Stress-strain relations[edit]

Basic static response of a specimen under tension

 Elasticity is the ability of a material to return to its previous shape after stress is released. In many
materials, the relation between applied stress is directly proportional to the resulting strain (up to a
certain limit), and a graph representing those two quantities is a straight line.
The slope of this line is known as Young's Modulus, or the "Modulus of Elasticity." The Modulus of
Elasticity can be used to determine the stress-strain relationship in the linear-elastic portion of the stress-
strain curve. The linear-elastic region is either below the yield point, or if a yield point is not easily
identified on the stress-strain plot it is defined to be between 0 and 0.2% strain, and is defined as the
region of strain in which no yielding (permanent deformation) occurs.[11]

 Plasticity or plastic deformation is the opposite of elastic deformation and is defined as unrecoverable
strain. Plastic deformation is retained after the release of the applied stress. Most materials in the
linear-elastic category are usually capable of plastic deformation. Brittle materials, like ceramics, do
not experience any plastic deformation and will fracture under relatively low stress. Materials such as
metals usually experience a small amount of plastic deformation before failure while ductile metals
such as copper and lead or polymers will plasticly deform much more.
Consider the difference between a carrot and chewed bubble gum. The carrot will stretch very little before
breaking. The chewed bubble gum, on the other hand, will plastically deform enormously before finally
breaking.

Stress terms[edit]
A material being loaded in a) compression, b) tension, c) shear.

Uniaxial stress is expressed by

where F is the force [N] acting on an area A [m2].[3] The area can be the undeformed area or the
deformed area, depending on whether engineering stress or true stress is of interest.

 Compressive stress (or compression) is the stress state caused by an applied load that acts to
reduce the length of the material (compression member) along the axis of the applied load, it is in
other words a stress state that causes a squeezing of the material. A simple case of
compression is the uniaxial compression induced by the action of opposite, pushing forces.
Compressive strength for materials is generally higher than their tensile strength. However,
structures loaded in compression are subject to additional failure modes, such as buckling, that
are dependent on the member's geometry.

 Tensile stress is the stress state caused by an applied load that tends to elongate the material
along the axis of the applied load, in other words the stress caused by pulling the material. The
strength of structures of equal cross sectional area loaded in tension is independent of shape of
the cross section. Materials loaded in tension are susceptible to stress concentrations such as
material defects or abrupt changes in geometry. However, materials exhibiting ductile behavior
(most metals for example) can tolerate some defects while brittle materials (such as ceramics)
can fail well below their ultimate material strength.

 Shear stress is the stress state caused by the combined energy of a pair of opposing forces
acting along parallel lines of action through the material, in other words the stress caused by
faces of the material sliding relative to one another. An example is cutting paper
with scissors[4] or stresses due to torsional loading.

Strain (deformation) terms[edit]

 Deformation of the material is the change in geometry created when stress is applied (as a result of
applied forces, gravitational fields, accelerations, thermal expansion, etc.). Deformation is expressed
by the displacement field of the material.[8]
 Strain or reduced deformation is a mathematical term that expresses the trend of the deformation
change among the material field. Strain is the deformation per unit length. [9] In the case of uniaxial
loading the displacements of a specimen (for example a bar element)lead to a calculation of strain
expressed as the quotient of the displacement and the original length of the specimen. For 3D
displacement fields it is expressed as derivatives of displacement functions in terms of a second
order tensor (with 6 independent elements).
 Deflection is a term to describe the magnitude to which a structural element is displaced when
subject to an applied load.[10]
Draft, Trim and Stability

The Load Line Marks

LR – the symbols of the classification society (Lloyds Register) by the side of the
Plimsoll mark
TF – Tropical Fresh (water) F – Fresh Water T – Tropical (Sea Water)
S – Summer (Sea Water) W – Winter (Sea Water)
WNA – Winter North Atlantic (Sea Water)
Criteria of Stability:
Extract from the Load Line Rule (1968)
The area under the curve of Righting Levers shall not be less than:
0.055 metre-radians up to an angle of heel of 30˚
0.09 metre-radians up to an angle of heel of 40˚
0.03 metre-radians between the angles of heel of 30˚ and 40˚
The Righting Lever shall be at least 0.20 metre at an angle of heel equal to or greater than 30˚
The maximum Righting Lever shall occur at an angle of heel not less than 30˚
The Initial Transverse Metacentric Height (GM) shall not be less than 0.15 metre

Ship Stability – working with ‘kg’, TM, Draft, Displacement and Trim including LCB and
LCF
Method of working:
The following example shows how a ships stability booklet has pre-determined conditions of
loading and the consequent stability criteria.
The said condition is 12; each ‘Departure’ condition has an ‘Arrival’ condition.
In the Departure condition the vessel is assumed to be sailing out with a load of cargo and with
full bunkers and stores. The ballast is negligible.
In the Arrival condition the vessel is assumed to have arrived her disport/ way port (may be
bunkering for long voyage), here the cargo remains the same only change is in the bunkers and
FW.
The Arrival condition is to be worked out prior departure since the arrival condition determines
the loading of the cargo. Since no vessel would like to arrive a port in a critical condition – not
satisfying the stability criteria.
The weight is multiplied with the ‘kg’ of each compartment to obtain the vertical moments.
These are added up (all – cargo, ballast, Bunkers and light ship) and the total of the V-M is
divided by the displacement to get the final KG
In the same way the weight is multiplied with the ‘lcg’ of each compartment to obtain the
longitudinal moments. These are added up (all – cargo, ballast, Bunkers and light ship) and the
total of the L-M is divided by the displacement to get the final LCG.
Noting the Displacement the tables are referred to obtain the LCB, Mean Draft and the Trimming
Moment. With these inputs the final drafts and the GM is calculated.
For obtaining the Fluid GM, the FSM of the compartments are read off from the tank data sheets.
The total of the FSM when divided by the displacement gives the FSC that is to be subtracted
from the GM to obtain the GM (F).
The following shows the departure condition of a ship, the general particulars are given.
And the following gives the arrival condition for the same ship – the cargo is the same, only
change being the fuel and the ballast.
The following are extract from the hydrostatic table of ship ‘A’.

Given that the morning draft in sea water of ship ‘A’ is Forward: 8.92m and Aft: 9.12m
Ship ‘A’ loads cargo throughout the morning shift and her sailing drafts are:
Fwd: 8.99m, Aft: 9.19m
To find the amount of cargo loaded. Note, during the morning the ship received H.O. bunkers –
100MT and consumed 10MT of FW.
Morning Mean Draft: (8.92 + 9.12)/ 2 = 9.02m
Sailing Mean Draft: (8.99 + 9.19)/ 2 = 9.09m
Displacement at 9.02m: 20419
Displacement at 9.09m: 20604
Thus the difference in displacement would be: (20604 – 20419) = 185 MT
Bunkers received: 100MT
FW consumed: 10MT
Thus the cargo loaded would be: 185 – 100 = 85 MT (correcting for the bunker) and
85 + 10 = 95MT (correcting for the FW consumed)
For change of trim the earlier example is to be referred.