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Temperature, pressure, level, and flow instruments all sense a process parameter and produce a
signal for indication or controller input.

If we want to control a process parameter, the controller output must convert to a signal that can
translate to and subsequently drive a control valve. The control valve is a final control element.
A final control element is any device or element that changes the value of a manipulated
variable. Valves and heaters are common examples. Let's look at control valves and the devices
that process the signal supplied to the control valve.

 

 
In this illustration you can see the controller output sends an electronic signal to the current-to-
pressure transducer (I/P), which sends a pneumatic signal to the control valve.

The control valve position changes in response to the signal to adjust flow to the setpoint. As the
flow changes, it is sensed by the flow transmitter. When the flow sensed is equal to setpoint, the
valve position remains the same. Any time there is a disturbance to the system or a change in
setpoint, the flow control loop automatically responds to achieve the programmed setpoint. A
block diagram of this concept is here.

The final control element can be proportional control or ON-OFF control. For ON-OFF control,
a controller output relay changes the state of the relay contact, which completes the circuit for a
solenoid valve to energize. The solenoid valve opens to allow air to open (or close) a control
valve.

The first component in the final control subsystem is the signal conditioner. The signal
conditioner amplifies and, if necessary, converts the signal for compatibility with the actuator.

Typical devices used as signal conditioners include current-to-pneumatic transducers, current-to-

voltage (I/E) transducers, amplifiers (electronic or pneumatic), relays, digital-to-analog
converters, or analog-to-digital converters. The most common signal conditioner in a
proportional control loop is an I/P transducer.

A typical I/P transducer is a force balance device in which a coil suspends and hangs in the field
of a magnet. Current flowing through the coil generates axial movement of the coil, which
causes movement of the beam. The beam controls the backpressure against the nozzle by
controlling the restriction of airflow through the nozzle. This backpressure acts as a pilot
pressure to control the outlet pressure.
The zero adjustment causes the beam to move relative to the nozzle. The span adjustment is a
potentiometer that limits the current through the coil. The I/P transducer must be supplied with
instrument air within the range specified by the manufacturer, usually at least 20 psig.

The typical I/P transducer is calibrated for a 4-20 mA input = 3-15 psig output. Most I/P
transducers can be configured for direct action (output pressure increases as input signal
increases) or reverse action (output pressure decreases as input signal increases).

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The next component in the final control subsystem, if applicable, is the actuator. The actuator
receives the conditioned signal and changes it to some form of mechanical energy or motion.

Typical devices used as actuators include solenoids, pneumatic valve positioners, AC and DC
motors, stepper motors, hydraulic motors, and hydraulic pistons. Many control valves include a
pneumatic valve positioner.

A valve positioner is a device used to increase or decrease the air pressure (from the I/P)
operating the control valve actuator. Positioners usually mount to the control valve actuator and
connect mechanically to the valve stem for position indication.
A positioner is a type of air relay, which acts to overcome hysteresis, packing box friction, and
effects of pressure drop across the valve. It assures exact positioning of the valve stem and
provides finer control. There are many types of positioners. The basic principles of operation are
similar for all types.

The instrument pressure (from an I/P, for example) acts on the input module, which controls the
flapper-nozzle system of the relay. Supply pressure applies to the relay and the output pressure of
the relay goes to the control valve actuator.

Most positioners can set up and function for direct or reverse action. For a direct-acting
positioner, increasing the instrument pressure causes the input module to pivot the beam. The
beam pivots the flapper and restricts the nozzle. The nozzle pressure increases and causes the
relay assembly to increase output pressure to the actuator.

With a direct-acting actuator, the increased pressure moves the actuator stem downward. The
positioner connects mechanically to the stem of the valve. Stem movement feeds back to the
beam by means of a feedback lever and range spring, which causes the flapper to pivot slightly
away from the nozzle to prevent further increase in relay output pressure.

Note that some positioners accept a milliamp input and include an integral I/P transducer.

The last component in the final control subsystem is the final control element. Let's look at
control valves (Other final control elements include servo valves, heaters, conveyors, auger
feeds, and hopper gates.).

There are many different types, sizes, and applications for control valves. Selecting the correct
control valve for a specific application is crucial to proper system performance. Under sizing and
over sizing are common problems.

There are many valuable resources available to assist with proper selection, not the least of
which is a control valve sales engineer. Here's a typical control valve.
The pneumatic signal from the positioner (or I/P if a positioner is not used) applies directly to the
actuator. For this control valve, the air enters above the diaphragm and pushes against spring
pressure to close the valve. The valve fully closes when the plug seats tightly against the seat
ring.

As air pressure decreases, the spring pressure causes the diaphragm, stem, and plug to move
upward, opening the valve. This means a loss of pressure would cause the valve to open. This is
a fail-open valve.

Different configurations of air inlet, spring location, and valve seat arrangement result in
different fail positions and determine whether the valve is direct- or reverse-acting. For example,
this same valve, with the plug below the seat ring (reverse-seated), would open with increased air
pressure and would fail closed on loss of air pressure.

So, all components in the final control subsystem must be configured correctly for the system to
work properly. The fail-safe positions must be correct for the application, and the action must
produce the desired results. These configurations must be properly documented and utilized
during calibration, loop checks, or troubleshooting.

 



The figure below shows the setup for a bench calibration of an I/P transducer. The air supply
connected to the input must be in accordance with manufacturer's specification (typically
between 20-100 psig).
The pressure standard connects to the air outlet, and a mA simulator connects to the current
input. It is important for the I/P transducer to be oriented the same way as the installed position
in the field. A change in orientation will introduce error in most I/P transducers.

If the calibration takes place in the field, one uses the existing supply air. It is convenient to tee
into the air outlet so one can check the control valve position at the same time. Of course, you
need to ensure the system is in a safe condition before you open and close the valve.

Once the setup is established, apply the mA inputs for each desired test point, such as 4.0, 8.0,
12.0, 16.0, and 20.0 mA. Record the corresponding outlet pressure at each test point. For a 4-20
mA input = 3-15 psig output I/P, the corresponding outputs would be 3.0, 6.0, 9.0, 12.0, and 15.0
psig.

Some facilities adjust the 0% test point so a slightly higher mA input results in the 0% output.
For example, 4.10 mA may result in a 3.0 psig output. This ensures the valve is in the closed
state with a controller output of 4.0 mA.

Upon ascertaining the as-found readings, evaluate the results against the required specification. If
required, perform zero and span adjustments until no further adjustment is required. Then, repeat
all test points to record as-left readings.

Many organizations do not require periodic calibration of I/P transducers, positioners, or control
valves. The justification is the control signal will adjust the output until the required setpoint is
achieved based on the process measurement. This is true, but you want to make sure the output
loop is performing correctly. The best way to do so is to check the calibration periodically.
 
 

  

Calibration of the valve positioner can be performed at the same time as the I/P in a loop
calibration. Simply tee in the pressure module at the I/P outlet in the I/P calibration. Record the
valve position at each test point.

If calibrating the valve positioner separately, connect an input test pressure regulator or hand
pump, and monitor the input pressure applied with a pressure standard. If there is no supply air,
connect the required supply air to the positioner. Apply the pressure for the desired test points
and record valve position.

For example, assume our valve positioner is 3-15 psig input = 0-100% valve position. In this
case, apply 3.0, 6.0, 9.0, 12.0, and 15.0 psig. The expected valve positions should be 0, 25, 50,
75, and 100%, respectively.

The valve position indicator on the stem usually marks off in 5% or 10% increments. Therefore,
a best estimate of the valve position may be all you can obtain. In other cases, a valve position
detector provides a remote indication to a DCS. In such cases, ensure both indicators are working
properly.

Many organizations do not require calibration of valve positioners for these reasons. There's
much documentation that control valve positioner performance is responsible for significant loss
in system efficiency and, therefore, increased costs.

To provide guidance on methods for testing positioners and control valve performance, ISA has
developed a standard, ANSI/ISA-75.25.01-2000, Test Procedure for Control Valve Response
Measurement for Step Inputs.

As to control valve calibration, the process is similar to positioner calibration in that one applies
a pressure signal to the actuator and then tallies the resulting valve position. This step can take
place with the positioner calibration, if applicable, and it can happen in conjunction with I/P
calibration.

Remember to ensure the system is in a safe condition if performing the calibration in the field. In
addition, know the correct action, direct or reverse, and fail position before starting. 

    (nsheble@isa.org) edits the Certification department for `
 magazine. This
article is from '  's book a
  
   
, ISA Press 2005. Cable
is a Level 3 Certified Control System Technician and is the validation manager at Argos
Therapeutics.