholic fermentation, NADH reduces pyruvate to
ethanol. NAD+ is recreated.
 2 steps
 Pyruvate(3C) is converted to acetaldehyde(2C)
releasing carbon dioxide
 Acetaldehyde is reduced by NADH to ethanol
 In lactic acid fermentation, NADH directly reduces
pyruvate to lactic acid with no release of carbon
dioxide. NAD+ is re-created.
 Muscle cells make ATP by lactic acid fermentation
when oxygen is scarce.
 It occurs during strenuous exercise, when sugar
catabolism for ATP production outpaces the muscle’s
supply of oxygen from the blood.
 The lactate that accumulates was previously thought
to cause muscle fatigue and pain but it is NOT
 Recent research suggests that increased levels of
potassium ions may be the cause, while lactate
appears to enhance muscle performance
 Excess lactate are carried to the liver by the blood to
be converted back to pyruvate
 During fermentation, oxidation of a glucose molecule
yields only two ATP.
 Fermentation of Animals and Plants
 Animal cell produces 2 lactate
 Plant cell produces 2 alcohol