EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE

Saint Francis Xavier || Saint Thomas Garnet || Saint Charles Garnier

ENDOGENIC PROCESSES

- Endogenic Processes are geological processes that occur beneath the surface of the Earth.
- It is associated with energy originating in the interior of the solid earth.
- The ground we live on is moving all the time.
- The forces within the earth that cause the ground to move are called ENDOGENIC FORCES.
HOW DOES ENDOGENIC PROCESS WORKS?

- When the ground moves, rock layers at the surface of the earth are broken, twisted and shaken.
- Land is destroyed in many places and created in other places.
- When the land is shaped by Endogenic Forces we call this ENDOGENIC PROCESSES.

THE MAIN ENDOGENIC PROCESSES

- The main endogenic processes are FOLDING & FAULTING or Tectonic Movements.
- They take place mainly along the plate boundaries, which are the zones that are not stable.
- Endogenic processes cause many major landform features. (e.g. volcanoes, mountains, valleys, plateaus, hills
and many more)
- Endogenic processes have subtypes too: VOLCANISM, METAMORPHISM, AND EARTHQUAKES.
1. FOLDING
- when two forces push towards each other from opposite sides, the rock layers will bend into folds.
- the process by which folds are formed are due to compressional forces known as folding.
- there are large-scale and small-scale folds. Largescale folds are found mainly along destructive
plate boundaries.

2. FAULTING
- faulting is the fracturing and displacement of more brittle rock strata along a fault plane either
caused by tension or compression.
- a break in rock along which a vertical or horizontal rock movement has occurred is called a fault.
- the process of forming a fault is faulting.
- the line of fault which appears on land surface is known as fault line.
- these lines are often lines of weakness which allow molten rock to rise up onto the earth surface
when there is active volcanic activity nearby.
- faulting forms two major landforms - block mountains and rift valleys.

TYPES OF FAULT

1. Normal Fault - a fault in which the hanging wall moves down relative to the footwall.
 2. Reverse Fault - a fault in which the hanging wall moves up relative to the footwall.

3. Strike-Slip Fault - are vertical (or nearly vertical) fractures where the blocks have mostly
moved horizontally. Usually, the blocks of rocks will move in opposite directions as they
continue to grind with each other.

OTHER ENDOGENIC PROCESSES

1. Volcanism
- or magmatism (also known as volcanic activity or igneous activity)
- Magma beneath the crust is under very great pressure. When folding and faulting occur, cracks or
fractures which are lines of weakness are created.
- When these lines of weakness develop downward in the crust and reach the magma, they will release
the pressure in the magma.
- This allows magma to rise up along the lines of weakness and intrude into the crust. Some magma may
even reach the earth's surface and some don’t.
- one result of volcanism is the formation of igneous rocks.
2. Metamorphism
- an endogenic process which occurs when there is pressure and heat applied to geologic structures
which leads to the formation of Metamorphic Rocks.

3. Earthquakes
- or (Seismic Activity) is a sudden shaking or vibration in the earth’s crust.
- when plates suddenly move past each other, the built-up strain is released along the fault, and the
rock fractures.
- an earthquake also can be triggered by molten rock moving up into the chamber of a volcano before
eruption.

GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

What is the geologic time scale?

- The geologic time scale (GTS) is a system of chronological dating that relates geological strata (stratigraphy)
to time. It is used by geologists, paleontologists, and other Earth scientists to describe the timing and
relationships of events that have occurred during Earth's history.
- It is like a giant calendar where all events pertaining to Earth’s history have been ‘recorded’.
- EON is the largest segment of geologic time while EPOCH is the smallest segment of geologic time.
- EON is divided in three major ERAS: Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic

Below is a list of some of the events that had a major influence on the life that the Earth has today.
 GEOLOGIC TIME SIGINIFICANT EVENTS
HADEAN The beginning of Earth
ARCHAEAN Oldest fossils were found
PROTEROZOIC Age of the Cyanobacteria
CAMBRIAN Marine shelled invertebrate
ORDOVICIAN First fishes emerged
SILURIAN First land plants
DEVONIAN Golden Age of Fish, First Amphibians
MISSISSIPPIAN Sharks became abundant
PENNSYLVANIAN Non-flowering plants
PERMIAN Rise of Reptiles
TRIASSIC First Dinosaurs
JURASSIC Golden Age of Dinosaurs
CRETACEOUS T-Rex appeared, First Mammals
PALEOCENE First Primate
EOCENE First Horses
OLIGOCENE Apes and primitive elephants
MIOCENE Abundance of grass

WHAT ARE FOSSILS?

- any preserved remains, impression, or trace of any once-living thing from a past geological age.
- Specific conditions are needed for fossilization that is why only a few organisms became fossils.

COMMONLY PRESERVED RARELY PRESERVED

Hard Parts of Organisms: Soft or Easily Decayed Parts of Organisms:
 Bones Internal Organs
 Shells Skin
 Hard Parts of Insects Hair
 Woody Material Feathers

TYPES OF FOSSIL
• Original Material (Preserved) – like the Mammoths found in Antarctica
• Casts & Molds – reflects the shape and the surface marking of the organism (ex: trilobites)
• Replacement (Petrified Wood)
• Carbonized Films (Leaves)
• Footprints, Tracks, Etc.
– “Trace Fossils” – Our only preserved record of behavior of fossil organisms
 Amber-preserved fossils are organisms that become trapped in tree resin that hardens after the tree is
buried.

INTRODUCTION TO LIFE SCIENCES

The life sciences or biological sciences comprise the branches of science that involve the scientific study
of life and organisms – such as microorganisms, plants, and animals including human beings.

CELLS:
ORGANELLES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

CELL THEORY
- Cells are the basic unit of life.

The Cell Theory states that:

1) All organisms are made up of one or more cells and the products of those cells.
2) All cells carry out life activities. (require energy, grow, have a limited size).
3) New cells arise only from other living cells by the process of cell division.
THE THREE MAIN COMPONENTS OF ANY PLANT OR ANIMAL CELL ARE:

1. PLASMA MEMBRANE/ CELL MEMBRANE

Structure- a bilipid membraneous layer composed of proteins and carbohydrates. It is fluid like.
Function - the cell membrane separates the cell from its external environment, and is selectively permeable (controls
what gets in and out). It protects the cell and provides stability.
Proteins are found embedded within the plasma membrane, with some extending all the way through in order
to transport materials.
Carbohydrates are attached to proteins and lipids on the outer lipid layer.

2. CYTOPLASM

Structure - The jelly-like substance composed of mainly water and found between the cell membrane and
nucleus. The cytoplasm makes up most of the "body" of a cell and is constantly streaming.
Function - Organelles are found here and substances like salts may be dissolved in the cytoplasm.

3. NUCLEUS

Structure - The largest organelle in the cell. It is dark and round, and is surrounded by a double membrane called
the nuclear envelope/membrane. In spots the nuclear envelope fuses to form pores which are selectively
permeable. The nucleus contains genetic information (DNA) on special strands called chromosomes.
Function - The nucleus is the "control center" of the cell, for cell metabolism and reproduction.

THE FOLLOWING ORGANELLES ARE FOUND IN BOTH PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS.

1. "ER" OR ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

The Endoplasmic Reticulum is a network of membranous canals filled with fluid. They carry materials
throughout the cell. The ER is the "transport system" of the cell.
There are two types of ER: rough ER and smooth ER.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum is lined with ribosomes and is rough in appearance and smooth
endoplasmic reticulum contains no ribosomes and is smooth in appearance.

2. RIBOSOMES
Ribosomes are small particles which are found individually in the cytoplasm and also line the
membranes of the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Ribosomes produce protein. They could be thought of as
"factories" in the cell.

3. GOLGI BODY / APPARATUS

Golgi bodies are stacks of flattened membranous stacks (they look like pancakes!). The Golgi Body
temporarily stores protein which can then leave the cell via vesicles pinching off from the Golgi.

4. LYSOSOMES
Lysosomes are small sac-like structures surrounded by a single membrane and containing strong
digestive enzymes which when released can break down worn out organelles or food. The lysosome is also
known as a suicide sac.

5. MITOCHONDRIA
The mitochondria are round "tube-like" organelles that are surrounded by a double membrane, with
the inner membrane being highly folded. the mitochondria are often referred to as the "powerhouse" of the
cell. the mitochondria releases food energy from food molecules to be used by the cell. This process is called
respiration. Some cells( muscle cells) require more energy than other cells and so would have many more
mitochondria.

6. VACUOLES
Vacuoles are fluid filled organelles enclosed by a membrane. They can store materials such as food,
water, sugar, minerals and waste products.
ANIMAL CELLS ORGANELLES NOT FOUND IN PLANT CELLS:

CILIA AND FLAGELLA

Both cilia and flagella are hair-like organelles which extend from the surface of many animal cells. the
structure is identical in both, except that flagella are longer and whiplike and cilia are shorter. There are
usually only a few flagella on a cell, while cilia may cover the entire surface of a cell. The function of cilia and
flagella ionclude locomotion for one-celled organisms and to move substances over cell surfaces in multi-
celled organisms.

ORGANELLES AND OTHER FEATURES FOUND ONLY IN PLANT CELLS:

1. CELL WALL
The cell wall is a rigid organelle composed of cellulose and lying just outside the cell membrane. The
cell wall gives the plant cell it's box-like shape. it also protects the cell. The cell wall contains pores which
allow materials to pass to and from the cell membrane.

2. PLASTIDS
Plastids are double membrane bound organelles. It is in plastids that plants make and store food.
Plastids are found in the cytoplasm and there are two main types:
Leucoplasts - colorless organelles which store starch or other plant nutrients. ( example - starch stored in a potato)
Chromoplasts - contain different colored pigments. The most important type of chromoplast is the chloroplast,
which contains the green pigment chlorophyll. This is important in the process of photosynthesis.

3. CENTRAL VACUOLE
The central vacuole is a large fluid-filled vacuole found in plants.