MATH 28 MANUAL

UNIT II. VECTORS and SURFACES

By the end of the unit, you must be able to

✓ apply properties of vectors in the plane and in space;
✓ perform vector operations;
✓ determine equation of a line and equation of a plane in space; and
✓ sketch graphs of planes, cylinders and quadric surfaces.

Sections
1. Vectors in ℝ2
2. The ℝ3 space
3. Vectors in ℝ3
4. Dot product and vector projections
5. Cross product
6. Planes and lines in ℝ3
7. Cylinders and spheres
8. Quadric surfaces

____________________________________________

Section 1. VECTORS IN ℝ𝟐

By the end of this section, you must be able to

✓ illustrate vectors in ℝ2 graphically;
✓ determine components, magnitude and direction of a vector in ℝ2 ;
✓ perform vector operations in ℝ2 ; and
✓ interpret graphically the sum and scalar product of vectors in ℝ2 .

Notions of a vector
• Vectors are quantities that represent both magnitude and direction.
• In Physics, for example, velocity is known to be a vector quantity as opposed to speed, which is a
scalar quantity.
• In Mathematics, a vector in ℝ2 can be represented by an ordered-pair of real numbers.

Notation: vector 𝐴⃗, 𝐵

⃗⃗, 𝐶⃗, … or for simplicity, 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, …

In general, every vector in ℝ2 is determined by two points in ℝ2 – the initial point and the terminal
point.
In particular, a vector 𝐴 in ℝ2 with initial point at (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and terminal point at (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) can be
represented geometrically by a directed line segment (or arrow) that starts from (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and ends in
(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ).

Moreover, initial point = arrow tail terminal point = arrow head

and magnitude = length of the arrow vector direction = direction of the arrow.

Directions are measured by the angle a

segment makes with a horizontal line through
the initial point:

positive if measured counter-clockwise,

and
negative if measured clockwise.
Remarks:
1. A vector can have several representations on the plane (depending on the initial and terminal
points).
2. A vector in position representation has its initial point at the origin. Its direction is identified by
the angle it makes with the positive x − axis in the counter-clockwise direction.
3. If a vector 𝐴 has initial point at 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and terminal point at 𝑃2 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ), its position representation
is given by 𝐴 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃1 𝑃2 = 〈𝑥2 − 𝑥1 , 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 〉.

Example.
Consider vector 𝐴 with initial point at (1, −4) and terminal point at (5,2).
Then we have the following:

a. magnitude of 𝐴 = 2√13
(using distance formula)

3
b. direction of 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( )
2
(measured counter-clockwise)

c. in position representation
initial point: (0,0)
terminal point: (4,6)

d. The vector has horizontal component 4

and vertical component 6.
Vector 𝐴 can be denoted simply by 〈4, 6〉.

Definitions.
Any element in ℝ is called a scalar.
A vector in ℝ𝟐 is an ordered pair 〈𝑎, 𝑏〉 of real numbers.
The real numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏 are called the components of the vector.

Notations: 〈𝑎, 𝑏〉 denotes a vector on ℝ2 .

(𝑎, 𝑏) denotes a point in the ℝ2 −plane.
⃗⃗⃗ = 〈0, 0〉 is the zero vector on ℝ2 .
𝑶

Remark: In position representation,

vector 𝐴 = 〈𝑎, 𝑏〉 has initial point at (0,0) and terminal point at (𝑎, 𝑏)

Equality of vectors
• Two vectors are equal if their magnitudes and directions are equal.
• Two vectors 〈𝑎, 𝑏〉 and 〈𝑐, 𝑑〉 are equal if and only if 𝑎 = 𝑐 and 𝑏 = 𝑑.

Definition.
The magnitude of a vector 𝐴 denoted by ‖𝐴‖, is the length of any of its representation.
The direction angle of a nonzero vector 𝐴, denoted by 𝜃𝐴 , is the measure of the polar angle, i.e. the
angle formed by the vector (in position representation) with the positive 𝑥 − axis.

Solving for magnitude and direction given components

Given: 𝐴 = 〈𝑎, 𝑏〉

Then, magnitude: ‖𝐴‖ = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2

𝑏
direction angle satisfies tan 𝜃𝐴 = provided 𝑎 ≠ 0
𝑎

Moreover, 𝑎 = ‖𝐴‖ cos 𝜃𝐴 and 𝑏 = ‖𝐴‖ sin 𝜃𝐴 .

Examples.

1. Vector 𝐴 has initial point at (7, −4) and terminal point at (3,5).

Its horizontal component components is 3 − 7 = −4 and its vertical component is 5 − (−4) = 9.

So, the vector can be written as 𝐴 = 〈−4,9〉.

Its magnitude is ‖𝐴‖ = √45 or 3√5.

9
The direction angle is given by tan 𝜃𝐴 = − .
4
9
Considering that the direction is towards Quadrant II, 𝜃𝐴 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 (− ) + 𝜋.
4

2. Vector 𝐵 has initial point at (1,2) and terminal point at (8, −3).

Its horizontal component components is 8 − 1 = 7 and its vertical component is −3 − 2 = −5.

So, the vector can be written as 𝐵 = 〈7, −5〉.

Its magnitude is ‖𝐴‖ = √74.

7
The direction angle is given by tan 𝜃𝐵 = − .
5
7
Considering that the direction is towards Quadrant IV, 𝜃𝐵 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 (− ).
5

4𝜋
3. Vector 𝑋 has magnitude 8 and in the direction .
3
4𝜋 1
Its horizontal component is given by 8 cos ( ) = 8 ∙ (− ) = −4.
3 2
4𝜋 √3
Its verical component is given by 8 sin ( ) = 8 ∙ (− ) = −4√3.
3 2
So, the vector can be written as 𝑋 = 〈−4, −4√3〉.

4. The components of vector 𝑊 are given by 〈0, −5〉.

Its magnitude is ‖𝑊‖ = 5 and the direction angle is 𝜃𝑊 = 𝜋.
Note that the vector is in the direction of the negative 𝑥 −axis.

5. The components of vector 𝑍 are given by 〈9,0〉.

𝜋
Its magnitude is ‖𝑍‖ = 9 and the direction angle is 𝜃𝑍 = .
2
Note that the vector is in the direction of the positive 𝑦 −axis.

CAUTION!
𝑏
Given 𝐴 = 〈𝑎, 𝑏〉. The direction angle of 𝐴 is not necessarily Arctan .
𝑎
Appropriate adjustments should be considered depending on the position of the vector on the plane.

Operations on vectors

Consider vectors 𝐴 = 〈𝑎1 , 𝑎2 〉 and 𝐵 = 〈𝑏1 , 𝑏2 〉 in ℝ2 .

Sum of two vectors: 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 〈𝑎1 + 𝑏1 , 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 〉

Negative of a vector: −𝐴 = 〈−𝑎1 , −𝑎2 〉

Difference of two vectors: 𝐴 − 𝐵 = 〈𝑎1 − 𝑏1 , 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 〉

Scalar multiplication: If 𝑐 is a scalar, then 𝑐𝐴 = 〈𝑐𝑎1 , 𝑐𝑎2 〉.

Remarks:
1. The sum 𝐴 + 𝐵 of the two vectors is also called as resultant.
2. The negative of a vector −𝐴 has the same magnitude as 𝐴 but towards the opposite direction.
3. The difference 𝐴 − 𝐵 of two vectors is the resultant 𝐴 + (−𝐵).
4. If 𝑐 > 1, then 𝑐𝐴 is an expansion of 𝐴.
If 0 < 𝑐 < 1, then 𝑐𝐴 is a contraction of 𝐴.
If 𝑐 < 0, then 𝑐𝐴 is towards the opposite direction of 𝐴.

Illustration.
Let 𝐴 = 〈−2,3〉 and 𝐵 = 〈1,4〉 in ℝ2 .

1. 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 〈−1,7〉 3. 𝐴 − 𝐵 = 〈−3, −1〉

1 3
2. – 𝐴 = 〈2, −3〉 4. 𝐴 = 〈−1, 〉
2 2

Definition. A unit vector is a vector with a magnitude of 1 unit.

Remarks:
The unit vectors in the direction of the positive 𝑥 −axis and positive 𝑦 −axis, respectively, are given by
𝒊 = 〈1,0〉 and 𝒋 = 〈0,1〉.

Consequently, any vector 𝐴 = 〈𝑎, 𝑏〉 can be expressed as 𝐴 = 𝑎𝒊 + 𝑏𝒋.

The unit vector in the direction of 𝐴, denoted by 𝑈𝐴 , is given by
𝑎 𝑏
𝑈𝐴 = 〈‖𝐴‖ , ‖𝐴‖〉 or 𝑈𝐴 = 〈cos 𝜃𝐴 , sin 𝜃𝐴 〉.
Examples.
3 4
1. The unit vector in the direction of 𝐴 = 〈−3, −4〉 is given by 𝑈𝐴 = 〈 − , − 〉.
5 5

11𝜋 √3 1
2. The unit vector in the direction of 𝜃 = is given by 𝑈 = 〈 , − 〉.
6 2 2
11𝜋 √3 11𝜋 1
Note cos = and sin =− .
6 2 6 2

__________________________

Concept Recap
1. What is a vector?
2. How can the components of a vector be obtained from its initial and terminal points?
3. How can the magnitude and direction angle of a vector be obtained from its components?
4. How can the sum of two vectors be obtained graphically?
5. What happens when you multiply a scalar to a vector?

Practice Exercises

Determine the components, magnitude and direction angle of the following vectors:

1. vector with initial point at (5, −3) and terminal point at (3, −8)
2. vector with initial point at (−2,4) and terminal point at (5,9)
3. vector with initial point at (7,4) and terminal point at (7, −3)
4. vector with initial point at (2, −2) and terminal point at (−3,3)
5. vector with initial point at (−4, −1) and terminal point at (6, −1)
6. vector with initial point at (2,1) and terminal point at (5, −1)

7. Consider vector 𝐴 = 〈4,5〉.

a. What is the terminal point of the vector if represented with initial point at (2, −1)?
b. What is the initial point of the vector if represented with terminal point at (−3,3)?

8. Consider vector 𝐵 = 〈5, −2〉.

a. What is the terminal point of the vector if represented with initial point at (−1,3)?
b. What is the initial point of the vector if represented with terminal point at (4,7)?

Determine the components of the following vectors:

5𝜋
9. with a magnitude of 6 units and in the direction of 𝜃 = −
4
3𝜋
10. with a magnitude of 15 units and in the direction of 𝜃 =
2
5𝜋
11. with a magnitude of 9 units and in the direction of 𝜃 =
3

Sketch the given vectors in position representation with the corresponding sum and difference.
12. 𝐴 = 〈2,3〉 𝐵 = 〈−3,7〉 𝐴 + 𝐵 and 𝐴 − 𝐵
13. 𝑋 = 〈−4, −3〉 𝑌 = 〈5, −2〉 𝑋 + 𝑌 and 𝑌 − 𝑋

Determine the unit vector in the given direction.

3𝜋 3𝜋
14. 〈12,5〉 15. 〈8, −11〉 16. 𝜃 = 17. 𝜃 = −
4 2

18. Given vectors 𝐴 = 〈4,3〉 and 𝐵 = 〈5, −12〉. Determine the unit vector:
a. in the direction of 𝐴
b. in the direction of 𝐵
c. in the direction of 𝐴 + 𝐵
Compare the unit vector in the direction of 𝐴 + 𝐵 and the sum of the unit vectors in the direction of
𝐴 and of 𝐵.
____________________________________________
Section 2. THE ℝ𝟑 −SPACE

By the end of this section, you must be able to

✓ illustrate how to construct the three-dimensional rectangular coordinate system;
✓ plot points in ℝ3 given its coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧); and
✓ compute for the distance and the midpoint between two points in ℝ3 .

Definition.
The set of all ordered triples of real numbers is called as the three-dimensional number space,
denoted by ℝ3 . Each ordered triple (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is called a point in the three-dimensional space.

The three-dimensional space ℝ3 is geometrically

illustrated via a rectangular coordinate system.

The coordinate system is formed by three axes:

the 𝑥 −axis, the 𝑦 −axis and the 𝑧 −axis.
We draw the axes perpendicular with each other so that
the intersection corresponds to the point (0,0,0) which
we call the origin.

These three axes identify three major planes:

the 𝑥𝑦 −plane, the 𝑥𝑧 −plane and the 𝑦𝑧 −plane.
These planes are also drawn perpendicular with each
other.

We follow the following convention:

• the positive 𝑥 −axis is to the right;
• the positive 𝑦 −axis is to the upper right; and
• the positive 𝑧 −axis is upward.

To plot a point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), we construct a rectangular prism that corresponds to the coordinates.

Illustration.
To plot the point 𝑃(2, −3, −4) in three-dimensional coordinate system:

First, plot the point 𝑃′(2, −3, 0) on the 𝑥𝑦 −plane.

This point determines a rectangle on Quadrant IV of
the 𝑥𝑦 −plane.

The 𝑧 −coordinate of −4 corresponds to 4 units below

the 𝑥𝑦 −plane. So, by moving the rectangle 4 units
downward, we obtain a rectangular prism.

The point 𝑃(2, −3, −4) is the vertex of the rectangular

prism diagonally opposite the origin.

Now, plot the point 𝑄(−4,2,3).

Do this by first plotting 𝑄′(−4,2, 0) on the 𝑥𝑦 −plane.
Then, move the corresponding rectangle 3 units
upward. Again, the point 𝑄(−4,2,3) is the vertex of the
rectangular prism diagonally opposite the origin.
Definitions. Given points 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and 𝑃2 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ), the distance between these points
(or the length of line segment ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑃1 𝑃2 is given by

𝑑(𝑃1 , 𝑃2 ) = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2 .

The midpoint of the line segment P1P2 is given by

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 𝑧1 + 𝑧2
𝑀𝑃̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
1 𝑃2
=( , , ).
2 2 2

Example.

The distance between points 𝑃(2, −3, −4) and 𝑄(3,1,0)

is 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) = √33 units.

̅̅̅̅
The coordinates of the midpoint of 𝑃𝑄
5
is given by 𝑀𝑃𝑄
̅̅̅̅ = ( , −1, −2)
2

__________________________

Concept Recap
1. What is a three-dimensional rectangular coordinate system?
2. In the convention we follow, where is the direction of the positive and negative sides of the
𝑥 −axis, the 𝑦 −axis and the 𝑧 −axis?
3. How can a point with a given coordinates be properly plotted on a coordinate system?
Think of easier or more efficient ways on how a point can be plotted.
4. How can the distance between two points be obtained? the midpoint of a line segment?

Practice Exercises
Plot the following points on a three-dimensional rectangular coordinate system.
1. (−3, −4,2) 5. (−1,3, −2)
2. (4,2, −5) 6. (3, −3,0)
3. (2, −1, −3) 7. (3,3,3)
4. (0,4,5) 8. (−5,0,3)

Determine the distance and the midpoint of the line segment between the following pairs of points.
9. 𝐴(3, −2,3) and 𝐵(−1,3,2) 10. 𝑋(2,1,4) and 𝑌(−3, −3, −1)

11. Points 𝑃(2,3, −1) and 𝑄(1, −4,2) are diametrically opposite points of a sphere. Determine the
radius and the center of the sphere.

12. Determine the perimeter of the triangle with vertices at 𝐴(0, −3,0), 𝐵(−3,0,4) and 𝐶(2,1,3). Also,
determine the midpoint of each side and the perimeter of the triangle formed by the midpoints.

____________________________________________
Section 3. VECTORS IN ℝ𝟑

By the end of this section, you must be able to

✓ illustrate vectors in ℝ3 graphically;
✓ determine components, magnitude and direction angles of a vector in ℝ3 ;
✓ perform vector operations in ℝ3 ; and
✓ interpret graphically the sum and scalar product of vectors in ℝ3 .

Definition.
A vector in three-dimensional space is an ordered triple of real numbers 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉.
The numbers 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 are called the components of the vector.

Notations: 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉 denotes a vector in ℝ3 .

(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) denotes a point in the in ℝ3 −space.
⃗𝑶
⃗⃗ = 〈0,0, 0〉 is the zero vector in ℝ3 .

A vector in ℝ3 is determined by an initial point and a terminal point.

If a vector has initial point at 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and terminal point at 𝑃2 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ),
the components are given by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃1 𝑃2 = 〈𝑥2 − 𝑥1 , 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 , 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 〉.

In position representation, a vector 𝐴 = 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉 has initial point at (0,0,0) and

terminal point at (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐).

Definitions.
The magnitude of a vector 𝐴, denoted by ‖𝐴‖, is the length of
any of its representation.

The direction angles of a nonzero vector 𝐴 are the angles that

have the smallest nonnegative radian measure 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾
measured from the positive side of the 𝑥 −, 𝑦 − and 𝑧 −axes,
respectively, to the position representation of the vector.

Remarks:
1. If 𝐴 = 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉, then ‖𝐴‖ = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 .
2. If 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 are the direction angles of 𝐴 = 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉, then
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛼 = ‖𝐴‖ , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 = ‖𝐴‖ and 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛾 = ‖𝐴‖ .
Note 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛾 = 1.
3. The measures of the angles 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 are between 0 and 𝜋.
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
So, 𝛼 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ), 𝛽 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 (‖𝐴‖) and 𝛾 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 (‖𝐴‖).
‖𝐴‖

Example.
Consider vector 𝐴 with its initial point at 𝑃(−4, 5, 3) and terminal point at 𝑄(−2, 4, 5).

The components of the vector are 𝐴 = 〈2, −1,2〉.

In position representation, its initial point is at (0,0,0) and terminal point is at (2, −1,2).

The magnitude of the vector is ‖𝐴‖ = 3.

The direction angles of the vector are given by

2 1 2
𝛼 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 (3), 𝛽 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 (− 3) and 𝛾 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 (3).
Operations on vectors

Consider vectors 𝐴 = 〈𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 〉 and 𝐵 = 〈𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 〉 in ℝ3 .

Sum of two vectors: 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 〈𝑎1 + 𝑏1 , 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 , 𝑎3 + 𝑏3 〉

Negative of a vector: −𝐴 = 〈−𝑎1 , −𝑎2 , −𝑎3 〉

Difference of two vectors: 𝐴 − 𝐵 = 〈𝑎1 − 𝑏1 , 𝑎2 − 𝑏2, , 𝑎3 − 𝑏3 〉

Scalar multiplication: If 𝑐 is a scalar, then 𝑐𝐴 = 〈𝑐𝑎1 , 𝑐𝑎2 , 𝑐𝑎3 〉.

Remarks:
1. A vector of magnitude 1 is called a unit vector.
2. The unit vectors in the direction of the positive 𝑥 −, 𝑦 − and 𝑧 − axes, respectively, are given by
𝒊 = 〈1,0,0〉 , 𝒋 = 〈0,1,0〉 and 𝒌 = 〈0,0,1〉.
3. A vector 𝐴 = 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉 can be expressed as 𝐴 = 𝑎𝒊 + 𝑏𝒋 + 𝑐𝒌.
4. The unit vector in the direction of 𝐴 = 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉 is given by
𝐴 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝑈𝐴 = =〈 , , 〉.
‖𝐴‖ ‖𝐴‖ ‖𝐴‖ ‖𝐴‖

Example.
Consider vectors 𝐴 = 〈2, −2, 0〉 and 𝐵 = 〈−1, 3, 1〉.
1
To determine the unit vector in the direction of 𝐴 − 𝐵:
2
1
1. Compute first for 𝐴 − 𝐵 which is given by 〈2, −4, −1〉.
2
1
2. Its magnitude is given by ‖ 𝐴 − 𝐵‖ = √21.
2
1 2 4 1
3. So, the unit vector in the direction of 𝐴 − 𝐵 is given by 𝑈1𝐴−𝐵 = 〈 ,− ,− 〉.
2 2 √21 √21 √21

__________________________

Concept Recap
1. How is a vector in ℝ3 different from a vector in ℝ2 ?
2. How can the magnitude of a vector be obtained given its initial and terminal points? given its
components?
3. What are the direction angles of a vector in ℝ3 ? How can these direction angles be obtained?
4. How can vector sum, vector difference and scalar multiple of a vector be obtained?
5. How can the unit vectors 𝒊, 𝒋 and 𝒌 be used to represent a vector in ℝ2 ?

Practice Exercises

Determine the components, magnitude and direction angles of the following vectors:

1. vector with initial point at (2, −1, −3) and terminal point at (3,2,5)
2. vector with initial point at (0, −4,3) and terminal point at (−1,2, −3)
3. vector with initial point at (−1, −2,1) and terminal point at (0,5,2)
4. vector with initial point at (3,2,4) and terminal point at (−2, −1,1)
5. vector with initial point at (−2,3,2) and terminal point at (1,2, −1)

6. Draw the vector 𝐴 = 〈1,2,2〉 in position representation.

a. What is the terminal point of the vector if represented with initial point at (3, −1,1)?
b. What is the initial point of the vector if represented with terminal point at (−1, −2, −2)?
7. Draw the vector 𝐵 = 〈3, −2,4〉 in position representation.
a. What is the terminal point of the vector if represented with initial point at (−2,4,5)?
b. What is the initial point of the vector if represented with terminal point at (5,1,2)?

Determine the components of the following vectors:

𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
8. with a magnitude of 3 units and direction angles of 𝛼 = , 𝛽 = − and 𝛾 =
3 3 4
𝜋 3𝜋 𝜋
9. with a magnitude of 10 units and direction angles of 𝛼 = − , 𝛽 = and 𝛾 =
2 4 4

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
10. Is there a vector with a magnitude of 5 units and direction angles of 𝛼 = , 𝛽 = and 𝛾 = ?
6 2 3
What does this tell us about direction angles of vectors in ℝ3 ?

Given 𝐴 = 〈−15,6,9〉 and 𝐵 = 〈2, −1,3〉, plot the following vectors on a single three-dimensional
coordinate system. (a.) Obtain the vectors geometrically. (b.) Verify algebraically.
1
11. 𝐴 + 𝐵 13. 𝐴 + 2𝐵
3
1
12. 𝐴 − 𝐵 14. 𝐴 − 2𝐵
3

15. Solve for vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵 so that 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 〈4,9,5〉 and 𝐴 − 𝐵 = 〈6, −4, −3〉.

Determine the unit vector in the given direction.

16. 〈−2,4, −5〉 17. 〈6,7, −1〉

2 1 2
18. Given vector 𝐴 = 〈4, −3, −2〉, determine a vector 𝐵 so that 〈 , − , 〉 is the unit vector in the
3 3 3
direction of 𝐴 − 2𝐵.

____________________________________________

Section 4. DOT PRODUCT AND VECTOR PROJECTIONS

By the end of this section, you must be able to

✓ compute for the dot product between two vectors in ℝ2 and in ℝ3 ;
✓ solve for the angle between two vectors in ℝ2 and in ℝ3 ;
✓ determine vector projection in ℝ2 and in ℝ3 ; and
✓ illustrate geometrically vector projections in ℝ2 and in ℝ3 .

Definition.
In ℝ2 , the dot product of vectors 𝐴 = 〈𝑎1 , 𝑎2 〉 and 𝐵 = 〈𝑏1 , 𝑏2 〉 is given by:

𝐴 ∙ 𝐵 = 𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 .

Similarly, in ℝ3 , the dot product of vectors 𝐴 = 〈𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 〉 and 𝐵 = 〈𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 〉 is given by:

𝐴 ∙ 𝐵 = 𝑎1 𝑏1 + 𝑎2 𝑏2 + 𝑎3 𝑏3 .

Remark: The dot product of two vectors is a scalar – not a vector!

Examples
1. In ℝ2 , the dot product of 𝐴 = 〈6, 3〉 and 𝐵 = 〈−2, 5〉 is

𝐴 ∙ 𝐵 = 〈6, 3〉 ∙ 〈−2, 5〉 = 6 ∙ (−2) + 3 ∙ 5 = −12 + 15 = 3.

2. In ℝ3 , the dot product of 𝑋 = 〈−2,9, 3〉 and 𝑌 = 〈1, 0, −4〉 is

𝑋 ∙ 𝑌 = 〈−2,9, 3〉 ∙ 〈1, 0, −4〉 = (−2) ∙ 1 + 9 ∙ 0 + 3 ∙ (−4) = −2 − 12 = 3 − 14.

Definition.
Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be nonzero vectors. The angle between vectors 𝑨 and 𝑩, denoted by 𝜽𝑨𝑩 ,
is the smallest nonnegative angle (in radians) between the two vectors.

In ℝ2 , In ℝ3 ,

Note the measure of the angle between vectors is between 0 and 𝜋.

Alternatively, the dot product between vectors can be obtained from their magnitudes and the angle
between the vectors. Specifically, if 𝐴 and 𝐵 are nonzero vectors, then

𝐴 ∙ 𝐵 = ‖𝐴‖‖𝐵‖ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃𝐴𝐵 .

𝐴∙𝐵
Hence, the angle between nonzero vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵 is given by 𝜃𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 (‖𝐴‖‖𝐵‖).

Remarks:
1. If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are in the same direction, then 𝜃𝐴𝐵 = 0.
If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are in the opposite direction, then 𝜃𝐴𝐵 = 𝜋.

2. Two non-zero vectors are orthogonal (or perpendicular) if and only if their dot product is zero.

Examples.
𝐴∙𝐵
1. In ℝ2 . The angle between vectors 𝐴 = 〈4, −5〉 and 𝐵 = 〈3,4〉 is given by 𝜃𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 (‖𝐴‖‖𝐵‖).
13
Since 𝐴 ∙ 𝐵 = −13, ‖𝐴‖ = √41 and ‖𝐵‖ = 5, the angle is given by 𝜃𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 (− ).
5√41
This is approximately 1.9889 radians or 113.96°.

2. In ℝ3 . Given vectors 𝑋 = 〈2, −1,2〉 and 𝑌 = 〈1,2,2〉,

𝑋 ∙ 𝑌 = 4, ‖𝑋‖ = 3 and ‖𝑌‖ = 3.
4
So, the angle between 𝑋 and 𝑌 is given by 𝜃𝑋𝑌 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( ).
9
This is approximately 1.1102 radians or 63.61°.

3. In ℝ2 . It can be easily verified geometrically that the vectors 𝑈 = 〈9, −12〉 and 𝑉 = 〈−6,8〉 are in
opposite directions of each other.
This can also be verified by solving for 𝜃𝑈𝑉 .
Since 𝑈 ∙ 𝑉 = −150, ‖𝑈‖ = 15 and ‖𝑉‖ = 10. the angle between 𝑈 and 𝑉
150
is given by 𝜃𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 (− ) = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠(−1) = 𝜋.
150

4. In ℝ3 .To conclude that the vectors 𝑊 = 〈−2, 1, 1〉 and 𝑍 = 〈1, −3, 5〉 are orthogonal, we simply
compute for the dot product.
Indeed, 𝑊 ∙ 𝑍 = (−2) ∙ 1 + 1 ∙ (−3) + 1 ∙ 5 = 0.
𝜋
So, the angle between 𝑊 and 𝑍 is given by 𝜃𝑊𝑍 = 𝐴𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 0 = rad or 90°.
2
Vector projection

Definition.
Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be nonzero vectors in position
representation and let 𝑃 be the terminal point of 𝐴.

The vector projection of 𝑨 onto 𝑩 is the vector

in the same or opposite direction of 𝐵 with terminal point
at the orthogonal projection of 𝑃 onto the line along 𝐵.

The figure on the right is the case of vector projection

when the angle between the vectors is acute.

In the case the angle between two vectors is obtuse,

the next figure illustrates the vector projection.

To compute for vector projection

Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be nonzero vectors.
𝑨∙𝑩 𝑩
The vector projection of 𝐴 onto 𝐵 is given by ( ) .
‖𝑩‖ ‖𝑩‖

𝑨∙𝑩 𝑨
Also, the vector projection of 𝐵 onto 𝐴 is the vector ( ) .
‖𝑨‖ ‖𝑨‖

Examples.

1. In ℝ2 . Let 𝐴 = 〈−5,2〉 and 𝐵 = 〈4, 3〉.

𝐴∙𝐵 𝐵 −14 4 3 56 42
The vector projection of 𝐴 onto 𝐵 is given by ( ) =( ) 〈 , 〉 = 〈− , 〉 .
‖𝐵‖ ‖𝐵‖ 5 5 5 25 25
𝐴∙𝐵 𝐴 −14 −5 2 70 28
Also, vector projection of 𝐵 onto 𝐴 is given by ( ) =( )〈 , 〉 = 〈 ,− 〉.
‖𝐴‖ ‖𝐴‖ √29 √29 √29 29 29

2. In ℝ3 . Let 𝑋 = 〈−2, 1, −3〉 and 𝑌 = 〈−3, 4, 0〉.

𝑋∙𝑌 𝑌 10 −3 4 6 8
The vector projection of 𝑋 onto 𝑌 is given by ( ) = ( )〈 , , 0 〉 = 〈− , , 0 〉 .
‖𝑌‖ ‖𝑌‖ 5 5 5 5 5
𝑋∙𝑌 𝑋 10 −2 1 −3 10 5 6
Also, vector projection of 𝑌 onto 𝑋 is ( ) =( )〈 , , 〉 = 〈− , , − 〉 .
‖𝑋‖ ‖𝑋‖ √14 √14 √14 √14 7 7 7

__________________________
Concept Recap

1. What is a dot product of two vectors? How can the dot product be obtained?
2. How can the dot product be used to solve for angle between vectors?
3. What does a positive dot product imply regarding the angle between two vectors? a negative dot
product?
4. Using the dot product, when are two vectors orthogonal? in the same direction? in opposite
direction?
5. What is a vector projection? How can the vector projection of a vector onto another vector be
obtained?

Practice Exercises

Compute for the dot product between the following pairs of vectors. Also, using the dot product alone,
determine whether the angle between the vectors is an acute, obtuse or right angle.
1. In ℝ2 , 〈−3, −4〉 and 〈5, −6〉
2. In ℝ2 , 〈2,7〉 and 〈5, −6〉
3. In ℝ2 , 〈8, −3〉 and 〈6, 16〉
4. In ℝ3 , 〈6,0, −5〉 and 〈−3, 1, −6〉
5. In ℝ3 , 〈−4,3,2〉 and 〈7, 6, −5〉
6. In ℝ3 , 〈6,4, −2〉 and 〈−9, −6,3〉

Determine the angle between the following pairs of vectors. Using a calculator, solve for the degree
measure of the angles.
7. In ℝ2 , 〈5, −9〉 and 〈6, 3〉
8. In ℝ2 , 〈−6,8〉 and 〈12, 5〉
9. In ℝ3 , 〈1,2, −2〉 and 〈2, −2,1〉
10. In ℝ3 , 〈0, −3,4〉 and 〈5, 0,7〉

Compute for the vector projection as indicated. Illustrate the vectors and the vector projection on a
coordinate plane or a coordinate space.
11. In ℝ2 , vector projection of 〈3,4〉 onto 〈6, 1〉
12. In ℝ2 , vector projection of 〈−5,1〉 onto 〈4, −2〉
13. In ℝ3 , vector projection of 〈2,2,2〉 onto 〈0,5,3 〉
14. In ℝ3 , vector projection of 〈−3, −2,1〉 onto 〈−1,5,3 〉

15. In ℝ2 , using vectors and angle between vectors, verify that the points 𝑃(13, −1), 𝑄(−9,3) and
𝑅(−3, −9) are vertices of a right triangle. Also, identify the vertex with the right angle.

16. In ℝ3 , consider the triangle formed by 𝑋(2,0,4), 𝑌(0,5,0) and 𝑍(−2,0,0).

̅̅̅̅ as
Using vector and vector projection, determine the altitude of the triangle with line segment 𝑋𝑍
base. Also, compute for the area of the triangle.

____________________________________________
Section 5. CROSS PRODUCT

By the end of this section, you must be able to

✓ discuss properties of a cross product between two vectors;
✓ compute for a cross product of two vectors in ℝ3 ; and
✓ verify orthogonal property of a cross product.

Definition.
Consider vectors 𝐴 = 〈𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 〉 and 𝐵 = 〈𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 〉 in ℝ3 .
The cross product of 𝐴 and 𝐵 is given by the vector

𝒊 𝒋 𝒌 𝑎 𝑎3 𝑎1 𝑎3 𝑎1 𝑎2
𝐴 × 𝐵 = |𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 | = | 2
𝑏2 𝑏3 | 𝒊 − |𝑏1 𝑏3 | 𝒋 + |𝑏1 𝑏2 | 𝒌,
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3

𝑎 𝑏
where | | = 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑐𝑏.
𝑐 𝑑

Geometrically, if 𝐴 and 𝐵 are nonzero vectors,

the cross product 𝐴 × 𝐵 is
• a vector orthogonal to both 𝐴 and 𝐵
• in the direction following the right-hand rule
(see illustration on the right).
Moreover, the magnitude of 𝐴 × 𝐵 is equal to
the area of the parallelogram determined by 𝐴 and 𝐵.

Illustration.
Given vectors 𝐴 = 〈2, −1, 2〉 and 𝐵 = 〈3, −3, 0〉,
the cross product 𝐴 × 𝐵 is given by

𝒊 𝒋 𝒌
𝐴 × 𝐵 = |2 −1 2|
3 −3 0

−1 2 2 2 2 −1
=| |𝒊− | |𝒋 + | |𝒌
−3 0 3 0 3 −3

= 6𝒊 + 6𝒋 − 3𝒌

= 〈6,6, −3〉

To verify the orthogonality property,

observe that 𝐴 ∙ (𝐴 × 𝐵) = 0 and 𝐵 ∙ (𝐴 × 𝐵) = 0.
These imply that 𝐴 × 𝐵 is orthogonal to both vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵.

Also, verify that the direction of 𝐴 × 𝐵 follows the right-hand rule.

The magnitude of 𝐴 × 𝐵 is 9 which is also the area of the parallelogram formed by 𝐴 and 𝐵.

Some properties
1. If 𝐴 is any vector in ℝ3 , then
⃗⃗⃗
𝐴×𝐴 =𝑶 and ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝐴 = 𝐴 × 𝑶
𝑶 ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑶
⃗⃗⃗.

2. 𝒊 × 𝒋 = 𝒌 𝒋×𝒌=𝒊 𝒌×𝒊=𝒋
𝒋 × 𝒊 = −𝒌 𝒌 × 𝒋 = −𝒊 𝒊 × 𝒌 = −𝒋
 3. 𝐴 × 𝐵 = −(𝐵 × 𝐴)

4. If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are nonzero vectors, then ‖𝐴 × 𝐵‖ = ‖𝐴‖‖𝐵‖ sin 𝜃𝐴𝐵 .

5. If 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 are vectors identifying nonparallel sides of some parallelepiped,

then |(𝐴 × 𝐵) ∙ 𝐶| is the volume of the parallelepiped.

__________________________

Concept Recap
1. What is a cross product of two vectors in ℝ3 ?
2. How can the cross product of two vectors in ℝ3 be obtained?
3. Geometrically, how is the magnitude of a cross product related to the given vectors?
How about the direction of a cross product?
4. How is the right-hand rule used in determining the direction of a cross product?

Practice Exercises
Compute for the cross product of the following pairs of vectors. Then, verify the orthogonality property
of a cross product. Lastly, draw the vectors with the cross product to visualize the right-hand rule.
1. 〈2,1, −2〉 and 〈1, −3,2〉
2. 〈−4,3,0〉 and 〈6, 2, −5〉
3. 〈2,2,2〉 and 〈0,5,3 〉
4. 〈0,1, −1〉 and 〈1, 0, −1〉
5. 〈−3, −2,1〉 and 〈−1,5,3 〉
1
6. Let 𝑡 > 0. Solve for the cross product of vectors 𝐴 = 〈𝑡, 1, 〉 and 𝐵 = 〈𝑡 2 , 𝑡 2 , 1 〉.
𝑡

7. Solve for the two unit vectors that are orthogonal to both 𝒋 − 𝒌 and 𝒊 + 𝒋.

8. Using vectors and properties of cross product, compute for the area of the parallelogram
determined by points 𝑃(3, −1,2), 𝑄(1,2, −4), 𝑅(−1,1,2) and 𝑆(1, −2,8).

9. Illustrate the parallelepiped determined by vectors 𝐴 = 〈3,5, −2〉, 𝐵 = 〈4,3,0〉 and 𝐶 = 〈5,2,3〉.
Compute for the volume of the parallelepiped.

10. Solve for all vectors 𝑋 so that 〈1,2,1〉 × 𝑋 = 〈3,1, −5〉.

____________________________________________
Section 6. PLANES and LINES in ℝ𝟑

By the end of this section, you must be able to

✓ illustrate a plane and a line in ℝ3 geometrically;
✓ express the standard equation of a plane in ℝ3;
✓ set-up the parametric and symmetric equations of a line in ℝ3; and
✓ sketch graph of planes and lines in ℝ3 given their equations.

Definition.
Let 𝑁 be a nonzero vector and 𝑃0 be a point in ℝ3 .
The set of all points 𝑃 for which ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃0 𝑃 and 𝑁
are orthogonal is the plane through 𝑃0
and having 𝑁 as a normal vector.

Equation of a plane
Let 𝑁 = 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉 be a nonzero vector.
If 𝑃0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) is a point of a plane Ω having 𝑁 as a normal vector,
then the standard equation of the plane Ω is given by
𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝑏(𝑦 − 𝑦0 ) + 𝑐(𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) = 0.

The general equation of the plane is of the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0.

Remarks:
1. If 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 are not all zero, the graph of the equation 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0 is a plane having
〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉 as a normal vector.

2. Two planes are parallel if and only if their normal vectors are parallel.
Two planes are perpendicular if and only if their normal vectors are orthogonal.

To sketch the graph the plane given its equation, any of the following can be used:
• the normal vector and any point of the plane;
• the 𝑥 −intercept, 𝑦 −intercept and 𝑧 −intercept; or
• any three point of the plane.
A plane is usually illustrated by a parallelogram passing through some points of the plane.

Examples.
1. Let Ω be a plane containing the point 𝑃0 (4, −2, −3)
and having a normal vector 𝑁 = 〈2, −1, 2〉.

The standard equation of the plane Ω

is given by 2(𝑥 − 4) − 1(𝑦 + 2) + 2(𝑧 + 3) = 0.

So, the general equation of the plane Ω

is given by 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 − 4 = 0.

To sketch the graph of the plane,

we use the intercepts:
𝑥 −intercept: 2
𝑦 −intercept: −4
𝑧 −intercept: 2
2. In geometry, it is known that a plane is uniquely determined by any three points of the plane.

Let Γ be a plane containing the points 𝑃(2,3,0), 𝑄(0,5, −1) and 𝑅(1,0,3).

To determine the equation of the plane, we need to obtain a normal vector – a vector that is
orthogonal to the plane. This can be obtained by solving for a vector that is orthogonal to vectors
determined by points 𝑃, 𝑄 and 𝑅.

We consider vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 〈−1, −3, 3〉.

𝑃𝑄 = 〈−2,2, −1〉 and 𝑃𝑅
A normal vector to the plane should be orthogonal to both vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑅 .
This can then be obtained using cross product.

Let 𝑁 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑅 . Vector 𝑁 is orthogonal to the plane. So, 𝑁 is a normal vector to Γ.
𝒊 𝒋 𝒌
Computing, 𝑁 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = |−2 2 −1| = 〈3,7,8〉.
𝑃𝑄 × 𝑃𝑅
−1 −3 3

Using 𝑁 as a normal vector and 𝑃0 any of the three given points, a standard equation can be
obtained. The resulting general equation of plane Γ is 3𝑥 + 7𝑦 + 8𝑧 − 27 = 0.

Verify that points 𝑃, 𝑄 and 𝑅 each satisfies the equation.

Alternatively, obtain a normal vector to the plane using the cross product of vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑄𝑅 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑄𝑃 .
Use this normal vector to obtain a standard equation of the plane. Verify that this leads to the
same general equation of plane Γ.

Definition.
Let 𝑀 be a nonzero vector in ℝ3 and 𝑃0 be a point in ℝ3 .
The set of all points 𝑃 for which ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃0 𝑃 is parallel to 𝑀
is the line through 𝑃0 in the direction of 𝑀.

Equation of a line
Let 𝑙 be the line passing through 𝑃0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 )
and parallel to the vector 𝑀 = 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉.

Using 𝑡 as a parameter,
the parametric equations of 𝑙 is given by
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑏𝑡 𝑧 = 𝑧0 + 𝑐𝑡.

If none of 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 is zero,

the symmetric equations of 𝑙 is given by
𝑥 − 𝑥0 𝑦 − 𝑦0 𝑧 − 𝑧0
= = .
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐

Remark:
In the parametric equations 𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑎𝑡, 𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑏𝑡, 𝑧 = 𝑧0 + 𝑐𝑡 of line 𝑙,
the parameter 𝑡 takes the value of real numbers.
For each 𝑡 ∈ ℝ, the parametric equations give a point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) on line 𝑙.
Examples.
1. Let 𝑙 be the line passing through 𝑃0 (1, −2, 3) and parallel to the vector 𝑀 = 〈−2, 4, 5〉.

With parameter 𝑡, the parametric equations of line 𝑙

is given by
𝑥 = 1 − 2𝑡
𝑦 = −2 + 4𝑡
𝑧 = 3 + 5𝑡 .

The symmetric equations of 𝑙 is given by

𝑥−1 𝑦+2 𝑧−3
= = .
−2 4 5

Does line 𝑙 pass through point 𝑄1 (−5, 10, 18)?

To answer this, determine if there is a single value
of parameter 𝑡 that gives the coordinates of 𝑄1 .

How about through point 𝑄2 (5, −9 − 7)?

2. In geometry, it is known that a line is uniquely determined by any two points on the line.

Let ℎ be the line passing through the points 𝑃(2, 5, 0) and 𝑄(6, 3, −1).

The graph of this line can be easily sketched by plotting points 𝑃 and 𝑄.
Then, join the points by a straight line.

To determine the equation of line ℎ, we need a vector 𝑀 that is parallel to line ℎ.

Either ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 or ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑄𝑃 can be used as vector 𝑀.

We use 𝑀 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 = 〈4, −2, −1〉.
With 𝑃0 = 𝑃(2, 3, 0), the parametric equations of line ℎ is given by
𝑥 = 2 + 4𝑡 𝑦 = 5 − 2𝑡 𝑧 = −𝑡 . (Set A)

Using 𝑃0 = 𝑄(6, 3, −1), the parametric equations of line ℎ is given by

𝑥 = 6 + 4𝑡 𝑦 = 3 − 2𝑡 𝑧 = −1 − 𝑡 . (Set B)

Verify that the two sets of parametric equations both determine equation line ℎ.
Do this by showing that 𝑃 and 𝑄 both satisfy the two sets of equations.

Using Set A, solve for a point on line ℎ corresponding to 𝑡 = −2.

Then, determine the parameter 𝑡 that gives the same point using Set B.

__________________________

Concept Recap

1. What is a plane in ℝ3 ? a line in ℝ3 ?

2. How can the standard equation of a plane be obtained? general equation?
3. How can a graph of a plane be sketched?
How are the intercepts of a plane obtained from its equation?
4. How can the parametric equations and symmetric equations of a line be obtained?
5. How are parametric equations of a line used to determine whether points are on or not on a line?
Practice Exercises
Determine the general equation of the plane satisfying the given conditions.
1. plane Π containing the point (−2,3, 1) with normal vector 〈3, −2, 4〉
2. plane Φ containing the point (1,1, −1) and orthogonal to −2𝒊 − 3𝒌
3. plane Σ containing the point (5, 0, −7) and parallel to the plane given by 2𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 0
4. plane Ω containing the points 𝑃(0,2, −1), 𝑄(4,1,0) and 𝑅(−3,0,2)
5. plane Γ containing the point 𝑃(1,2, −1) and with 𝑦 −intercept = 4 and 𝑧 −intercept = −5
(Do items #4 and #5 by first obtaining a normal vector to the plane via cross product of
appropriate vectors.)
6. plane Ψ containing the origin and orthogonal to the line with parametric equations
𝑥 = −4 + 𝑡 𝑦 = 5 − 4𝑡 𝑧 = 3 + 2𝑡

7. Determine any three points on the plane given by 5𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 10𝑧 − 15 = 0. Using these points,
give a sketch of the plane. Indicate a normal vector to the plane and verify the orthogonality
property.

8. Consider the plane with 𝑥 −intercept = −3; 𝑦 −intercept = 4 and 𝑧 −intercept = 3.

a.) Sketch the graph of the plane
b.) Using its graph, determine whether the plane contains the point (5,4, 5).
c.) Determine the general equation of the plane.
d.) Using the equation of the plane, determine whether the plane contains the point (5,4, 5).
e.) Do the same verification for the point (−1, −4,65).

Determine the parametric equation of the line satisfying the given conditions. If possible, also indicate
the symmetric equations.
9. line 𝑙 passing through the point (4, −2,3) and parallel to the vector 〈−2,4, 1〉
10. line ℎ passing through the point (−5,0,8) and parallel to the line with parametric equations
𝑥 = 5 + 2𝑡 𝑦 = 7𝑡 𝑧 = 1 − 4𝑡
11. line 𝑘 passing through the point (−5,0,8) and parallel to the line with symmetric equations
𝑥−1 𝑦+2 𝑧−3
= =
−2 4 5
12. line 𝑑 passing through the points 𝑃(3,2,2) and 𝑄(−2,1, −2)
13. line 𝑓 passing through the points 𝑃(−1, −5,2) and with 𝑧 −intercept = −4

14. Consider the line passing through the points 𝑃(−2, −3,4) and 𝑄(1,4, −3).
a.) Sketch the graph of the line.
b.) Using its graph, determine whether the line passes through the origin.
c.) Determine the parametric equations of the line.
d.) Using the equation of the line determine whether the line passes through the origin.

15. Line 𝑙 is given by the parametric equations: 𝑥 = 1 − 2𝑡 𝑦 = −2 + 4𝑡 𝑧 = 3 + 5𝑡 .

Determine the equation of the plane containing the origin and line 𝑙.
Illustrate first the scenario. This will give you a visualization of the necessary tools to obtain the
equation of the plane.

____________________________________________
Section 7. CYLINDERS and SPHERES

By the end of this section, you must be able to

✓ transform a general equation of a sphere to standard equation;
✓ identify a sphere, a point or an empty set from a standard equation;
✓ sketch the graph of a sphere in ℝ3 ;
✓ identify a cylinder in ℝ3 ; and
✓ sketch the graph of a cylinder in ℝ3 .

Spheres

The standard equation of a sphere is given by

(𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 + (𝑧 − 𝑙)2 = 𝑟 2 ,

where (ℎ, 𝑘, 𝑙) is its center and 𝑟 > 0 is the radius.

Remarks: The graph of the second-degree equation given by

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 + 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 + 𝐷 = 0

in ℝ3 is either a sphere, a point or the empty set.

From a general equation, the standard equation can be obtained by completing squares.

Examples.

1. To express the equation

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 + 2𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 4𝑧 − 3 = 0
to its standard form, we perform completing of squares.

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 + 2𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 4𝑧 − 3 = 0
⇒ (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥) + (𝑦 2 − 2𝑦) + (𝑧 2 − 4𝑧) = 3
⇒ (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1) + (𝑦 2 − 2𝑦 + 1) + (𝑧 2 − 4𝑧 + 4) = 3 + 6
⇒ (𝑥 + 1)2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 + (𝑧 − 2)2 = 9

Hence, the given equation is a sphere with center

at (−1,1,2) and of radius 3.

2. The equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 + 2𝑥 − 4𝑧 + 5 = 0 can be expressed to its standard form given by

(𝑥 − 1)2 + 𝑦 2 + (𝑧 − 2)2 = 0 .
The given equation is satisfied by a single point – (1,0,2).
Hence, the graph of the equation is the point (1,0,2).

3. The equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 2𝑦 + 4𝑧 + 7 = 0 can be expressed to its standard form given by

𝑥 2 + (𝑦 − 1)2 + (𝑧 + 2)2 = −2 .
There is no point in ℝ3 that satisfies this equation.
Hence, the graph of the equation is the empty set.
Cylinders

Definition.
In ℝ3 , the graph of an equation in any two out of the three variables 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 is a cylinder.

The cross-section of the cylinder is the curve on the proper plane corresponding to the two variables
in the equation. The lines generating the cylinder are parallel to the axis of the third variable and are
along the cross-section.

Examples.

1. The equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 25 is a cylinder in ℝ3 .

A cross-section of the cylinder is the circle

𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 25 on the 𝑥𝑦 −plane.

The lines generating the cylinder are parallel

to the 𝑧 −axis and are along the circle on the
𝑥𝑦 −plane.

2. The equation 𝑧 = sin 𝑦 is a cylinder in ℝ3 .

A cross-section of the cylinder is the sine

curve 𝑧 = sin 𝑦 on the 𝑦𝑧 −plane.

The lines generating the cylinder are parallel

to the 𝑥 −axis and are along the sine curve
on the 𝑦𝑧 −plane.

3. The equation 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 − 4 is a cylinder in ℝ3 .

A cross-section of the cylinder is the parabola 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 − 4 on the 𝑥𝑧 −plane. The lines generating
the cylinder are parallel to the 𝑦 −axis and are along the parabola on the 𝑥𝑧 −plane.

Sketch the graph of the cylinder 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 − 4. Do this by starting with the parabola on the
𝑥𝑧 −plane. Then draw lines parallel to the 𝑦 −axis and passing through the parabola.

__________________________

Concept Recap

1. What is the standard equation of a sphere in ℝ3 ?

2. From a general equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 + 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑧 + 𝐷 = 0 , how can the standard equation
be obtained? When is the equation that of a sphere? a point? the empty set?
3. How can a cylinder in ℝ3 be identified?
4. How can the graph of a cylinder be sketched from its equation?
Practice Exercises
Sketch the graph of the spheres given by the following equations.
1. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 16
2. (𝑥 − 5)2 + (𝑦 + 4)2 + (𝑧 + 2)2 = 9
3. (𝑥 + 2)2 + 𝑦 2 + (𝑧 − 3)2 = 20

From the given general equation, derive the standard equation. Also, identify the graph corresponding
to the equation.
4. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 2𝑥 + 10𝑧 + 26 = 0
5. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 + 8𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 6𝑧 − 7 = 0
6. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 6𝑥 + 8𝑦 + 2𝑧 + 30 = 0

Sketch the graphs of the following cylinders. Properly identify a cross-section on the appropriate plane
and lines generating the cylinders.
7. 𝑦 = 9 − 𝑧 2 10. 𝑧 = cos 𝑥
𝑥2 𝑧2
8. + 25 = 1 11. 𝑥𝑦 = 4
4
𝑥
9. 𝑦=2 −4 12. (𝑦 + 1)2 + (𝑧 − 1)2 = 4

____________________________________________

Section 8. QUADRIC SURFACES

By the end of this section, you must be able to

✓ identify a quadric surface given its equation;
✓ sketch a quadric surface given its equation; and
✓ illustrate how traces and level curves can be used to sketch the graph of a given
quadric surface.

Definition.
The graph of a second-degree equation in three variables 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 given by

𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑦 2 + 𝐶𝑧 2 + 𝐷𝑥𝑦 + 𝐸𝑥𝑧 + 𝐹𝑦𝑧 + 𝐺𝑥 + 𝐻𝑦 + 𝐼𝑧 + 𝐻 = 0

is called a quadric surface.

The following are graphs of quadric surfaces.

Some standard forms

The following are some more standard equations of quadric surfaces.

Ellipsoid:
𝒙𝟐 𝒚 𝟐 𝒛𝟐
+ + = 𝟏; 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 > 𝟎
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒄𝟐
Elliptic cone:
𝒙𝟐 𝒚 𝟐 𝒛𝟐
+ − = 𝟎; 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 > 𝟎
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒄𝟐
𝒙𝟐 𝒚 𝟐 𝒛𝟐
− + =𝟎
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒄𝟐
𝒙𝟐 𝒚 𝟐 𝒛𝟐
− + + =𝟎
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒄𝟐
Elliptic hyperboloid of one sheet:
𝒙𝟐 𝒚 𝟐 𝒛𝟐
+ − = 𝟏; 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 > 𝟎
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒄𝟐
𝒙𝟐 𝒚 𝟐 𝒛𝟐
− + =𝟏
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒄𝟐
𝒙𝟐 𝒚 𝟐 𝒛𝟐
− + + =𝟏
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒄𝟐
Elliptic hyperboloid of two sheets:

𝒙𝟐 𝒚 𝟐 𝒛𝟐
− − + = 𝟏; 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 > 𝟎
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒄𝟐
𝒙𝟐 𝒚 𝟐 𝒛𝟐
− − =𝟏
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒄𝟐
 𝒙𝟐 𝒚 𝟐 𝒛𝟐
+− − =𝟏
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒄𝟐
Elliptic paraboloid:
𝒙𝟐 𝒚 𝟐 𝒛
+ ± = 𝟎; 𝒂, 𝒃 > 𝟎, 𝒄 ≠ 𝟎
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒄
𝒙𝟐 𝒚 𝒛𝟐
± + = 𝟎; 𝒂, 𝒄 > 𝟎, 𝒃 ≠ 𝟎
𝒂 𝟐 𝒃 𝒄𝟐
𝒙 𝒚 𝟐 𝒛𝟐
± + + = 𝟎; 𝒃, 𝒄 > 𝟎, 𝒂 ≠ 𝟎
𝒂 𝒃𝟐 𝒄𝟐

Hyperbolic paraboloid:
𝒙𝟐 𝒚 𝟐 𝒛
− − = 𝒌; 𝒂, 𝒃 > 𝟎, 𝒄 ≠ 𝟎, 𝒌 ∈ ℝ
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒄
𝒙 𝒚 𝟐 𝒛𝟐
+ − = 𝒌; 𝒃, 𝒄 > 𝟎, 𝒂 ≠ 𝟎, 𝒌 ∈ ℝ
𝒂 𝒃𝟐 𝒄𝟐
𝒙𝟐 𝒚 𝒛𝟐
+ − = 𝒌; 𝒂, 𝒄 > 𝟎, 𝒃 ≠ 𝟎, 𝒌 ∈ ℝ
𝒂 𝟐 𝒃 𝒄𝟐

How to identify and sketch a quadric surface

Given an equation of a quadric surface in standard form,
to sketch the graph of a quadric surface,
1. Draw traces of the surface on the 𝑥𝑦 −plane (at 𝑧 = 0), the 𝑦𝑧 −plane (at 𝑥 = 0) and the
𝑥𝑧 −plane (at 𝑦 = 0).
2. From the traces, identify the quadric surface.
3. If needed, obtain level curves at particular values of 𝑥, 𝑦 or 𝑧.
4. Carefully, sketch the surface considering traces, level curves and the type of quadric surface.

Note that traces are cross-sections of the quadric surface on the three planes.
Level curves are cross-sections at particular values of 𝑥, 𝑦 or 𝑧.

Examples.
𝑥2 𝑦2
1. Consider the quadric surface given by + 25 + 𝑧 2 = 1.
9
Its traces are as follow:

on the 𝑥𝑦 −plane (𝑧 = 0): on the 𝑦𝑧 −plane (𝑥 = 0): on the 𝑥𝑧 −plane (𝑦 = 0):

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑦2 2 𝑥2
+ = 1 (ellipse) + 𝑧 = 1 (ellipse) + 𝑧 2 = 1 (ellipse)
9 25 25 9
 The traces are all ellipses. It follows the quadric surface is an ellipsoid.

𝑥2 2 2
2. Consider the quadric surface given by −
4
+ 𝑦4 + 16
𝑧
= 1.
Its traces are as follow:

on the 𝑥𝑦 −plane (𝑧 = 0): on the 𝑦𝑧 −plane (𝑥 = 0): on the 𝑥𝑧 −plane (𝑦 = 0):

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑦2 𝑧2 𝑥2 𝑧2
− + = 1 (hyperbola) + = 1 (hyperbola) − + = 1 (hyperbola)
4 4 4 16 9 16

From the traces, it follows the quadric surface is an elliptic hyperboloid of one sheet.
 𝑦2 𝑧2
3. Consider the quadric surface given by 𝑥 2 − − = 1.
4 9
Its traces are as follow:

on the 𝑥𝑦 −plane (𝑧 = 0): on the 𝑦𝑧 −plane (𝑥 = 0): on the 𝑥𝑧 −plane (𝑦 = 0):

2 𝑦2 𝑦2 𝑧2 𝑧2
𝑥 − = 1 (hyperbola) − − = 1 (empty graph) 𝑥2 − = 1 (hyperbola)
4 4 9 9

From the traces, it follows the quadric surface is an elliptic hyperboloid of two sheets.

__________________________

Concept Recap

1. What is a quadric surface?

2. What are examples of quadric surfaces?
3. How can a quadric surface be identified from equations in standard form?
4. How can a quadric surface be identified from its traces?
5. How can a quadric surface be properly drawn from its traces and level curves?

Practice Exercises
Sketch the graphs of the following quadric surfaces. Do this by:
a.) sketching the traces on the proper planes;
b.) identifying the type of quadric surface;
c.) (if needed) additional level curves; and
d.) sketching the quadric surface on a coordinate space.

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑥2 𝑦2
1. + −𝑧 =4 6. − + + 𝑧2 = 1
4 4 9 4

𝑥2 𝑧2 𝑥 𝑦2 𝑧2
2. + 𝑦2 − =1 7. + + 25 = 1
25 9 4 4
 𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2 𝑥2 𝑦2
3. + 16 − =0 8. − + 4𝑧 2 = 4
16 4 5 5

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
4. −𝑥 + 𝑦 2 − 𝑧 2 = 0 9. − 49 + 64 + 25 = 0

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2 𝑥2 𝑦2
5. + 50 + 36 = 1 10. − +𝑧=1
36 9 4

____________________________________________

UNIT EXAM

Note: This unit exam should be answered in at most 60 minutes.

I. Fill in the blanks. Provide what is asked. You only need to give your answers.

For 1 2 and 3, consider points P ( − 2 , 1 , 2 ) and Q ( 4 , − 2 , 5 ) .

→
1. The components of vector PQ are given by ______________________.
→
2. The magnitude of PQ is given by _________________.

3. In position representation, the initial point of the vector is at __________________

and the terminal point is at __________________.

4. The unit vector in the direction of −5 , 12 is the vector ______________________.

5. The dot product of vectors − 4 , 2 , 5 and 3 , 4 , 2 is equal to _____________________.

1
6. If A = 8 and B = 3 and cos  AB = , then A  B is equal to ___________________.
5

For 7 and 8, consider the plane containing the point ( 2 , − 3 ,1 ) and orthogonal to vector
2 , −1 ,1 .

7. The general equation of the plane is ______________________.

8. Does the plane pass through the origin? ____________ (YES or NO)

Why? __________________________________________________________________

9. The center of the sphere x2 + y2 + z2 + 6 x − 2y − 6 = 0 is at the point _______________.

2
x2 y z
10. The graph of the quadric surface − + = 1 is a/an ______________________.
25 9 9

II. Computations and graphing,

A. Determine the sum A + B and the difference A − B of A 3 , 2 , 4 and B 0 , − 4 , 3 .

Also, on the coordinate space, illustrate A + B and A − B in relation to vectors A and B .

B. If A 0 , 2 , 1 and B 1 , 0 , 3 , independently evaluate the cross products A  B and B  A .

Show a verification that A  B = − ( B  A) .

C. Consider a line through the point ( 1 , − 2 , 3 ) and parallel to vector − 3 , 2 , − 1 .

Determine its parametric equations. Then, sketch the graph of the line on the coordinate
space.
 2
x2 y z2
D. Sketch the graph of the quadric surface − + = 1 . Sketch the traces on the proper
16 9 25
planes of the given coordinate space. Also, identify the graph.

~ END OF EXAM ~