Bacteria

Contents:
1. Definition of Bacteria
2. Morphology of Bacteria
3. General Methods of Classifying Bacteria
4. Nutrition, Respiration and Reproduction in Bacterial Cell
5. Staining of Bacteria
6. Biochemical Tests for Identification of Bacteria

1. Definition of Bacteria:
Bacteria are microscopic unicellular organism they are true living organism that
belongs to the kingdom prokaryotes.
(Singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular microorganisms. They are
extremely tiny thus they cannot be seen individually unless viewed through
microscope. When cultured on agar, the bacteria grow as colonies that contain
many individual cells. These colonies appear as spots of varying size, shape and
colour, depending on the microorganism.
2. Morphology of Bacteria:
Bacteria are very small unicellular microorganisms ubiquitous in nature. They
are micrometres (1μm = 10-6 m) in size. They have cell walls composed of
peptidoglycan and reproduce by binary fission. Bacteria vary in their
morphological features.
The Most Common Morphologies are:
Coccus (Pleural – Cocci):
Spherical bacteria; may occur in pairs (diplococci), in groups of four
(tetracocci), in grape-like clusters (Staphylococci), in chains (Streptococci) or in
cubical arrangements of eight or more (sarcinae).
For example – Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes.
Bacillus (Pleural – Bacilli):
Rod-shaped bacteria; generally occur singly, but may occasionally be found in
pairs (diplo-bacilli) or chains (streptobacilli).
For example – Bacillus cereus, Clostridium tetani.
Spirillum (Pleural – Spirilla):
Spiral-shaped bacteria.
For example – Spirillum, Vibrio, Spirochete species.
Some Bacteria have Other Shapes Such as:
Coccobacilli – Elongated spherical or ovoid form.
Filamentous – Bacilli that occur in long chains or threads.
Fusiform – Bacilli with tapered ends.

(i) Most numerous organisms on earth.

(ii) Earliest life forms (fossils date 2.5 billion years old).
(iii) Microscopic prokaryotes (no nucleus non membrane-bound organelles).
(iv) Contain ribosomes.
(v) Infoldings of the cell membrane carry on photosynthesis and respiration.
(vi) Surrounded by protective cell wall containing peptidoglycan (protein-
carbohydrate).
(vii) Many are surrounded by a sticky, protective coating of sugars called the
capsule or glycocalyx (can attach to other bacteria or host).
(viii) Have only one circular chromosome.
(ix) Have small rings of DNA called plasmids.
(x) May have short, hair like projections called pili on cell wall to attach to host
or another bacteria when transferring genetic material.
(xi) Most are unicellular.
(xii) Found in most habitats.
(xiii) Most bacteria grow best at a pH of 6.5 to 7.0.
(xiv) Main decomposers of dead organisms so recycle nutrients.
(xv) Some bacteria breakdown chemical and oil spills.
(xvi) Some cause disease.
(xvii) Move by flagella.
(xviii) Some can form protective endospores around the DNA when conditions
become unfavorable; may stay inactive several years and then re-activate when
conditions favorable.
Kingdom Archaebacteria:
(i) Found in harsh environments (undersea volcanic vents, acidic hot springs,
salty water).
(ii) Cell walls without peptidoglycan.
(iii) Subdivided into 3 groups based on their habitat — methanogens,
thermoacidophiles, and extreme halophiles.

Methanogens:
(i) Live in anaerobic environments (no oxygen).
(ii) Obtain energy by changing H2 and CO2 gas into methane gas.
(iii) Found in swamps, marshes, sewage treatment plants, digestive tracts of
animals.
(iv) Break down cellulose for herbivores (cows).
(v) Produce marsh gas or intestinal gas (methane).
Extreme Halophiles:
(i) Live in very salty water.
(ii) Found in the Dead Sea, Great Salt Lake, etc.
(iii) Use salt to help generate ATP (energy).
Thermoacidophiles (Thermophiles):
(i) Live in extremely hot (110°C) and acidic (pH 2) water.
(ii) Found in hot springs in Yellowstone National Park, in volcanic vents on
land, and in cracks on the ocean floor that leak scalding acidic water.
Kingdom Eubacteria (True Bacteria):
(i) Most bacteria in this kingdom.
(ii) Come in 3 basic shapes — cocci (spheres), bacilli (rod shaped), spirilla
(corkscrew shape).
(iii) Bacteria can occur in pairs (diplo – bacilli or cocci).
(iv) Bacteria occurring in chains are called strepto – bacilli or cocci.
(v) Bacteria in grapelike clusters are called staphylococci.
(vi) Most are heterotrophic (can’t make their own food).
(vii) Can be aerobic (require oxygen) or anaerobic (don’t need oxygen).
(viii) Subdivided into 4 phyla – Cyanobacteria (blue-green bacteria),
Spirochetes, Gram-positive, and Proteobacteria.
(ix) Can be identified by Gram staining (gram positive or gram negative).
Phylum Cyanobacteria:
(i) Gram negative.
(ii) Carry on photosynthesis and make oxygen.
(iii) Called blue-green bacteria.
(iv) Contain pigments called phycocyanin (red and blue) and chlorophyll a
(green).
(v) May be red, yellow, green, brown, black, or blue-green.
(vi) Some grow in chains (e.g. Oscillatoria) and have specialized cells called
heterocyst that fix nitrogen.
(vii) First bacteria to re-enter devastated areas.
(viii) Anabaena that lives on nitrates and phosphates in water can overpopulate
and cause “population blooms” or eutrophication.
(ix) After eutrophication, the cyanobacteria die, decompose, and use up all the
oxygen for fish.
Phylum Spirochetes:
(i) Gram positive.
(ii) Have flagella at each end so move in a corkscrew motion.
(iii) Some are aerobic (require oxygen); others are anaerobic.
(iv) May be free-living, parasitic, or live symbiotically with another organism.
Phylum Proteobacteria:
(i) Largest and most diverse bacterial group.
(ii) Subdivided into Enteric bacteria, Chemoautotrophic bacteria, & Nitrogen-
fixing bacteria.
Enteric Bacteria:
(i) Gram negative heterotrophs.
(ii) Can live in aerobic and anaerobic environments.
(iii) Includes E. coli that lives in the intestinal tract making vitamin K and
helping break down food.
(iv) Salmonella causes food poisoning.
Chemoautotrophs:
(i) Gram negative bacteria that obtain energy from minerals.
(ii) Iron-oxidizing bacteria found in freshwater ponds use iron salts for energy.
Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria:
(i) Rhizobium is Gram negative and live in legume root nodules.
(ii) 80% of atmosphere is N2, but plants can’t use nitrogen gas.
(iii) Nitrogen-fixing bacteria change N2 into usable ammonia (NH3).
(iv) Important part of the Earth’s nitrogen cycle.

Nutrition, Respiration and Reproduction in Bacterial Cell:

Methods of Nutrition:
(i) Saprobes feed on dead organic matter.
(ii) Parasites feed on a host cell.
(iii) Photoautotrophs use sunlight for energy, but get carbon from organic
compounds (not CO2) to make their own food.
(iv) Chemoautotrophs obtain food by oxidizing inorganic substances like sulfur,
instead of using sunlight.
Methods of Respiration:
(i) Obligate aerobic bacteria can’t live without oxygen; (tuberculosis bacteria).
(ii) Obligate anaerobes die if oxygen is present; (tetanus bacteria that causes
lockjaw).
(iii) Facultative anaerobes do not need oxygen, but don’t die if oxygen is
present; (E. coli).
(iv) Anaerobes carry on fermentation, while aerobes carry on cellular
respiration.
Bacterial Reproduction and Genetic Recombination:
(i) Most bacteria reproduce asexually by binary fission (chromosome replicates
and then the cell divides).
(ii) Bacteria replicate (double in number) every 20 minutes under ideal
conditions.
(iii) Bacteria contain much less DNA than eukaryotes.
(iv) Bacterial plasmids are used in genetic engineering to carry new genes into
other organisms.
(v) Bacteria recombine genetic material in 3 ways – transformation,
conjugation, and transduction.
Conjugation:
(i) Sexual reproductive method.
(ii) Two bacteria form a conjugation bridge or tube between them.
(iii) Pili hold the bacteria together.
(iv) DNA is transferred from one bacteria to the other.
Transformation:
(i) Bacteria pick up pieces of DNA from other dead bacterial cells.
(ii) New bacterium is genetically different from original.
Transduction:
(i) A bacteriophages (virus) carries a piece of DNA from one bacteria to
another.
(ii) Human insulin is produced in the lab by this method.
Pathogenic Bacteria:
(i) Known as germs or pathogens.
(ii) Cause disease.
(iii) Can produce poisonous toxins.
(iv) Endotoxins are made of lipids and carbohydrates by Gram – bacteria and
released after the bacteria die (cause high fever, circulatory vessel damage).
(v) E. coli produces endotoxins
(vi) Exotoxins are made of protein by Gram + bacteria.
(vii) Clostridium tetani produce exotoxins.
(viii) Antibiotics interfere with cellular functions (Penicillin interferes with
synthesis of the cell wall; tetracycline interferes with protein synthesis).
(ix) Some antibiotics are made by bacteria or fungi.
(x) Broad-spectrum antibiotics affect a wide variety of organisms.
(xi) Bacteria can mutate and become antibiotic resistant (often results from over
use of antibiotics).

6. Biochemical Tests for Identification of Bacteria:

I. Sugar Fermentation Test:
Carbohydrates are organic molecules that contain carbon hydrogen & oxygen in
the ratio (CH2O). Chemical reaction which release energy from the complex,
organic molecules decomposition are referred to as catabolism. Organism use
carbohydrate differently depending upon their enzyme complement.
Glucose after entering a cell can be catabolized either aerobically or
anaerobically or both pathways .The metabolic end products of carbohydrate
fermentation can be either organic acid (e.g. Lactic, formic or acetic) or gas
(hydrogen or CO2).
Fermentative degradation of various carbohydrates such as glucose, Sucrose,
cellulose by microbes, under anaerobic condition is carried out in a fermentation
tube. A fermentation tube is a culture tube that contains a Durham tube (i.e. a
small tube placed in an inverted position in the culture tube) for the detection of
gas production as an end product of metabolism.
The fermentation broth contain specific carbohydrate(glucose, lactose, maltose,
sucrose or mannitol and a pH indicator (phenol red).which is red of a neutral
pH(7) and turns yellow at or below a pH of 6.8 due to the production of an
organic acid.
II. Catalase Test:
During aerobic respiration in the presence of O2, microorganisms produce
H2O2 which is lethal to the cell the enzyme catalase present in some
microorganism breaks down hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen as,

III. Oxidase Test:

This test is used to identify microorganisms containing the enzyme cytochrome
oxidase (important in the electron transport chain). It is commonly used to
distinguish between oxidase negative Enterobacteriaceae and oxidase positive
Pseudomadaceae.

IV. Urease Test:

Urea is a major organic waste product of protein digestion in most vertebrate
and is excreted in the urine. Some microorganism’s lane the ability to produce
the enzyme urease. The urease is a hydrolytic enzyme which attacks the carbon
of nitrogen bond amide compound.

Eubacteria
There are thousands of different eubacteria or ‘true bacteria’. They are
characterised by the presence of a rigid cell wall, and if motile, a flagellum. The
cyanobacteria (also referred to as blue-green algae) have chlorophyll a similar to
green plants and are photosynthetic autotrophs (Figure 2.2). The cyanobacteria
are unicellular, colonial or filamentous, freshwater/marine or terrestrial algae.
The colonies are generally surrounded by gelatinous sheath. They often form
blooms in polluted water bodies. Some of these organisms can fix atmospheric
nitrogen in specialised cells called heterocysts, e.g., Nostoc and Anabaena.
Chemosynthetic autotrophic bacteria oxidise various inorganic substances such
as nitrates, nitrites and ammonia and use the released energy for their ATP
production. They play a great role in recycling nutrients like nitrogen,
phosphorous, iron and sulphur. Heterotrophic bacteria are the most abundant in
nature. The majority are important decomposers. Many of them have a
significant impact on human affairs. They are helpful in making curd from milk,
production of antibiotics, fixing nitrogen in legume roots, etc. Some are
pathogens causing damage to human beings, crops, farm animals and pets.
Cholera, typhoid, tetanus, citrus canker are well known diseases caused by
different bacteria. Bacteria reproduce mainly by fission (Figure 2.3).
Sometimes, under unfavourable conditions, they produce spores. They also
reproduce by a sort of sexual reproduction by adopting a primitive type of DNA
transfer from one bacterium to the other. The Mycoplasma are organisms that
completely lack a cell wall. They are the smallest living cells known and can
survive without oxygen. Many mycoplasma are pathogenic in animals and
plants.
KINGDOM PROTISTA
All single-celled eukaryotes are placed under Protista, but the boundaries of this
kingdom are not well defined. What may be ‘a photosynthetic protistan’ to one
biologist may be ‘a plant’ to another. In this book we include Chrysophytes,
Dinoflagellates, Euglenoids, Slime moulds and Protozoans under Protista.
Members of Protista are primarily aquatic. This kingdom forms a link with the
others dealing with plants, animals and fungi. Being eukaryotes, the protistan
cell body contains a well defined nucleus and other membrane-bound
organelles. Some have flagella or cilia. Protists reproduce asexually and
sexually by a process involving cell fusion and zygote formation.
Chrysophytes
This group includes diatoms and golden algae (desmids). They are found in
fresh water as well as in marine environments. They are microscopic and float
passively in water currents (plankton). Most of them are photosynthetic. In
diatoms the cell walls form two thin overlapping shells, which fit together as in
a soap box. The walls are embedded with silica and thus the walls are
indestructible. Thus, diatoms have left behind large amount of cell wall deposits
in their habitat; this accumulation over billions of years is referred to as
‘diatomaceous earth’. Being gritty this soil is used in polishing, filtration of oils
and syrups. Diatoms are the chief ‘producers’ in the ocean
Dinoflagellates
These organisms are mostly marine and photosynthetic. They appear yellow,
green, brown, blue or red depending on the main pigments present in their cells.
The cell wall has stiff cellulose plates on the outer surface. Most of them have
two flagella; one lies longitudinally and the other transversely in a furrow
between the wall plates. Very often, red dinoflagellates (Example: Gonyaulax)
undergo such rapid multiplication that they make the sea appear red (red tides).
Toxins released by such large numbers may even kill other marine animals such
as fishes.
Euglenoids
Majority of them are fresh water organisms found in stagnant water. Instead of a
cell wall, they have a protein rich layer called pellicle which makes their body
flexible. They have two flagella, a short and a long one. Though they are
photosynthetic in the presence of sunlight, when deprived of sunlight they
behave like heterotrophs by predating on other smaller organisms. Interestingly,
the pigments of euglenoids are identical to those present in higher plants.
Example: Euglena
Slime Moulds
Slime moulds are saprophytic protists. The body moves along decaying twigs
and leaves engulfing organic material. Under suitable conditions, they form an
aggregation called plasmodium which may grow and spread over several feet.
During unfavourable conditions, the plasmodium differentiates and forms
fruiting bodies bearing spores at their tips. The spores possess true walls. They
are extremely resistant and survive for many years, even under adverse
conditions. The spores are dispersed by air currents.
Protozoans
All protozoans are heterotrophs and live as predators or parasites. They are
believed to be primitive relatives of animals. There are four major groups of
protozoans. Amoeboid protozoans: These organisms live in fresh water, sea
water or moist soil. They move and capture their prey by putting out
pseudopodia (false feet) as in Amoeba. Marine forms have silica shells on their
surface. Some of them such as Entamoeba are parasites. Flagellated protozoans:
The members of this group are either free-living or parasitic. They have flagella.
The parasitic forms cause diaseases such as sleeping sickness. Example:
Trypanosoma. Ciliated protozoans: These are aquatic, actively moving
organisms because of the presence of thousands of cilia. They have a cavity
(gullet) that opens to the outside of the cell surface. The coordinated movement
of rows of cilia causes the water laden with food to be steered into the gullet.
Example: Paramoecium Sporozoans: This includes diverse organisms that have
an infectious spore-like stage in their life cycle. The most notorious is
Plasmodium (malarial parasite) which causes malaria, a disease which has a
staggering effect on human population.
KINGDOM FUNGI The fungi constitute a unique kingdom of heterotrophic
organisms. They show a great diversity in morphology and habitat. When your
bread develops a mould or your orange rots it is because of fungi. The common
mushroom you eat and toadstools are also fungi. White spots seen on mustard
leaves are due to a parasitic fungus. Some unicellular fungi, e.g., yeast are used
to make bread and beer. Other fungi cause diseases in plants and animals; wheat
rust-causing Puccinia is an important example. Some are the source of
antibiotics, e.g., Penicillium. Fungi are cosmopolitan and occur in air, water,
soil and on animals and plants. They prefer to grow in warm and humid places.
Have you ever wondered why we keep food in the refrigerator ? Yes, it is to
prevent food from going bad due to bacterial or fungal infections. With the
exception of yeasts which are unicellular, fungi are filamentous. Their bodies
consist of long, slender thread-like structures called hyphae. The network of
hyphae is known as mycelium. Some hyphae are continuous tubes filled with
multinucleated cytoplasm – these are called coenocytic hyphae. Others have
septae or cross walls in their hyphae. The cell walls of fungi are composed of
chitin and polysaccharides. Most fungi are heterotrophic and absorb soluble
organic matter from dead substrates and hence are called saprophytes. Those
that depend on living plants and animals are called parasites. They can also live
as symbionts – in association with algae as lichens and with roots of higher
plants as mycorrhiza. Reproduction in fungi can take place by vegetative means
– fragmentation, fission and budding. Asexual reproduction is by spores
called conidia or sporangiospores or zoospores, and sexual reproduction is by
oospores, ascospores and basidiospores. The various spores are produced in
distinct structures called fruiting bodies. The sexual cycle involves the
following three steps: (i) Fusion of protoplasms between two motile or non-
motile gametes called plasmogamy. (ii) Fusion of two nuclei called karyogamy.
(iii) Meiosis in zygote resulting in haploid spores. When a fungus reproduces
sexually, two haploid hyphae of compatible mating types come together and
fuse. In some fungi the fusion of two haploid cells immediately results in
diploid cells (2n). However, in other fungi (ascomycetes and basidiomycetes),
an intervening dikaryotic stage (n + n, i.e., two nuclei per cell) occurs; such a
condition is called a dikaryon and the phase is called dikaryophase of fungus.
Later, the parental nuclei fuse and the cells become diploid. The fungi form
fruiting bodies in which reduction division occurs, leading to formation of
haploid spores. The morphology of the mycelium, mode of spore formation and
fruiting bodies form the basis for the division of the kingdom into various
classes. Phycomycetes Members of phycomycetes are found in aquatic habitats
and on decaying wood in moist and damp places or as obligate parasites on
plants. The mycelium is aseptate and coenocytic. Asexual reproduction takes
place by zoospores (motile) or by aplanospores (non-motile). These spores are
endogenously produced in sporangium. A zygospore is formed by fusion of two
gametes. These gametes are similar in morphology (isogamous) or dissimilar
(anisogamous or oogamous). Some common examples are Mucor Rhizopus (the
bread mould mentioned earlier) and Albugo (the parasitic fungi on mustard).
Ascomycetes Commonly known as sac-fungi, the as comycetes are mostly
multicellular, e.g., Penicillium, or rarely unicellular, e.g., yeast
(Saccharomyces). They are saprophytic, decomposers, parasitic or coprophilous
(growing on dung). Mycelium is branched and septate. The asexual spores are
conidia produced exogenously on the special mycelium called conidiophores.
Conidia on germination produce mycelium. Sexual spores are called ascospores
which are produced endogenously in sac like asci (singular ascus). These asci
are arranged in different types of fruiting bodies called ascocarps. Some
examples are Aspergillus, Claviceps and Neurospora. Neurospora is used
extensively in biochemical and genetic work. Many members like morels and
truffles are edible and are considered delicacies.
Basidiomycetes Commonly known forms of basidiomycetes are mushrooms,
bracket fungi or puffballs. They grow in soil, on logs and tree stumps and in
living plant bodies as parasites, e.g., rusts and smuts. The mycelium is branched
and septate. The asexual spores are generally not found, but vegetative
reproduction by fragmentation is common. The sex organs are absent, but
plasmogamy is brought about by fusion of two vegetative or somatic cells of
different strains or genotypes. The resultant structure is dikaryotic which
ultimately gives rise to basidium. Karyogamy and meiosis take place in the
basidium producing four basidiospores. The basidiospores are exogenously
produced 1on the basidium (pl.: basidia). The basidia are arranged in fruiting
bodies called basidiocarps. Some common members are Agaricus (mushroom)),
Ustilago (smut) and Puccinia (rust fungus).
Deuteromycetes Commonly known as imperfect fungi because only the asexual
or vegetative phases of these fungi are known. When the sexual forms of these
fungi were discovered they were moved into classes they rightly belong to. It is
also possible that the asexual and vegetative stage have been given one name
(and placed under deuteromycetes) and the sexual stage another (and placed
under another class). Later when the linkages were established, the fungi were
correctly identified and moved out of deuteromycetes. Once perfect (sexual)
stages of members of dueteromycetes were discovered they were often moved
to ascomycetes and basidiomycetes. The deuteromycetes reproduce only by
asexual spores known as conidia. The mycelium is septate and branched. Some
members are saprophytes or parasites while a large number of them are
decomposers of litter and help in mineral cycling. Some examples are
Alternaria, Colletotrichum and Trichoderma.
Viruses
Viruses are a unique group of infectious agents whose distinctiveness resides in
their simple, acellular organization and pattern of reproduction. A complete
virus particle or virion consists of one or more molecules of DNA or RNA
enclosed in a coat of protein, and sometimes also in other layers. These
additional layers may be very complex and contain carbohydrates, lipids, and
additional proteins. Viruses can exist in two phases: extracellular and
intracellular. Virions, the extracellular phase, possess few if any enzymes and
cannot reproduce independent of living cells. In the intracellular phase, viruses
exist primarily as replicating nucleic acids that induce host metabolism to
synthesize virion components; eventually complete virus particles or virions are
released.
Cultivation of viruses
For many years researchers have cultivated animal viruses by inoculating
suitable host animals or embryonated eggs—fertilized chicken eggs incubated
about 6 to 8 days after laying). To prepare the egg for virus cultivation, the shell
surface is first disinfected with iodine and penetrated with a small sterile drill.
After inoculation, the drill hole is sealed with gelatin and the egg incubated.
Viruses may be able to reproduce only in certain parts of the embryo;
consequently they must be injected into the proper region. For example, the
myxoma virus grows well on the chorioallantoic membrane, whereas the
mumps virus prefers the allantoic cavity. The infection may produce a local
tissue lesion known as a pock, whose appearance often is characteristic of the
virus. More recently animal viruses have been grown in tissue (cell) culture on
monolayers of animal cells. This technique is made possible by the development
of growth media for animal cells and by the advent of antibiotics that can
prevent bacterial and fungal contamination. A layer of animal cells in a
specially prepared petri dish is covered with a virus inoculum, and the viruses
are allowed time to settle and attach to the cells. The cells are then covered with
a thin layer of agar to limit virion spread so that only adjacent cells are infected
by newly produced virions. As a result localized areas of cellular destruction
and lysis called plaques often are formed (figure 16.2) and may be detected if
stained with dyes, such as neutral red or trypan blue, that can distinguish living
from dead cells. Viral growth does not always result in the lysis of cells to form
a plaque. Animal viruses, in particular, can cause microscopic or macroscopic
degenerative changes or abnormalities in host cells and in tissues called
cytopathic effects (Cytopathic effects may be lethal, but plaque formation from
cell lysis does not always occur. Bacterial viruses or bacteriophages (phages for
short) are cultivated in either broth or agar cultures of young, actively growing
bacterial cells. So many host cells are destroyed that turbid bacterial cultures
may clear rapidly because of cell lysis. Agar cultures are prepared by mixing the
bacteriophage sample with cool, liquid agar and a suitable bacterial culture. The
mixture is quickly poured into a petri dish containing a bottom layer of sterile
agar. After hardening, bacteria in the layer of top agar grow and reproduce,
forming a continuous, opaque layer or “lawn.” Wherever a virion comes to rest
in the top agar, the virus infects an adjacent cell and reproduces. Eventually,
bacterial lysis generates a plaque or clearing in the lawn
Plant viruses
Plant viruses are cultivated in a variety of ways. Plant tissue cultures, cultures
of separated cells, or cultures of protoplasts may be used. Viruses also can be
grown in whole plants. Leaves are mechanically inoculated when rubbed with a
mixture of viruses and an abrasive such as carborundum. When the cell walls
are broken by the abrasive, the viruses directly contact the plasma membrane
and infect the exposed host cells. (The role of the abrasive is frequently filled by
insects that suck or crush plant leaves and thus transmit viruses.) A localized
necrotic lesion often develops due to the rapid death of cells in he infected are.
Even when lesions do not occur, the infected plant may show symptoms such as
changes in pigmentation or leaf shape. Some plant viruses can be transmitted
only if a diseased part is grafted onto a healthy plant.
Virion Size
Virions range in size from about 10 to 300 or 400 nm in diameter The smallest
viruses are a little larger than ribosomes, whereas the poxviruses, like vaccinia,
are about the same size as the smallest bacteria and can be seen in the light
microscope. Most viruses, however, are too small to be visible in the light
microscope and must be viewed with the scanning and transmission electron
microscopes
Nucleic Acids
Viruses are exceptionally flexible with respect to the nature of their genetic
material. They employ all four possible nucleic acid types: single-stranded
DNA, double-stranded DNA, single-stranded RNA, and double-stranded RNA.
All four types are found in animal viruses. Plant viruses most often have single-
stranded RNA genomes. Although phages may have single-stranded DNA or
single-stranded RNA, bacterial viruses usually contain double-stranded DNA.
General Structural Properties
All virions, even if they possess other constituents, are constructed around a
nucleocapsid core (indeed, some viruses consist only of a nucleocapsid). The
nucleocapsid is composed of a nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA, held within a
protein coat called the capsid, which protects viral genetic material and aids in
its transfer between host cells. There are four general morphological types of
capsids and virion structure.
1. Some capsids are icosahedral in shape. An icosahedron is a regular
polyhedron with 20 equilateral triangular faces and 12 vertices These capsids
appear spherical when viewed at low power in the electron microscope.
2. Other capsids are helical and shaped like hollow protein cylinders, which
may be either rigid or flexible.
3. Many viruses have an envelope, an outer membranous layer surrounding the
nucleocapsid. Enveloped viruses have a roughly spherical but somewhat
variable shape even though their nucleocapsid can be either icosahedral or
helical
4. Complex viruses have capsid symmetry that is neither purely icosahedral nor
helical They may possess tails and other structures (e.g., many bacteriophages)
or have complex, multilayered walls surrounding the nucleic acid (e.g.,
poxviruses such as vaccinia).
Both helical and icosahedral capsids are large macromolecular structures
constructed from many copies of one or a few types of protein subunits or
protomers. Probably the most important advantage of this design strategy is that
the information stored in viral genetic material is used with maximum
efficiency.

Classification of virus
A] Classification on the basis of nucleic acid

B] Classification on the basis of structure or symmetry

C] Classification on the basis of replication properties and site of
replication

D] Classification on the basis of host range

E] Classification on the basis of mode of transmission

Classification of virus on the basis of nucleic acid

1. DNA virus:

 viral genome is DNA

i) Double stranded DNA virus: eg. Adenovirus, Herpesvirus

ii) Single stranded DNA virus: eg. Parvovirus, φ174 virus

2. RNA virus:

 genome is RNA
i) Double stranded RNA virus: eg. Reo virus

ii) Single stranded RNA virus: these are further classified into two
groups

 Positive sense RNA (+RNA): Polio virus, Hepatitis A

 Negative sense RNA (-RNA): Rabies virus, Influenza virus
Some examples of DNA and RNA viruses:

Classification of virus on the basis of structure

1. Cubical virus:

 they are also known as icosahedral symmetry virus

 Eg. Reo virus, Picorna virus

2. Spiral virus:

 they are also known as helical symmetry virus

 Eg. Paramyxovirus, orthomyxovirus

3. Radial symmetry virus:

 eg.Bacteriophage

4. Complex virus:
  eg. Pox virus

Classification of virus on the basis of replication properties and

site of replication

1. Replication and assembly in cytoplasm of host:

 Eg. All RNA virus replicate and assemble in cytoplasm of host

cell except Influenza virus

2. Replication in nucleus and assembly in cytoplasm of host:

 Eg. Influenza virus, Pox virus

3. Replication and assembly in nucleus of host:

 All DNA viruses replicate and assemble in nucleus of host cell

except Pox virus.

4. Virus replication through ds DNA intermediate:

 Eg. All DNA virus, Retro virus and some tumor causing RNA
virus replicates through ds DNA as intermediates.

5. Virus replication through ss RNA intermediate:

 Eg. All RNA virus except Reo virus and tumor causing RNA
viruses.

Classification of virus on the basis of host range:

1. Bacteriophage:

 Phage are virus infecting bacteria. Eg, λ phage, T2, T4, φ174,
MV-11

2. Plant virus:
  Those virus that infects plants. Eg. TMV, cauliflower mosaic
virus

3. Animal virus:

 Those virus that infects animals. Eg. Polio virus, Retro virus,
Herpes virus, Adeno virus

4. Insect virus:

 Virus that infects insects. Eg. Baculovirus, Sacbrood virus,

Entomopox virus, Granulosis virus

Classification of virus on the basis of mode of transmission:

1. Virus transmitted through respiratory route:

 Eg, Swine flu, Rhino virus

2. Virus transmitted through faeco-oral route:

 Eg. Hepatitis A virus, Polio virus, Rota virus

3. Virus transmitted through sexual contacts:

 Eg. Retro virus

4. Virus transmitted through blood transfusion:

 Eg. Hepatitis B virus, HIV

5. Zoonotic virus:

 virus transmitted through biting of infected animals;

 Eg. Rabies virus, Alpha virus, Flavi virus