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FEATURE EXTRACTION METHODS FOR FACE RECOGNITION

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International Review of Applied Engineering Research (IRAER)

ISSN 2248-9967 Volume 5, Number 3 (2016) pp. 5658-5668
© Research India Publications
http://www.ripublication.com

FEATURE EXTRACTION METHODS FOR FACE RECOGNITION

*
Zahraddeen Sufyanu1, Fatma Susilawati Mohamad 2, Abdulganiyu Abdu Yusuf3, Abdulbasit Nuhu Musa4
and Rabi’u Abdulkadir5
1,2,3,4
Faculty of Informatics and Computing, Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin (UniSZA), Gong Badak Campus,
21300, Terengganu, Malaysia.
5
Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Kano University of Science and Technology
Wudil, 3244, Kano, Nigeria
* Corresponding author: sufyanzzzzz@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
Feature extraction is the most vital stage in pattern recognition and data mining. In this stage, the
meaningful feature subset is extracted from original data by applying certain rules. For reliable
recognition, it is desirable to extract appropriate features space, since all the extracted features may
not contribute to the classification positively. In this paper, some feature extraction methods and
algorithms were studied, compared and means of improving feature selection through dimension
reduction was explained. It was concluded that few number of features are usually required and
selected for an optimized compression. So that huge amount of data can be reduced to a relatively
small set which is computationally faster. Hence, efficient selection of features is a key step of
achieving efficient face recognition and biometric authentication.

Keywords: Face recognition, Feature extraction, Algorithms

1. INTRODUCTION
Feature extraction is the application of extracting algorithm on digital images to reduce redundancy
and irrelevancy present in the image. The main goals of feature extraction are to reduce the time
of machine training and complexity of space, in order to achieve a dimension reduction (Khokher
et al., 2015). Feature extraction algorithms transform an input data into the set of features,
meanwhile select features containing the most relevant information from the original data. Feature
extraction maintain acceptable classification accuracy by reducing maximum number of irrelevant
features. It has great importance in data analysis, pattern classification, biometrics, computer
vision, multimedia information retrieval, remote sensing, machine learning, medical data
processing, and data mining applications. There are two common approaches to extract facial
features: Geometric features and Appearance based methods (Mahto & Yadav, 2014).

2. METHODS FOR FEATURE EXTRACTION

2.1 Geometric Feature Based Methods
The feature-based or analytic approach computes a set of geometrical face features of eyes, a
mouth, and a nose. In this representation, outline of the face and positions of the different facial
features form a feature vector. Usually, for good extraction process, the feature points are chosen
 5659

in terms of their reliability for automatic extraction and significance for face representation. To
compute the geometrical relationships, the location of those points is used. Such a system is
insensitive to position variations in the image. Nevertheless, Geometric features present the shape
and locations of facial components, which are extracted to form a feature vector that represents the
face (Mahto & Yadav, 2014). This includes: mouth, eyes, eyebrows and nose (Lajevardi &
Hussain, 2012).

2.2 Holistic Based Methods

In Holistic or Appearance-based methods, the global properties of the human face pattern are
considered. Unlike in feature based, the whole face region is recognized without using few points
from different regions of the face. Commonly, Holistic methods encode the pixel intensity array
representation of faces without the detection of any facial feature. This class of face extraction is
more applicable and easier to implement compared to geometric feature-based methods, since
detection of geometric facial features is not required. Holistic methods depend on such techniques
that convert the image into a low-dimensional feature space with improved discriminating power.
This is because; the distances from a given probe to its nearest and farthest neighbors may become
indistinguishable for a high dimensional feature space. Similar to most of natural signals, face
images contain significant redundancies or statistical regularities. Therefore, to discover low-
dimensional representations of human face images, several dimensionality reduction frameworks
have been developed by relying on their statistical regularities. With Appearance-based methods,
image filters, such as Gabor wavelets, are applied to either the whole face or specific face regions
to extract the appearance changes of the face (Mahto & Yadav, 2014). Appearance based
algorithms include Principal Component Analysis (PCA), Independent Component Analysis
(ICA), Locality Preserving Projections (LPP), Linear Discriminate Analysis (LDA), Gabor
wavelets, Local Binary Pattern (LBP) and Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT). Additionally, to
form a complete face recognition system, two or more algorithms are usually combined to form a
Hybrid approach. This method achieves high recognition rates under many considerations.

3. BASIC ALGORITHMS FOR FACE RECOGNITION

Based on the way face is represented, existing face recognition techniques can be broadly
categorized into four: 1) Appearance based explained above which uses holistic texture features;
2) Model based which employs shape and texture of the face, along with 3D depth information; 3)
Template based face recognition; and 4) Techniques using Neural Networks. A summary of these
techniques is illustrated in Figure 1.
 5660

PCA
Template
HT, LEM
Matching LDA

Linear
ICA
Appearance other statistical
Based KFA methods
Non KPCA
Linear
ISOMAP, LLE,..
Image based
Face Elastic Bunch Graph
Recognition 2D
Active Appearance Model
Model
Based
3D 3D Morphable Model

Neural
SVM, SOM
Networks

Figure 1: Classification of face recognition methods (Mohamed, 2008)

3.1 Line Edge Map

The recognition of humans is highly natural that, Line Edge Map (LEM) recognizes rough line
drawings quickly and accurately. The LEM is an approach that extracts features of lines from a
face edge map, based on a combination of geometrical feature matching and template matching.
The edge images of objects are used for object recognition and to achieve similar accuracy as gray-
level images (Kaushik et al., 2014). The Sobel edge detection algorithm used to encode the faces
into binary edge maps, and the Hausdorff distance was chosen to measure the similarity of the
edge maps of the two faces. This distance is calculated without an explicit pairing of points in their
respective data sets. The LEM method acquires the advantages of a feature based method, which
has low memory requirements, it is invariant to illumination, and depicts high performance of
recognition using the template matching.

Also, the LEM face feature representation integrates the spatial information with the structural
information of a face image through grouping pixels of face edge maps into line segments to
achieve recognition accuracy. A polygonal line fitting process is applied after thinning the edge
map, to generate the LEM of the face. Therefore, LEM representation keeps only the end points
of line segments on curves, to further reduce the storage requirements. Since LEM is an
intermediate-level image representation derived from a low-level edge map representation, so it is
less sensitive to illumination changes. The basic unit of the LEM is the line segment which is
grouped from pixels of the edge map. To match LEMs of faces, a line segment Hausdorff distance
(LHD) measure is used. Hausdorff distance is a shape comparison measure based on LEMs, a
distance defined between two line sets. The LHD has better distinctive power since it uses
additional structural attributes of line orientation, number disparity in obtaining the LEM, and line-
point association.
 5661

3.2 Elastic Graph Matching

Elastic Graph Matching (EGM) is used to extend the dynamic link architecture method so as to
increase the matching accuracy for bigger databases, and handle larger variations in poses. EGM
employs object adaptive graphs, so that nodes refer to fiducially points on the face such as the
pupils, the corners of the mouth, and the tip of nose. The goal of EGM on a test image is to find
the fiducially points, and thus extract from the image a graph that maximizes the similarity. It uses
the phase of the complex Gabor wavelet coefficients to achieve a more accurate location of the
nodes, and to disambiguate patterns, which would be similar in their coefficient magnitudes. A set
of 25 facial landmarks were localized using the Elastic Bunch Graph Matching framework (Déniz
et al., 2011). Morphological elastic graph matching has been proposed for better improvement.

3.3 Neural Networks

Neural Network (NN) approaches have been widely explored for feature representation and face
recognition. Face recognition based on a hybrid neural networks (El-Dahshan et al., 2010) have
been proposed. In general, NN approaches encounter problems when the number of classes (i.e.,
individuals) increases. But, they are not suitable for a single model image recognition task because,
multiple model images per person are necessary in order to train the systems. When the number of
people increases, the computation expenses become more demanding. However, their distributed
computing principles are relatively easy to implement on parallel computers. It was reported that
face recognition using NN had the capability of recognizing up to 200 people, and could achieve
up to a 96% correct recognition rate in approximately 1 second.

3.4 Support Vector Machines

Support Vector Machines (SVMs) are research topic in machine learning community, creating a
similar enthusiasm as in Artificial Neural Network (Meyer & Wien, 2014). Library for Support
Vector Machines (LIBSVM) has been actively used to develop this package since 2000. The aim
is to help users easily apply the SVM in their applications. The SVM tries to find the optimal
separating hyper plane that maximizes the margin of separation in order to minimize the risk of
misclassification in both training samples and the unseen data in the test set. The algorithm is
defined by a weighted combination of small subset of the training vectors, called support vectors
(Chang and Lin, 2011). The class separating hyper plane is chosen to minimize the expected
classification. Estimating the optimal hyper plane is equivalent to solving a linearly constrained
quadratic programming problem. The SVM algorithm is applied for classification of facial
expression characteristics in Hemalatha and Sumathi (2014). It can be considered a new paradigm
to train polynomial functions, radial basis function classifiers, neural networks, and operate on
another induction principle called structural risk minimization, which aims at minimizing an upper
bound on the expected generalization error. Most methods for training a classifier are based on
minimizing the training error (i.e. empirical risk).

3.5 Hidden Markov Models

Hidden Markov Models (HMMs) are one of the most widely used statistical tools for modeling
discrete time series. HMMs have been successfully used in modeling temporal information in
many speech, and image. Still, HMMs are used to perform face recognition in video signals,
considering each frame in the video sequence as an observation. When a traditional 1D Markov
chain is used to model a 2D image signal, the signal has to be transformed into a 1D observation
sequence. It was concluded that, learning HMMs from data is computationally hard (Hsu et al.,
 5662

2012). Therefore, Embedded Bayesian networks, which is a generalized framework of embedded

HMMs, shows a significant complexity reduction.

3.6 Discrete Cosine Transform

Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) is one of the transformation based extraction techniques.
Ahmed et al. (1974) initially introduced a DCT in the early seventies. Since then, the DCT has
become very popular and several versions of it have been proposed (Rao, & Yip, 1990). Few
numbers of DCT coefficients were used to reduce redundancy and recover the original image from
the selected coefficients. The performance of DCT is largely affected by altering the coefficient
magnitude at the top left corner of the matrix. Thus, illumination normalization before feature
extraction compensates these coefficient variances and sets the blocks to more equalized intensity.
After applying DCT on input image, the DCT coefficients are traced in Zig-zagged order for
conversion of image matrix to feature vector (Sandeep et al., 2011).

In addition, DCT has been a popular technique used in signal and image processing. It’s very good
in energy compaction, where most of the information tends to concentrate in upper part of the DCT
coefficient representing a low frequency. It possesses low computational complexity and it is very
effective technique that promotes recognition. DCT exploits inter-pixel redundancies to render
excellent decorrelation for most natural images. Moreover, each DCT coefficient can be
independently encoded without losses.

3.7 Discrete Wavelet Transform

Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT) has been successfully used in image processing since 1985,
and it is used for designing a pose-invariant face recognition (Demirel et al., 2010). Because of its
ability to simultaneously provide spatial and frequency representations of image, it is used for
feature extraction. It allows for decomposition of input data into several layers of division in space
and frequency. It also allows for isolation of frequency components introduced by intrinsic
deformations (due to expression or extrinsic factors like illumination) into certain sub-bands.
Wavelet-based methods focus on the space or frequency sub-bands that contain the most relevant
information to better represent the data and aid in classification of images. Meanwhile, prune away
the variable sub-bands. Haar wavelet transform is a widely used technique (Kumar & Sood, 2012),
which is simple and powerful for multi-resolution decomposition of time series.

3.8 Gabor Filter Representation

The Gabor filter was first introduced by David Gabor in 1946 and was later shown as models of
simple cell receptive fields (Chelali & Djeradi, 2015). Gabor features are less sensitive to
variations of illumination, pose, and expression than the holistic features such as Eigen-face. Face
representation using the Gabor features has been a research interest in image processing, computer
vision and pattern recognition. The Gabor filters exploits salient visual properties such as spatial
localization, spatial frequency characteristics and orientation selectivity.

Besides, Gabor filter and DCT are well known techniques used in facial recognition. Evidently,
face recognition using Gabor filters demonstrated a successful means in human facial features
extraction (Yang & Zhang, 2010). A Gabor filter has good performance for feature extraction, but
it is time consuming and sensitive to non-linear distortions and rotations (Prince, 2012). However,
 5663

it is a local narrow band pass filter which is selective to both orientation and spatial frequency
(Singh & Lehal, 2014).

3.9 Principle Component Analysis

Principle Component Analysis (PCA) and other statistical based feature extraction approaches
such as ICA, LDA make use of algebraic methods. The PCA algorithm identifies patterns in a data,
and expressing the data to highlight their similarities and differences. It is used for face recognition
to express the large 1-D vector of pixels constructed from 2-D facial image into the compact
principal components of the feature space. Thus, it finds the vectors which account for distribution
of face images within an image space. These vectors define the subspace of face images which is
called face space. The Eigen faces are the principle components of a distribution of the faces. The
main advantage of PCA is data compression, carried out by reducing the number of dimensions
and without much loss of information (Mahto & Yadav, 2014). Eigen space was calculated by
identifying the eigenvectors of the covariance matrix which is derived from a set of facial images
(vectors). Zhiguo and Xuehong (2010) suggested a Weighted Principal Component Analysis
(WPCA) on multi feature fusion. Kernel PCA is also eigenvector based method, but this method
uses nonlinear mapping.

3.10 Linear Discriminant Analysis

Linear Discriminant Analysis (LDA) and related fisher’s linear discriminant are methods used in
statistics, pattern recognition and machine learning to find a linear combination of features which
separates two or more classes of objects or events. This is the most dominant algorithm for feature
selection in Appearance based method; it yields an effective representation that linearly transforms
the original data space into a low-dimensional feature space where the data is well separated
(Mohammed & Gupta, 2013). Dataset selected should have larger samples per class for good
extraction of discriminating features. Under the test and comparison of performance of
Appearance based statistical methods on colored face images, LDA surpassed ICA under
different illuminations. It is also more sensitive than PCA and ICA on partial occlusions. The
LDA has small size problem when dealing with high dimensional data. It defines a projection
that makes the within-class scatter small and the between-class scatter large. Trying to find non-
linear correlation models among different biometric features can improve the system and it was
recommended that, the intra-class correlation for different feature set should be further explored on
extended biometric data sets (Soviany & Puscoci, 2013).

3.11 Independent Component Analysis

Independent Component Analysis (ICA) is a computational method for separating a multivariable
signal into additive subcomponents, they are non-Gaussian signals and are statistically
independent from each other. The ICA is a special case of blind source separation. It considers
statistically independent images, these images are sparse and localized in space resembling facial
features (Hemalatha & Sumathi, 2014).

3.12 Self-Organizing Map

Self-Organizing Map (SOM) is a type of Artificial Neural Network (ANN) that is trained using
unsupervised learning, to produce a low-dimensional representation of the input space of the
 5664

training samples, called a map. The SOM differs from ANN since it uses a neighborhood function
to preserve the topological properties of the input space (Mahto & Yadav, 2014).

3.13 Hough Transform

Hough Transform (HT) is one of the feature extraction techniques used in image analysis,
computer vision and digital image processing (Shapiro & Stockman, 2001). It was patented by
Paul Hough in 1962 and assigned to the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission with the name “method
and means for recognizing complex patterns”. The HT universally applied today was invented by
Duda and Hart (1972), and called it “Generalized Hough Transform (GHT)”. The transform was
popularized in the computer vision community by Dana H. Ballard in 1981, through a journal
article titled "Generalizing the Hough transform to detect arbitrary shapes" most commonly circles
or ellipses. The use of the transform to detect straight lines in digital images is probably one of the
most widely used procedures in computer (sufyanu et al., 2015). Therefore, current studies put
forward face recognition using the HT.

4. COMPARISON OF RELATED WORK

Face recognition is the process of authenticating users through their facial attributes. Feature-based
methods of face recognition have found increasing use in many applications such as object
recognition, 3D reconstruction and mosaicing (Gupta & George, 2014). Several face recognition
algorithms were based on feature-based methods. To detect a set of geometrical features such as
eyes, eyebrows, nose, and mouth of a face; areas, distances, and angles between the feature points
are used as descriptors for face recognition. But there are no certain fix points that gives the best
performance. Therefore, important features are not generally known, and how to extract the
features depends on the algorithm. The performance of face recognition based on geometrical
features depends on the accuracy of the feature location algorithm. Subsequently, Appearance-
based methods have received much interest in face recognition since 1990s. The algorithms under
these methods find the closest pattern by projecting an image into subspace. The two widely used
approaches for dimensionality reduction and feature extraction were PCA and LDA (Xu et al.,
2011). A lots of leading commercial face recognition products employ face recognition methods
based on PCA or Karhunen–Loeve (KL) expansion techniques, such as eigenface and LFA.
Multispace KL was another algorithm for pattern representation and face recognition for
unsupervised dimensionality reduction; this approach outperforms KL when data distribution is
far from a multidimensional Gaussian.

LDA is the most dominant algorithm for feature selection in Appearance based methods, it yields
an effective representation that linearly transforms the original data space into a low-dimensional
feature space where the data is well separated (Mohammed & Gupta, 2013). The selected dataset
should have larger samples per class for good extraction of discriminating features. And trying to
find non-linear correlation models among different biometric features can improve the system and
recommended that, the intra-class correlation for different feature set should be further explored
on extended biometric data sets. The Fisher Linear Discriminant Analysis aims to find a set of
most discriminative linear projections by maximizing the ratio of the determinant of the between-
class scatter matrix to that of the within-class scatter matrix (Kan et al., 2011).

Several approaches on various kernels have been proposed in Perronnin et al. (2010) that leads to
additional improvements at a very affordable cost. PCA uses eigenvectors to determine basis
 5665

vectors that retain maximum variance of an image. Face recognition based on ICA was introduced;
it is based on a generalization that is sensitive to higher-order statistics not second-order
relationships. Because, most of the important information may be contained in the high-order
relationship. The ICA gives a set of basis vectors that acquire maximum statistical independence.
However, face recognition techniques based on neural networks (Agarwal et al., 2010) and elastic
graph matching (Bhat & Wani, 2015) reported successful results. SVMs have been applied to face
recognition in Meyer and Wien (2014) and gender classification in Hu et al. (2014). It finds the
optimal separating hyper plane that maximizes the margin of separation, in order to minimize the
risk of misclassification not only for the training samples, but also for the unseen data in the test
set. Based on a combination of geometrical feature matching and template matching, the LEM
approach extracts lines from a face edge map as features. A nearest feature line classifier was
proposed to meet up the variations of illumination, pose, and expression for a face class. This is
achieved through finding a candidate person having minimum distance between the query image
feature point and any feature lines connecting two prototype-feature points. The Eigen face method
has been a successful holistic approach to face recognition using the Karhunen-Loeve Transform
(KLT). The KLT produces an expansion of an input image in terms of a set of basis images or
Eigen-images (Siddiqi et al., 2014).

KLT is a well-known technique that achieves optimal energy compaction, but offers only moderate
compression since its basis functions are source dependent. Hence, it requires the transform itself
to be coded (Biswas et al., 2010). A technique for prediction-error block coding using the KLT
was proposed. This method does not require coding of the KLT bases. But the basic functions can
be derived at the decoder in a manner similar to the encoder.
Moreover, holistic approaches for face recognition depend largely on such techniques that lower
the dimension of images. Many of these techniques need to be combined for illumination invariant
or redundancy elimination. In this study, some of the face recognition techniques are improved to
form hybrid system.

5. CONCLUSION
Feature extraction determines an appropriate subspace from the given image. The means of
improving feature selection is certainly through dimension reduction or features compression. The
reasons why number of features are kept as small as possible is that, it reduces classification error
and avoids measurement cost. Since, the reduced features provide better decorrelation than the
original features. It is concluded that few number of features are usually required and selected for
an optimized compression. Hence, recognition without dimension reduction or feature selection is
not encouraging for higher systems. As a result, many hybrid systems do enhance the dimension
reduction efficiently.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors extend their appreciation to Kano State Government Nigeria, for sponsoring the
study, under the Kano State Scholarship, batch 502.

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