Network and communication

What is a computer Network?

A network is any collection of independent computers that communicate with one another over a
shared network medium. A computer network is a collection of two or more connected
computers. When these computers are joined in a network, people can share files and peripherals
such as modems, printers, tape backup drives, or CD-ROM drives. When networks at multiple
locations are connected using services available from phone companies, people can send e-mail,
share links to the global Internet, or conduct video conferences in real time with other remote
users. When a network becomes open sourced it can be managed properly with online
collaboration software. As companies rely on applications like electronic mail and database
management for core business operations, computer networking becomes increasingly more
important.
Every network includes:
 At least two computers Server or Client workstation.
 Networking Interface Card's (NIC)
 A connection medium, usually a wire or cable, although wireless communication
between networked computers and peripherals is also possible.
 Network Operating system software, such as Microsoft Windows NT or 2000, Novell
NetWare, Unix and Linux.
Types of Networks:
LANs (Local Area Networks)
A network is any collection of independent computers that communicate with one another over a
shared network medium. LANs are networks usually confined to a geographic area, such as a
single building or a college campus.
LANs can be small, linking as few as three computers, but often link hundreds of computers used
by thousands of people. The development of standard networking protocols and media has
resulted in worldwide proliferation of LANs throughout business and educational organizations.
WANs (Wide Area Networks)
Wide area networking combines multiple LANs that are geographically separate. This is
accomplished by connecting the different LANs using services such as dedicated leased phone
lines, dial-up phone lines (both synchronous and asynchronous), satellite links, and data packet
carrier services. Wide area networking can be as simple as a modem and remote access server for
employees to dial into, or it can be as complex as hundreds of branch offices globally linked
using special routing protocols and filters to minimize the expense of sending data sent over vast
distances.
MANs (Metropolitan area Networks)
This refers to a network of computers with in a City.
VPN (Virtual Private Network)
VPN uses a technique known as tunneling to transfer data securely on the Internet to a remote
access server on your workplace network. Using a VPN helps you save money by using the
public Internet instead of making long distance phone calls to connect securely with your private
network. There are two ways to create a VPN connection, by dialing an Internet service provider
(ISP), or connecting directly to Internet.
Categories of Network:
Network can be divided in to two main categories:
  Peer-to-peer.
 Client/Server
In peer-to-peer networking there are no dedicated servers or hierarchy among the computers. All
of the computers are equal and therefore known as peers. Normally each computer serves as
Client/Server and there is no one assigned to be an administrator responsible for the entire
network. Peer-to-peer networks are good choices for needs of small organizations where the users
are allocated in the same general area, security is not an issue and the organization and the
network will have limited growth within the foreseeable future.

The term Client/server refers to the concept of sharing the work involved in processing data
between the client computer and the most powerful server computer.
The client/server network is the most efficient way to provide:
 Databases and management of applications such as Spreadsheets, Accounting,
Communications and Document management.
 Network management.
 Centralized file storage.
The client/server model is basically an implementation of distributed or cooperative processing.

The OSI Model:

Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model has become an International standard and
serves as a guide for networking. This model is the best known and most widely used guide to
describe networking environments. It provides a description of how network hardware and
software work together in a layered fashion to make communications possible. It also helps with
trouble shooting by providing a frame of reference that describes how components are supposed
to function.
There are seven layers are:
1-Physical layer
2- Data link layer
3- Network layer
4- Transport layer
5- Session layer
6- Presentation layer
7- Application layer
1- Physical Layer, is just that the physical parts of the network such as wires, cables, and there
media along with the length. Also this layer takes note of the electrical signals that transmit data
throughout system.
2- Data Link Layer, this layer is where we actually assign meaning to the electrical signals in the
network. The layer also determines the size and format of data sent to printers, and other devices.
Also I don't want to forget that these are also called nodes in the network. Another thing to
consider in this layer is will also allow and define the error detection and correction schemes that
insure data was sent and received.
3- Network Layer, this layer provides the definition for the connection of two dissimilar
networks.
4- Transport Layer, this layer allows data to be broken into smaller packages for data to be
distributed and addressed to other nodes (workstations).
5- Session Layer, this layer helps out with the task to carry information from one node
(workstation) to another node (workstation). A session has to be made before we can transport
information to another computer.
6- Presentation Layer, this layer is responsible to code and decode data sent to the node.
7-Application Layer, this layer allows you to use an application that will communicate with say
the operation system of a server. A good example would be using your web browser to interact
with the operating system on a server such as Windows NT, which in turn gets the data you
requested.
Introduction to TCP/IP Networks:
TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol and IP stands for Internet Protocol. The term
TCP/IP is not limited just to these two protocols, however. Frequently, the term TCP/IP is used to
refer to a group of protocols related to the TCP and IP protocols such as the User Datagram
Protocol (UDP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Terminal Emulation Protocol (TELNET), and so
on.
The Origins of TCP/IP
In the late 1960s, DARPA (the Defense Advanced Research Project Agency), in the United
States, noticed that there was a rapid proliferation of computers in military communications.
Computers, because they can be easily programmed, provide flexibility in achieving network
functions that is not available with other types of communications equipment. The computers
then used in military communications were manufactured by different vendors and were designed
to interoperate with computers from that vendor only. Vendors used proprietary protocols in their
communications equipment. The military had a multivendor network but no common protocol to
support the heterogeneous equipment from different vendors Network Cables and Stuff.

TCP/IP Suite Protocols

TELNET- Telnet is a client-server protocol, based on a reliable connection-oriented transport.

Typically this protocol is used to establish a connection to Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) port number 23, where a Telnet server application (telneted) is listening. Telnet,
however, predates TCP/IP and was originally run over Network Control Program (NCP)
protocols.

FTP- Short for File Transfer Protocol, the protocol for exchanging files over the Internet. FTP
works in the same way as HTTP for transferring Web pages from a server to a user's browser
and SMTP for transferring electronic mail across the Internet in that, like these technologies, FTP
uses the Internet's TCP/IP protocols to enable data transfer. FTP is most commonly used
to download a file from a server using the Internet or to upload a file to a server (e.g., uploading a
Web page file to a server).

SMTP- Short for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, a protocol for sending e-mail messages
between servers. Most e-mail systems that send mail over the Internet use SMTP to send
messages from one server to another; the messages can then be retrieved with an e-mail
client using either POP or IMAP.

RIP- RIP (Routing Information Protocol) is a widely-used protocol for

managing router information within a self-contained network such as a corporate local area
network (LAN) or an interconnected group of such LANs.

DNS- Short for Domain Name System (or Service or Server), an Internet service that
translates domain names into IP addresses. Because domain names are alphabetic, they're easier
to remember. The Internet however, is really based on IP addresses.

SNMP- Short for Simple Network Management Protocol, a set of protocols for managing
complex networks. The first versions of SNMP were developed in the early 80s. SNMP works by
sending messages, called protocol data units (PDUs), to different parts of a network. SNMP-
compliant devices, called agents, store data about themselves in Management Information Bases
(MIBs) and return this data to the SNMP requesters.

TCP- Abbreviation of Transmission Control Protocol, and pronounced as separate letters. TCP is
one of the main protocols in TCP/IP networks. Whereas the IP protocol deals only with packets,
TCP enables two hosts to establish a connection and exchange streams of data. TCP guarantees
delivery of data and also guarantees that packets will be delivered in the same order in which they
were sent.

UDP- UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is a communications protocol that offers a limited amount
of service when messages are exchanged between computers in a network that uses the Internet
Protocol (IP). UDP is an alternative to the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and, together
with IP, is sometimes referred to as UDP/IP. Like the Transmission Control Protocol, UDP uses
the Internet Protocol to actually get a data unit (called a datagram) from one computer to another.
Unlike TCP, however, UDP does not provide the service of dividing a message into packets
(datagrams) and reassembling it at the other end. Specifically, UDP doesn't provide sequencing of
the packets that the data arrives in.

IPSec-Internet Protocol Security (IPsec) is a technology protocol suite for securing Internet
Protocol (IP) communications by authenticating and/or encrypting each IP packet of a
communication session. IPsec also includes protocols for establishing mutual
authentication between agents at the beginning of the session and negotiation of cryptographic
keys to be used during the session.

IPsec is an end-to-end security scheme operating in the Internet Layer of the Internet
Protocol Suite. It can be used in protecting data flows between a pair of hosts (host-to-
host), between a pair of security gateways (network-to-network), or between a security
gateway and a host (network-to-host).
 ICMP-The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is one of the core protocols of
the Internet Protocol Suite. It is used by the operating systems of networked computers to
send error messages indicating, for example, that a requested service is not available or
that a host or router could not be reached. ICMP can also be used to relay query
messages.
IGMP-The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is an
Internet protocol that provides a way for an Internet computer to report
its multicast group membership to adjacent routers. Multicasting allows one
computer on the Internet to send content to multiple other computers that have
identified themselves as interested in receiving the originating computer's
content.

Other LAN types include Token Ring, Fast Ethernet, Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI),
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and Local Talk. Ethernet is popular because it strikes a
good balance between speed, cost and ease of installation. These benefits, combined with wide
acceptance in the computer marketplace and the ability to support virtually all popular network
protocols, make Ethernet an ideal networking technology for most computer users today.

Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE)

The Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) defines the Ethernet standard as
IEEE Standard 802.3. This standard defines rules for configuring an Ethernet network as well as
specifying how elements in an Ethernet network interact with one another. By adhering to the
IEEE standard, network equipment and network protocols can communicate efficiently.
Fast Ethernet
For Ethernet networks that need higher transmission speeds, the Fast Ethernet standard (IEEE
802.3u) has been established. This standard raises the Ethernet speed limit from 10 Megabits per
second (Mbps) to 100 Mbps with only minimal changes to the existing cable structure. There are
three types of Fast Ethernet: 100BASE-TX for use with level 5 UTP cable, 100BASE-FX for use
with fiber-optic cable, and 100BASE-T4 which utilizes an extra two wires for use with level 3
UTP cable.
Token Ring
Token Ring is another form of network configuration which differs from Ethernet in that all
messages are transferred in a unidirectional manner along the ring at all times. Data is transmitted
in tokens, which are passed along the ring and viewed by each device. When a device sees a
message addressed to it, that device copies the message and then marks that message as being
read. As the message makes its way along the ring, it eventually gets back to the sender who now
notes that the message was received by the intended device. The sender can then remove the
message and free that token for use by others.
FDDI
FDDI (Fiber-Distributed Data Interface) is a standard for data transmission on fiber optic lines in
a local area network that can extend in range up to 200 km (124 miles). The FDDI protocol is
based on the token ring protocol. In addition to being large geographically, an FDDI local area
network can support thousands of users.
ATM
ATM is a high-speed networking standard designed to support both voice and data
communications. ATM is normally utilized by Internet service providers on their private long-
distance networks. ATM operates at the data link layer (Layer 2 in the OSI model) over either
fiber or twisted-pair cable.
ATM differs from more common data link technologies like Ethernet in several ways. For
example, ATM utilizes no routing. Hardware devices known as ATM switches establish point-to-
point connections between endpoints and data flows directly from source to destination.
Additionally, instead of using variable-length packets as Ethernet does, ATM utilizes fixed-sized
cells. ATM cells are 53 bytes in length, that includes 48 bytes of data and five (5) bytes of header
information.

Wired Communication Media-Cable

In the network you will commonly find three types of cables used these are the, coaxial cable,
fiber optic and twisted pair.
Coaxial Cable
These come in two flavors of thick coaxial cable and thin coaxial cable.
Thick Coaxial Cable-This type cable is usually yellow in color and used in what is called
thicknets, and has two conductors. This coax can be used in 500-meter lengths. The cable itself is
made up of a solid center wire with a braided metal shield and plastic sheathing protecting the
rest of the wire.
Thin Coaxial Cable-As with the thick coaxial cable is used in thicknets the thin version is used in
thinnets. This type cable is also used called or referred to as RG-58. The cable is really just a
cheaper version of the thick cable.

Fiber Optic Cable- A technology that uses glass (or plastic) threads (fibers) to transmit data. A
fiber optic cable consists of a bundle of glass threads, each of which is capable of transmitting
messages modulated onto light waves.
Fiber optics has several advantages over traditional metal communication lines:
 Fiber optic cables have a much greater bandwidth than metal cables. This means
that they can carry more data.
 Fiber optic cables are less susceptible than metal cables to interference.
 Fiber optic cables are much thinner and lighter than metal wires.
 Data can be transmitted digitally (the natural form for computer data) rather than
analogically.
This cable is smaller and can carry a vast amount of Network protocols are standards that allow
computers to communicate. A protocol defines how computers identify one another on a network,
the form that the data should take in transit, and how this information is processed once it reaches
its final destination. Protocols also define procedures for handling lost or damaged transmissions
or "packets." TCP/IP (for UNIX, Windows NT, Windows 95 and other platforms), IPX (for
Novell NetWare), DECnet (for networking Digital Equipment Corp. computers), AppleTalk (for
Macintosh computers), and NetBIOS/NetBEUI (for LAN Manager and Windows NT networks)
are the main types of network protocols in use today.
Twisted Pair Cables
These come in two flavors of unshielded and shielded.
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)-Is more common in high-speed networks. The biggest difference
you will see in the UTP and STP is that the STP use's metallic shield wrapping to protect the wire
from interference.-Something else to note about these cables is that they are defined in numbers
also. The bigger the number the better the protection from interference. Most networks should go
with no less than a CAT 3 and CAT 5 is most recommended.
-Now about connectors. This is important and most likely need the RJ-45 connector. Most
commonly connectors are available in two flavors and this is BNC (Bayonet Naur Connector)
used in thicknets and the RJ-45 used in smaller networks using UTP/STP.
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) -This is the most popular form of cables in the network and the
cheapest form that you can go with. The UTP has four pairs of wires and all inside plastic
sheathing. The biggest reason that we call it Twisted Pair is to protect the wires from interference
from themselves. Each wire is only protected with a thin plastic sheath.

Ethernet Cabling Now to familiarize you with more on the Ethernet and it's cabling we need to
look at the 10's. 10Base2 is considered the thin Ethernet, thinnet, and thinwire which uses light
coaxial cable to create a 10 Mbps network. The cable segments in this network can't be over 185
meters in length.
 10Base5, this is considered a thicknet and is used with coaxial cable arrangement such as
the BNC connector. The good side to the coaxial cable is the high-speed transfer and
cable segments can be up to 500 meters between nodes/workstations.
 10BaseT, the “T” stands for twisted as in UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) and uses this
for 10Mbps of transfer. The down side to this is you can only have cable lengths of 100
meters between nodes/workstations. The good side to this network is they are easy to set
up and cheap! This is why they are so common an ideal for small offices or homes.
 100BaseT is considered Fast Ethernet uses STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) reaching data
transfer of 100Mbps. This system is a little more expensive but still remains popular as
the 10BaseT and cheaper than most other type networks. This on of course would be the
cheap fast version.
 10BaseF, the F stands for fiber optics. This arrangement is a little more complicated and
uses special connectors and NIC's along with hubs to create its network.. An important
part of designing and installing an Ethernet is selecting the appropriate Ethernet medium.

There are four major types of media in use today:

Thickwire for 10BASE5 networks, thin coax for 10BASE2 networks, unshielded twisted pair
(UTP) for 10BASE-T networks and fiber optic for 10BASE-FL or Fiber-Optic Inter-Repeater
Link (FOIRL) networks. This wide variety of media reflects the evolution of Ethernet and also
points to the technology's flexibility. Thickwire was one of the first cabling systems used in
Ethernet but was expensive and difficult to use. This evolved to thin coax, which is easier to work
with and less expensive.
Wireless communication media
Radio waves
Radio is the wireless transmission of signals through free space by electromagnetic radiation of
a frequency significantly below that of visible light, in the radio frequency range, from about
30 kHz to 300 GHz. These waves are called radio waves. Electromagnetic radiation travels by
means of oscillating electromagnetic fields that pass through the air and the vacuum of space.
Microwave
Microwave transmission refers to the technology of transmitting information or energy by the
use of radio waves whose wavelengths are conveniently measured in small numbers of
centimeter; these are called microwaves. This part of the radio spectrum ranges across
frequencies of roughly 1.0 gigahertz (GHz) to 30 GHz. These correspond to wavelengths from
30 centimeters down to 1.0 cm. Microwave radio relay is a technology for
transmitting digital and analog signals, such as long-distance telephone calls, television programs,
and computer data, between two locations on a line of sight radio path. In microwave radio relay,
microwaves are transmitted between the two locations with directional antennas, forming a fixed
radio connection between the two points. The requirement of a line of sight limits the distance
between stations to 30 or 40 miles.
Infrared light
Infrared (IR) light is electromagnetic radiation with longer wavelengths than those of visible
light, extending from the nominal red edge of the visible spectrum at 700 nanometers (nm) to
1 mm. This range of wavelengths corresponds to a frequency range of approximately
430 THz down to 300 GHz, Infrared is used in a variety of wireless communications, monitoring,
and control applications. A few of the applications include home-entertainment remote-control
boxes, wireless local area networks, links between notebook computers and desktop computers,
cordless modems, intrusion detectors, motion detectors, and fire sensors, etc.
Satellite
A communications satellite or comsat is an artificial satellite sent to space for the purpose
of telecommunications. Modern communications satellites use a variety of orbits
including geostationary orbits, Molniya orbits, elliptical orbits and low (polar and non-polar Earth
orbits). n satellite communication, signal transferring between the sender and receiver is done
with the help of satellite. In this process, the signal which is basically a beam of modulated
microwaves is sent towards the satellite. Then the satellite amplifies the signal and sent it back to
the receiver’s antenna present on the earth’s surface. So, all the signal transferring is happening in
space. Thus this type of communication is known as space communication.

Network Topologies:
A network topology is the geometric arrangement of nodes and cable links in a LAN, There are
five topology's to think about when you get into networks. These are the star, ring, hierarchical
(tree), mesh and the bus.
Star Topology- in a star topology each node has a dedicated set of wires connecting it to a central
network hub. Since all traffic passes through the hub, the hub becomes a central point for
isolating network problems and gathering network statistics.
Ring Topology-a ring topology features a logically closed loop. Data packets travel in a single
direction around the ring from BasicNetworking.one network device to the next. Each network
device acts as a repeater, meaning it regenerates the signal.
Bus Topology-, the bus topology, each node (computer, server, peripheral etc.) attaches directly
to a common cable. This topology most often serves as the backbone for a network. In some
instances, such as in classrooms or labs, a bus will connect small workgroups .
Tree Topology- This particular type of network topology is based on a hierarchy of nodes. The
highest level of any tree network consists of a single, 'root' node, this node connected either a
single (or, more commonly, multiple) node(s) in the level below by (a) point-to-point link(s).
These lower level nodes are also connected to a single or multiple nodes in the next level down.
Tree networks are not constrained to any number of levels, but as tree networks are a variant of
the bus network topology, they are prone to crippling network failures should a connection in a
higher level of nodes fail/suffer damage. Each node in the network has a specific, fixed number of
nodes connected to it at the next lower level in the hierarchy, this number referred to as the
'branching factor' of the tree.
Mesh Topology- The value of fully meshed networks is proportional to the exponent of the
number of subscribers, assuming that communicating groups of any two endpoints, up to and
including all the endpoints.
Fully connected network-A fully connected network is a communication network in which
each of the nodes is connected to each other. A fully connected network doesn't need to
use switching nor broadcasting. However, its major disadvantage is that the number
of connections grows quadratically with the number of nodes and so it is extremely impractical
for large networks. A two-node network is technically a fully connected network.
Partially connected- The type of network topology in which some of the nodes of the network
are connected to more than one other node in the network with a point-to-point link – this makes
it possible to take advantage of some of the redundancy that is provided by a physical fully
connected mesh topology without the expense and complexity required for a connection between
every node in the network.

Network connectivity devices

Hub-A common connection point for devices in a network. Hubs are commonly used to
connect segments of a LAN. A hub contains multiple ports. When apacket arrives at one port, it is
copied to the other ports so that all segments of the LAN can see all packets.
A passive hub serves simply as a conduit for the data, enabling it to go from one device (or
segment) to another. So-called intelligent hubs include additional features that enables an
administrator to monitor the traffic passing through the hub and to configure each port in the hub.
Intelligent hubs are also called manageable hubs.
A third type of hub, called a switching hub, actually reads the destination address of each packet
and then forwards the packet to the correct port.

Switch-A network switch is a computer networking device that links network

segments or network devices. The term commonly refers to a multi-port network bridge that
processes and routes data at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Switches that
additionally process data at the network layer (layer 3) and above are often called layer-3
switches or multilayer switches. A switch is a telecommunication device that receives a message
from any device connected to it and then transmits the message only to the device for which the
message was meant. This makes the switch a more intelligent device than a hub (which receives a
message and then transmits it to all the other devices on its network). Switches exist for various
types of networks including Fiber Channel, Asynchronous Transfer mode, Ethernet and others.
Repeater-A network device used to regenerate or replicate a signal. Repeaters are used in
transmission systems to regenerate analog or digital signals distorted by transmission loss.
Analog repeaters frequently can only amplify the signal while digital repeaters can reconstruct a
signal to near its original quality.
In a data network, a repeater can relay messages between subnetworks that use
different protocols or cable types. Hubs can operate as repeaters by relaying messages to all
connected computers. A repeater cannot do the intelligent routing performed
by bridges and routers.

Bridge-A bridge is usually placed between two separate groups of computers that talk with each
other, but not that much with the computers in the other group. The job of the bridge is to
examine the destination of the data packets one at a time and decide whether or not to pass the
packets to the other side of the Ethernet segment. The result is a faster, quieter network with less
collisions. A bridge device filters data traffic at a network boundary. Bridges reduce the amount
of traffic on a LAN by dividing it into two segments. Bridges operate at the data link layer (Layer
2) of the OSI model. Bridges inspect incoming traffic and decide whether to forward or discard it.
Router-A router is a device that forwards data packets between computer networks, creating an
overlay internetwork. A router is connected to two or more data lines from different networks.
When a data packet comes in one of the lines, the router reads the address information in the
packet to determine its ultimate destination. Then, using information in its routing table or routing
policy, it directs the packet to the next network on its journey. Routers perform the "traffic
directing" functions on the Internet. A data packet is typically forwarded from one router to
another through the networks that constitute the internetwork until it reaches its destination node.
IP Address
An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each device (e.g.,
computer) participating in a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for
communication. An IP address serves two principal functions: host or network
interface identification and location addressing.
The designers of the Internet Protocol defined an IP address as a 32-bit number and this system,
known as Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4), is still in use today. However, due to the enormous
growth of the Internet and the predicted depletion of available addresses, a new version of IP
(IPv6), using 128 bits for the address, was developed in 1995.IP addresses are binary numbers,
but they are usually stored in text files and displayed in human-readable notations, such as
172.16.254.1 (for IPv4), and 2001:db8:0:1234:0:567:8:1 (for IPv6).The Internet Assigned
Numbers Authority (IANA) manages the IP address space allocations globally and delegates
five regional Internet registries (RIRs) to allocate IP address blocks to local Internet
registries (Internet service providers) and other entities.

There are five classes of available IP ranges: Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D and Class E,
while only A, B, and C are commonly used. Each class allows for a range of valid IP addresses.
Below is a listing of these addresses.

Address Range Supports

Class 1.0.0.1 to Supports 16 million hosts on each

A 126.255.255.254 of 127 networks.

Class 128.1.0.1 to Supports 65,000 hosts on each of

B 191.255.255.254 16,000 networks.
 Class 192.0.1.1 to Supports 254 hosts on each of 2
C 223.255.254.254 million networks.

Class 224.0.0.0 to Reserved for multicast groups.

D 239.255.255.255

Class 240.0.0.0 to Reserved for future use, or

E 254.255.255.254 Research and Development
Purposes.

Internet
What is Internet?

The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the
standard Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to serve several billion users worldwide. It is a network
of networks that consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and government
networks, of local to global scope, that are linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless and
optical networking technologies.

What is Intranet?
An intranet is a computer network that uses Internet Protocol technology to share information,
operational systems, or computing services within an organization. The term is used in contrast
to internet, a network between organizations, and instead refers to a network within an
organization.

What is Extranet?
An extranet is a computer network which allows controlled access from the outside, for specific
business or educational purposes. In a business-to-business context, an extranet can be viewed as
an extension of an organization's intranet that is extended to users outside the organization,
usually partners, vendors, and suppliers, in isolation from all other Internet users.

History of Internet

 Internet started as a US Govt. project in the year 1960’s called ARPANET(Advanced

Research Project Agency network) ), the originator of Internet emerged in 1957 from the
U.S. Department of Defense as a fault-tolerance Wide Area Computer Networking
paradigm, one that would survive a nuclear attack.
 In 1980’s National Science Foundation of US founded the development of a network
using network protocols named NSFNET to connect super computers in the United
States.
 In 1993 the National science Foundation created the InterNIC to provide internet
services. The backbone of internet is made up of very high speed communication network
or links owned by companies such as AT&T, AOL, VSNL (India) etc.
  Connections to the backbone are made by Internet Service Provider (ISP) who then sell
access to individuals or commercial organization.
 1968 - DARPA (Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency) contracts with BBN
(Bolt, Beranek & Newman) to create ARPAnet
 1970 - First five nodes:
– UCLA( University of California, Los Angeles)
– Stanford University
– University of California Santa Barbara
– University of Utah, and
– BBN
• 1974 - TCP specification by Vint Cerf

Owners of Internet

No one person, company, Institution or govt. organization owns the Internet. No one entity
governs it or even has a controlling interest. The internet is truly a collaborative, collective
enterprise-
 The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)sets the standards for HTML and other
specifics of the web.
 The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) focus on the evolution of the Internet with a
specific eye toward keeping the Internet running smoothly as a whole.
 The Internet Engineering Steering Group(IESG)is a related organization responsible for
managing IETF activities and the Internet Standard process.
 The Internet Architecture Board (IAB) is responsible for defining the overall architecture
of the internet(the backbone and all the networks attached to it).Providing guidance and
broad direction to the IETF.
 The Internet Society (ISOC) is supervisory organization made up of individuals,
corporations, nonprofit organizations and govt. agencies from the internet community.
The group comments on Internet policies and practices and oversees a number of other
boards and task forces-including the IAB and IESG dealing with Internet policy issues.
 The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) and the Internet Network Information
Center (InterNIC) lead the organization, responsible for assigning IP addresses and
domain names respectively.

Services provided by Internet

The Internet is the combination of many networks, computers, large number of databases and
other services. Services can be accessed by web client known as web Browser.
1. Email-Email started in 1970, it is the most common service of Internet provides mail account
to access the email.
2. Mailing List-Mailing List started in 1981, Mailing List are group based message services.
Once subscribed, you would receive mailing list messages via standard email account. There are
currently over 90,000 e-mailing list available.
3. FTP- Started in 1973, File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used to
transfer files from one host to another host over a TCP-based network.
4. TELNET- Started in 1969,Telnet is a network protocol used on the Internet or local area
networks to provide a bidirectional interactive text-oriented communication facility using a
virtual terminal connection.
5. Archie-Archie is a tool for indexing FTP archives, allowing people to find specific files. It is
considered to be the first Internet search engine. The original implementation was written in 1990
by Alan Emtage and J. Peter Deutsch.
6. WAIS-Wide Area Information Servers or WAIS is a client–server text searching system that
uses the ANSI Standard. WAIS clients were developed for various operating systems and
windowing systems including Microsoft Windows, Macintosh, NeXT, X Window, released a
free open source version of WAIS to run on Unix in 1991.
7. GOPHER-The Gopher protocol is designed for distributing, searching, and retrieving
documents over the Internet. Its central goals were,
A file-like hierarchical arrangement that would be familiar to users.

 A simple syntax.
 A system that can be created quickly and inexpensively.
 Extending the file system metaphor, such as searches.
Gopher combines document hierarchies with collections of services, including WAIS,
the Archie and Veronica search engines, and gateways to other information systems such as
FTP and Usenet.
8. Veronica-Very Easy Rodent oriented Netwide Index to Computer Archives, is a program that
allowed you to search the files of the Internet's Gopher servers for a particular search string.
Like Archie, Veronica's equivalent program for FTP servers, Veronica is an indexing spider that
visits the Gopher sites, reads the entire directory and files names, and then indexes them in one
large index.
9. Internet Relay Chat-Internet Relay Chat (IRC) is a protocol for live interactive Internet text
messaging (chat). It is mainly designed for group communication in discussion forums,
called channels, but also allows one-to-one communication via private message as well as chat
and data transfer, including file sharing. IRC was created by Jarkko Oikarinen in August 1988.
10. News Group (USENET)- Usenet is one of the oldest computer network communications
systems still in widespread use. It was conceived in 1979 and publicly established in 1980.
Usenet is a worldwide distributed Internet discussion system, public messaging and bulletin
board system.
11. WWW-The World Wide Web (abbreviated as WWW or W3, commonly known as the web),
is a system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed via the Internet. With a web browser, one
can view web pages that may contain text, images, videos, and other multimedia,
and navigate between them via hyperlinks.
1989-1990 – Tim Berners-Lee invents the World Wide Web, employee of the CERN (European
Council for Nuclear Research)near Geneva, Sir Tim Berners-Lee, now Director of the World
Wide Web Consortium (W3C), wrote a proposal in March 1989 for what would eventually
become the World Wide Web is a

– Means for transferring text and graphics simultaneously

– Client/Server data transfer protocol
 • Communication via application level protocol
• System ran on top of standard networking infrastructure

In 1994 – Mark Andresen invents MOSAIC at National Center for Super Computing
Applications (NCSA)

– First graphical browser

– Internet’s first “killer app”
– Freely distributed
– Became Netscape

WWW Components

– Structural Components
– Clients/browsers – to dominant implementations
– Servers – run on sophisticated hardware
– Caches – many interesting implementations
– Internet – the global infrastructure which facilitates data transfer
– Semantic Components
– Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)- The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is
an application protocol for distributed, collaborative, hypermedia information systems.
HTTP is the foundation of data communication for the World Wide Web. Hypertext is a
multi-linear set of objects, building a network by using logical links called hyperlinks
between the nodes (e.g. text or words). HTTP is the protocol to exchange or transfer
hypertext. The standards development of HTTP was coordinated by the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF) and the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C).
– Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML)- Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) is
the main markup language for creating web pages and other information that can be
displayed in a web browser. HTML elements form the building blocks of all websites. It
provides a means to create structured documents by denoting structural semantics for text
such as headings, paragraphs, lists, links, quotes and other items. It can
embed scripts written in languages such as JavaScript which affect the behavior of
HTML web pages. SGML (Standard Generalized Markup Language) is a standard
for how to specify a document markup language or tag set. SGML is not in itself a
document language, but a description of how to specify one. It is metadata.
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), is an example of an SGML-based language.
 eXtensible Markup Language (XML)- Extensible Markup
Language (XML) is a markup language that defines a set of rules for
encoding documents in a format that is both human-
readable and machine-readable. The design goals of XML emphasize
simplicity, generality, and usability over the Internet. It is a textual data
format with strong support via Unicode for the languages of the world.
Although the design of XML focuses on documents, it is widely used for
 the representation of arbitrary data structures, for example in web
services.

 Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs)- URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator. A
URL is a formatted text string used by Web browsers, email clients and other software to
identify a network resource on the Internet. Network resources are files that can be plain
Web pages, other text documents, graphics, or programs.
URL strings consist of three parts (substrings):
1. Network protocol
2. Host name or address
3. File or resource location

These substrings are separated by special characters as follows:

Protocol :// host / location

URL Protocol -The 'protocol' substring defines a network protocol to be used to access a
resource. These strings are short names followed by the three characters '://' (a simple naming
convention to denote a protocol definition). Typical URL protocols include http://, ftp://,
and mailto://.

Web Servers and Web Browser

The term web server can refer to either the hardware (the computer) or the software (the computer
application) that helps to deliver web content that can be accessed through the Internet. The most
common use of web servers is to host websites, but there are other uses such as gaming, data
storage or running enterprise applications .The world's first web server, later known as CERN
httpd, which ran on NeXTSTEP.

Common features of web server

 Virtual hosting to serve many web sites using one IP address

 Large file support to be able to serve files whose size is greater than 2 GB on 32 bit OS
 Server-side scripting to generate dynamic web pages, still keeping web server and website
implementations separate from each other

Examples of web server

 IBM HTTP Sever
 Apache Tomcat server
 IIS(Internet Information server from Microsoft)

Web Browser

Web Browser is a program used to view pages and navigate the WWW. Web Browser
sometimes referred to internet ‘Navigation Tools’. A web browser (commonly referred to as
a browser) is a software application for retrieving, presenting and traversing information
resources on the World Wide Web. An information resource is identified by a Uniform
Resource Identifier (URI) and may be a web page, image, video or other piece of
content. Hyperlinks present in resources enable users easily to navigate their browsers to
related resources. A web browser can also be defined as an application software or program
designed to enable users to access, retrieve and view documents and other resources on the
Internet.

Example of web Browser

 NCSA Mosaic was the first browser, developed at the National Center for
Supercomputing Applications (NCSA).
 Internet Explorer

 Mozilla Firefox (which was developed from Mozilla (the open source version of
Netscape)).

 Opera(a fast and stable browser that's compatible with most relatively operating systems)

 Safari (a browser for Apple computers (at this writing, the third most popular browser).
 Google Chrome

 Konqueror

 Arora

 Dillo

 Lynx(a text-only browser for UNIX shell and VMS users).

 Lobo

 Kazekhase

 Amaya

 NetPositive

 QNX Voyager

 Planetweb

 Netscape

 Lunascape

 Flock (an open source browser based on Firefox and optimized for Web 2.0 features such
as blogging and social bookmarking .

Features of Web Browser

 Web Cookies-A cookie, also known as an HTTP cookie, web cookie, or browser cookie, is
a small piece of data sent from a website and stored in a user's web browser while a user is
browsing a website. When the user browses the same website in the future, the data stored in
the cookie can be retrieved by the website to notify the website of the user's previous activity.

Bookmark-In the context of the World Wide Web, a bookmark is a Uniform Resource
Identifier (URI) that is stored for later retrieval in any of various storage formats. All
modern web browsers include bookmark features. Bookmarks are called favorites or
Internet shortcuts in Internet Explorer.

History-As you browse the Internet, each of the items you view are saved locally on your
hard drive. This helps web pages you visit frequently load faster by loading the files from
your hard drive instead of having to downloading the web page again.

Domain name system

The Domain Name System (DNS) is a hierarchical distributed naming system for computers,
services, or any resource connected to the Internet or a private network. It associates various
information with domain names assigned to each of the participating entities. Most
prominently, it translates easily memorized domain names to the numerical IP
addresses needed for the purpose of locating computer services and devices worldwide. By
providing a worldwide, distributed keyword-based redirection service, the Domain Name
System is an essential component of the functionality of the Internet.
DNS architecture is a hierarchical distributed database and an associated set of protocols that
define:

 A mechanism for querying and updating the database.

 A mechanism for replicating the information in the database among servers.

 A schema of the database.

DNS Domain Names

The Domain Name System is implemented as a hierarchical and distributed database containing
various types of data, including host names and domain names. The names in a DNS database
form a hierarchical tree structure called the domain namespace. Domain names consist of
individual labels separated by dots, for example: mydomain.microsoft.com.
A Fully Qualified Domain Name (FQDN) uniquely identifies the host’s position within the DNS
hierarchical tree by specifying a list of names separated by dots in the path from the referenced
host to the root.

Domain name space

The domain name space consists of a tree of domain names. Each node or leaf in the tree has
zero or more resource records, which hold information associated with the domain name. The
tree sub-divides into zones beginning at the root zone. A DNS zone may consist of only one
domain, or may consist of many domains and sub-domains, depending on the administrative
authority delegated to the manager.

Search Engine
A web search engine is a software system that is designed to search for information on
the World Wide Web. The search results are generally presented in a line of results often referred
to as search engine results pages (SERPs). The information may be a specialist in web pages,
images, information and other types of files. Some search engines also mine data available
in databases or open directories.
Example of search engine
 Google.com
 Ask.com
 Yahoo.com
 Bing.com
  TripleMe.com
 Shopzilla.com
 Altavista.com
 Webcrawler.com
 Hotbot
 Lycos etc.
Search agent-The web search agent can be referred as Web hunter. These programs
used by the search engines to access your web pages are called ‘spiders’, ‘crawlers’, ‘robots’ or
‘bots’. There are few parameters that should be defined for the web hunter. It should know the
target (i.e. the keyword or the phrase), where to start?, how many iterations of the target to find
(the more URLs the better),how long to look (time constraint) and by what method should it
choose paths (search methods).These issues need to be addressed by the software.
Meta search Engine-A meta search engine is a search tool that sends user requests to
several other search engines and/or databases and aggregates the results into a single
list or displays them according to their source. Metasearch engines enable users to enter
search criteria once and access several search engines simultaneously.

Example of Metasearch engine

 Mamma
 Dogpile
 Metacrawler
 CUSI
 Electric library
 Eureka!
 Savvy search
 Cyberlands web etc.
 Email
Short for electronic mail, e-mail or email is text messages that may contain files, images, or
other attachments sent through a network to a specified individual or group of individuals.
The first e-mail was sent by Ray Tomlinson in 1971.

How to send and receive e-mail

To send and receive e-mail messages you can use an e-mail program, also known as an e-mail
client such as Microsoft Outlook or Mozilla Thunderbird. When using an e-mail client you must
have a server that stores and delivers your e-mail this service is provided by your ISP but can also
be a service provided by another company. The e-mail client will connect to the server to
download all new e-mail and deliver any unsent e-mail. An alternative way of sending and
receiving e-mail and a more popular solution for most people is an online e-mail service
or webmail such as Hotmail, Gmail, and Yahoo Mail. Many of the online e-mail services
including the above examples are free or have a free account option.

The basic function involved in an email system are the message creation ,message transfer and
post-delivery processing. These are provided by the User Agent(UA) and a Message Transfer
Agent(MTA).

The UA is responsible for providing the text editing and proper presentation services to the end
user. It provides for other activities such as user friendly interaction ,security, priority provision,
delivery notification and distribution subsets.

The MTA is oriented towards the actual routing of the electronic move. It is responsible primarily
for the store and forward path, channel security and the actual routing through communication
media. Several MTAs taken together form the Message Transfer system Network.

E-mail Structure

An e-mail message usually in ASCII text format. Email can attach pictures, executable programs,
sound, video, and other binary files to your e-mail message. There are five sections of an e-mail
message
 E-mail address

An e-mail address is composed of two separate parts.

1. The domain name of the mail server computer on which you have an account.
2. Your personal identity or account name (user name) on that mail server.
The user name and domain name are separated by @ (at the rate) symbol.
Syntax for E-mail address: e.g. ajay@gmail.com

 Header

The header of e-mail message is the uppermost section.it displays information regarding
the status of the messages. Header fields in an e-mail are

– To: field is where you type the e-mail address of who you are sending the e-mail address.
– Subject: Line shows the subject of the message. This is a short description i.e. typed by
the person who composed the message. If the subject starts with the letter Re: it indicates
that the message is a response to previous message.
– CC: or Carbon Copy field allows you to send a copy of the message to another e-mail
address, but is not a required field.
– BCC: or Blind carbon copy- in this option the recipient of the first e-mail copy does not
come to know the name of the other recipients, who receive the carbon copies of the
same message.
– From or Reply: To is a field that is automatically filled out and is where the e-mail will
return if a reply is made.

 Body
 The message body will be the location you type your message, it contains the actual
message.

 Signature(optional)

The signature for an e-mail message is the personal information which automatically
appears at the bottom of the outgoing message.

 Attachments(optional)

It allows users to attach a file to any e-mail message .Any file format such as word-
processing documents, spreadsheets, images or video files etc.

Email Protocols

X.400-X.400 is a suite of ITU-T Recommendations that define standards for Data

Communication Networks for Message Handling Systems (MHS) — more commonly known as
"email" .At one time X.400 was expected to be the predominant form of email, but this role has
been taken by the SMTP-based Internet e-mail.

SMTP-Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is an Internet standard for electronic mail (e-
mail) transmission across Internet Protocol (IP) networks. SMTP is a connection-oriented, text-
based protocol in which a mail sender communicates with a mail receiver by issuing command
strings and supplying necessary data over a reliable ordered data stream channel, typically
a Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) connection.

POP-the Post Office Protocol (POP) is an application-layer Internet standard protocol used by
local e-mail clients to retrieve e-mail from a remote server over a TCP/IP connection. POP
supports simple download-and-delete requirements for access to remote mailboxes (termed mail
drop in the POP. Although most POP clients have an option to leave mail on server after
download, e-mail clients using POP generally connect, retrieve all messages, store them on the
user's PC as new messages, delete them from the server, and then disconnect.

IMAP-The Internet Message Access Protocol (commonly known as IMAP) is an Application

Layer Internet protocol that allows an e-mail client to access e-mail on a remote mail
server. Incoming e-mail messages are sent to an e-mail server that stores messages in the
recipient's e-mail box. The user retrieves the messages with an e-mail client that uses one of a
number of e-mail retrieval protocols.

UUCP-UUCP is an abbreviation of Unix-to-Unix Copy. The term generally refers to a suite

of computer programs and protocols allowing remote execution of commands and transfer of
files, email and net news between computers. Specifically, a command named uucp is one of the
programs in the suite; it provides a user interface for requesting file copy operations.

Internet Security
Many security systems based on encryption and firewalls are available and absolutely
impenetrable network system remains a faraway.
Authentication
Authentication is the act of confirming the truth of an attribute of a datum or entity. This might
involve confirming the identity of a person or software program, tracing the origins of an artifact,
or ensuring that a product is what its packaging and labeling claims to be. Authentication often
involves verifying the validity of at least one form of identification.
Cryptography
Cryptography is a term with Greek origin means “secret writing”. Cryptography refers to the
science and art of transforming messages to make them secure and immune to attacks. The
original message before being transformed is called plain text. After the message is transformed,
it is called cipher text. An encryption algorithm transform the plain text in to cipher text ;
decryption algorithm transform the cipher text back into plain text. The sender uses encryption
algorithm and the receiver uses decryption algorithm.
Cryptography algorithm (ciphers) divided into two categories:
1. Symmetric Key (also called secret key) cryptography algorithm-In symmetric key
cryptography, the same key is used by the sender (for encryption) and the receiver (for
decryption).The key is shared.
Algorithm: Stream algorithm, Block algorithm
2. Asymmetric Key (also called public key) cryptography algorithm-In asymmetric or
public key cryptography there are two keys: private key and a public key. The private key
is kept by receiver. The public key is announced to the public.
Algorithm: RSA (Named after Rivest, Shamir and Adleman) algorithm, Diffie-hellman algorithm
Digital signature
A digital signature is basically a way to ensure that an electronic document (e-mail, spreadsheet,
text file etc.) is authentic. Authentic means that you know who created the document and you
know that it has not been altered in any way since that person created it. Digital signature relies
on certain types of encryption to ensure authentication. Encryption is the process of taking all the
data that one computer is sending to another and encoding it into a form that only the other
computer will be able to decode. Authentication is the process of verifying that information is
coming from a trusted source.
Digital certificate
The most common use of digital certificate is to verify that a user sending a message is who he or
she claims to be, and to provide the receiver with the means to encode a reply. An individual
wishing to send an encrypted message applies for a digital certificate from a Certificate Authority
(CA). The CA issues an encrypted digital certificate containing the applicant’s Public Key and a
variety of other identification information. The recipient of an encrypted message uses the CA’s
public key to decode the digital certificate attached to the message ,verifies it as issued by the CA
and then obtains the sender’s public key and identification information held within the certificate.
With this information, the recipient can send an encrypted reply.
The most widely used standard for digital certificates is X.509.

Firewall
There are many mechanism available for firewall implementation .Each one has its own
advantage and drawback. Selection of the right type of firewall depends on an organization policy
and requirement.
Firewall act as a gatekeeper between a company’s internal network and the outside world. It act
as an electronic barrier to stop unauthorized entry. A firewall basically perform two important
functions-
1. Gatekeeping-Firewall act as a gatekeeper between the companies internal network and the
outside network. It examines the location from which the data enters your system and the decides,
based on your instruction whether or not to allow that information.
2. Monitoring-monitoring is one of the most important aspects of firewall design. Monitoring
can be active or passive.
In active monitoring a firewall notifies the manager whenever are incident occur via email or a
paper about suspicious online activity.
In passive monitoring a firewall locks a record of each incident in a file or disk. Then a manager
can analyze the log file periodically to determine whether attempts to access the organization’s
information have increased or decreased overtime.
Types of firewall
 Packet Filtering-In this type the source and destination address and ports of incoming
TCP & UDP packets are examined and packets are denied or allow to enter based on a set
of predefined rules.
 Application Gateway also called Proxy Server-In application gateway firewall product
used application proxy. These are written for specific internet services that run on a
server with two network connection, acting as a server to the application client and as a
client to the application server.
IP Sec- is a collection of protocols designed by the IETF to provide security for a packet at the
network level. IP Sec helps to create authenticated and confidential packets for the IP layer.
Cryptographic algorithms defined for use with IP Sec include:
 HMAC-SHA1 for integrity protection and authenticity.
 Triple DES-CBC for confidentiality.
 AES-CBC for confidentiality.
Computer Crime
Computer crime refers to any crime that involves a computer and network. The Netcrime refers
to criminal exploitation of the internet. Cybercrimes are defined as “offences that are committed
against individuals or groups of individuals with a criminal motive to intentionally harm the
reputation of the victim or cause physical or mental harm to the victim directly or indirectly
,using modern telecommunication networks. Crime such as cracking, copyright infringement,
child pornography and child grooming, privacy when confidential information is lost or
intercepted, lawfully or otherwise may threaten a nation’s security and financial health.
Crimes that primarily target computer networks or devices include:
  Computer viruses-A computer virus is a computer program that can replicate itself and
spread from one computer to another. A computer virus is an executable program.
Depend on the nature of a virus, it may cause damage of your hard disk contents, and/or
interfere normal operation of your computer. By definition, a virus program is able to
replicate itself. This means that the virus multiplies on a computer by making copies of
itself. This replication is intentional; it is part of the virus program. In most cases, if a file
that contains virus is executed or copied onto another computer, then that computer will
also be "infected" by the same virus.

When a virus is introduced to a computer system, it can attach itself to, or sometimes even
replace, an existing program. Thus, when the user runs the program in question, the virus is also
executed. This usually happens without the user being aware of it. A virus program contains
instructions to initiate some sort of "event" that affects the infected computer. Each virus has an
unique event associated with it. For examples:

 An annoying message appearing on the computer screen.

 Reduced memory or disk space.
 Modification of data.
 Files overwritten or damaged.
 Hard drive erased.

There are many types of computer viruses:

– File virus: Most viruses fall into this category. A virus attaches itself to a file, usually a
program file.

– Boot sector virus: These viruses infect floppy and hard drives. The virus program will
load first, before the operating system.
– Macro Virus: This is a new type of virus that use an application's own macro
programming feature to distribute themselves. Unlike other viruses, macro viruses do not
infect programs; they infect documents.
– Virus Hoax: Although there are thousands of viruses discovered each year, there are still
some that only exist in the imaginations of the public and the press - known as virus
hoaxes. These viruses hoaxes DO NOT EXIST, despite rumor of their creation and
distribution.

 Denial of service attack-(DoS attack) or distributed denial-of-service attack (DDoS

attack) is an attempt to make a computer or network resource unavailable to its intended
users. It generally consists of the efforts of one more people to temporarily or indefinitely
interrupt or suspend services of a host connect to the Internet.
 Malware(malicious code)- Malware, short for malicious software, is software used or
programmed by attackers to disrupt computer operation, gather sensitive information, or
gain access to private computer systems. It can appear in the form of code, scripts,
active content, and other software. 'Malware' is a general term used to refer to a variety
of forms of hostile or intrusive software. Malware includes computer viruses, worms,
Trojan horses, rootkits, key loggers, dialers, spyware, adware

Software such as anti-virus, anti-malware, and firewalls are relied upon by users at home,
small and large organizations around the globe to safeguard against malware attacks
which helps in identifying and preventing the further spread of malware in the network.
Crimes that use computer networks or devices to advance other ends include:
 Cyberstalking-cyberstalking is the use of the Internet or other electronics means to stalk or
harass an individual, a group of individuals or an organization. It may include false
accusations, monitoring making threats identity theft, damage to data or equipment, the
solicitation of minors for sex or gathering information in order to harass.
 Fraud and identity theft-computer fraud is any dishonest misrepresentation of fact
intended to let another to do or refrain from doing something which causes loss
 Cyber terrorism-cyber terrorism is an act of terrorism committed through the use of
cyberspace or computer resources.
 Phishing scams-is a way of attempting to acquire information such as username,
passwords and credit card details by masquerading as a trustworthy entity in an
electronic communication.
Legal aspects
Patent Law-The law of patents is a legal framework that establishes a patent system which supports and
encourages technological innovation and promotes economic development. A patent is not a right to
practise or use the invention. Rather, a patent provides the right to exclude others from making,
using, selling, offering for sale, or importing the patented invention for the term of the patent,
which is usually 20 years from the filing date subject to the payment of maintenance fees. A
patent is a limited property right the government gives inventors in exchange for their agreement
to share details of their inventions with the public. Like any other property right, it may be sold,
licensed, mortgaged, assigned or transferred, given away, or simply abandoned.

Copyright- designated by © (the circled capital letter "C"), Copyright is a legal concept, enacted
by most governments, giving the creator of an original work exclusive rights to it, usually for a
limited time. Generally, it is "the right to copy", but also gives the copyright holder the right to be
credited for the work, to determine who may adapt the work to other forms, who may perform the
work, who may financially benefit from it, and other related rights.

Registered trademark-The registered trademark symbol, designated by ® (the circled capital

letter "R"), is a symbol used to provide notice that the preceding mark is a trademark or service
mark that has been registered with a national trademark office. In some countries it is against the
law to use the registered trademark symbol for a mark that is not officially registered in any
country.

Trademark-A trademark, is a recognizable sign, design or expression which

identifies products or services of a particular source from those of others. The trademark owner
can be an individual, business organization, or any legal entity. A trademark may be located on
a package, a label, a voucher or on the product itself. Trademarks not officially registered are
instead marked with the trademark symbol ™, while unregistered service marks are marked with

the service mark symbol ℠.