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Estimating Energy Requirements

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 Estimating Energy Requirements
27
Jacalyn J. Robert-McComb, Elvis Álvarez Carnero,
and Eduardo Iglesias-Gutiérrez

Abstract
Women energy requirements need be balance with total daily energy
expenditure (TDEE). Hence, meeting of energy needs for all components
of TDEE must be the most important concern for active females. Resting
metabolic rate (RMR), thermic effect of food (TEF), and physical activity
energy expenditure (PAEE) are the most important components of TDEE;
where the most variable is the PAEE. The quantification of each compo-
nent implies time consuming and expensive techniques, which are unvi-
able in field and clinical settings. However, indirect methods have been
developed to allow coaches, physicians, and nutritionists estimate TDEE.
In this chapter, we cover the physiological relevance of RMR, TEF, and
PAEE, and the indirect ways to obtain estimations of their values. On the
other hand, other variables factors affecting TDEE as adaptive thermogen-
esis and non-­exercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT) are highlighted.
Finally, a case study is suggested in order to introduce basic metabolic
calculations and physical activity level (PAL) concept.

Keywords
Energy • MET • Calorie • Basal metabolic rate • Resting metabolic rate

27.1 Learning Objectives

J.J. Robert-McComb, Ph.D., F.A.C.S.M.,
A.C.S.M., P.D. (*)
Department of Health, Exercise, and Sports,
Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, USA
e-mail: jacalyn.mccomb@ttu.edu
E.Á. Carnero, Ph.D.
Biodynamic and Body Composition Laboratory,
University of Malaga, Málaga, Spain
E. Iglesias-Gutiérrez, Ph.D., M.Sc.
Department of Functional Biology (Physiology),
University of Oviedo, Oviedo, Asturias, Spain
After completing this chapter, you should have
an understanding of:
1. The components of total energy expenditure;
2. The difference between the terms: resting energy
expenditure, resting metabolic rate basal energy
expenditure, and basal metabolic rate;
3. Adaptive thermogenesis and non-exercise
activity thermogenesis; and
4. Practical methods of estimating total energy
expenditure.

J.J. Robert-McComb et al. (eds.), The Active Female: Health Issues Throughout the Lifespan, 411
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-8884-2_27, © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2014
412
27.2 Introduction
Energy is defined as the capacity to do work.
Energy requirements are based on the energy
needs for optimal growth and development for
each individual at their stage in life in order to
maximize long-term good health. Energy
requirements for humans are not the same as
nutritional requirements (nutritional require-
ments are discussed in Chaps. 28–29 and 31–32
of this book). Even though we do discuss the dif-
ference between nutritional requirements and
energy requirements briefly, the focus of this
chapter is on the estimation of energy require-
ments. The Food and Agricultural Organization
of the United Nation’s (FAO) report, FAO Food
and Nutrition Technical Report Series 1 define
energy requirements as:
the amount of food energy needed to balance
energy expenditure in order to maintain body size,
body composition and a level of necessary and
desirable physical activity consistent with long-­
term good health. This includes the energy needed
for the optimal growth and development of chil-
dren, for the deposition of tissues during preg-
nancy, and for the secretion of milk during
lactation consistent with the good health of mother
and child [1].
27.3 R
 esearch Findings and
Nutritional Terminology
It can be confusing for the novice reader when
terms are readily exchanged from one source to
another when discussing energy. The terms
Calorie, calorie, and kcal are often used when
discussing energy. Other interchangeably used
terms when discussing TEE are basal meta-
bolic rate (BMR) rather than BEE, and resting
metabolic rate (RMR) rather than REE. In the
next section that follows, we will clarify some
of the terms used when discussing energy
requirements.
J.J. Robert-McComb et al.
27.3.1 Terms Used When Discussing
Total Energy
Expenditure (TEE)
27.3.1.1 Calorie (Capital C or
Uppercase C), Calories
(Lowercase c), and Kilocalorie
The difference in expressing heat energy with an
uppercase C, Calorie, or a lowercase c, calorie,
can be a source of confusion. The calorie (lower-
case c) is defined as the amount of energy
required to raise the temperature of 1 ml or 1 g of
water at 15 °C by 1 °C, or from 14.5 to 15.5 °C.
In the context of foods and nutrition, “large calo-
rie” (i.e., Calorie) with an uppercase C has been
used traditionally [2]. When an uppercase C is
used to express “Calorie” it is 1,000 cal and is
referred to as a kilocalorie (abbreviated as kcal).
A Calorie or kcal expresses the quantity of heat
needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg (1 L) of
water 1 °C (specifically from 14.5 to 15.5 °C).
The term kcal is used in the context of food and
nutrition because the amount of energy involved
in metabolism of food is fairly large.
27.3.1.2 Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)
Most simply stated, the BMR describes the rate
of energy expenditure that occurs in the postab-
sorptive state (after an overnight fast with no
food consumption for 12–14 h), resting comfort-
ably, supine, awake, and motionless in a thermo-
neutral environment. In this state, food and
physical activity have minimal influence on
metabolism. The BMR thus reflects the energy
needed to sustain the metabolic activities of cells
and tissues, plus the energy needed to maintain
blood circulation, respiration, and gastrointesti-
nal and renal processing (i.e., the basal cost of
living). BMR thus includes the energy cost asso-
ciated with remaining awake (the cost of arousal).
The sleeping metabolic rate (SMR) during the
morning is 5–10 % lower than BMR during the
morning hours [3]. The verbatim definition for
27  Estimating Energy Requirements
BMR that appears in the FAO Food and Nutrition
Technical Report Series 1 is as follows:
The amount of energy used for basal metabolism in
a period of time is called the basal metabolic rate
(BMR), and is measured under standard conditions
that include being awake in the supine position after
ten to 12 hrs of fasting and eight hrs of physical rest,
and being in a state of mental relaxation in an ambi-
ent environmental temperature that does not elicit
heat-generating or heat-dissipating processes [1].
From a physiological point of view, the concept
of BMR is:
… the amount of energy in basal (humans) or
standard (animals) state, when no work is done and
all energy is dissipated ….
the steady-state rate of heat production by a
whole organism under a set of “standard” condi-
tions … these conditions are that the individual is
an adult and is awake but resting, stress free, not
digesting food, and maintained at a temperature
that elicits no thermoregulatory effect on heat pro-
duction … BMR is measured either as heat pro-
duction, or indirectly as oxygen consumption from
which it can be accurately predicted [4].
27.3.1.3 Basal Energy Expenditure (BEE)
The BMR is commonly extrapolated to 24 h to be
more meaningful, and it is then referred to as
basal energy expenditure (BEE), expressed as
kcal/24 h. It is most simply defined as the mini-
mal amount of energy in kcal that is compatible
with life over a 24 h period. All of the conditions
associated with BMR (no food consumption for
12–14 h, resting comfortably, supine, awake, and
motionless in a thermoneutral environment) must
be met for BEE [2].
27.3.1.4 Resting Metabolic Rate (RMR)
RMR has traditionally been proposed to be a
surrogate of BMR. If any of the conditions for
BMR have not been met (early morning assess-
ment following a 12–14 h fast, no physical exer-
cise following awakening, remaining awake but
motionless, supine, comfortable and in a ther-
moneutral environment) then energy expendi-
ture is referred to as RMR. Resting metabolic
rate energy expenditure under resting conditions
tends to be somewhat higher (10–20 %) than
under basal conditions due to increases in
413
energy expenditure caused by recent food intake
(i.e., by the “thermic effect of food”) or by the
delayed effect of recently completed physical
activity [2].
27.3.1.5  Resting Energy Expenditure (REE)
When RMR is extrapolated to 24 h, then it is then
referred to as resting energy expenditure (REE),
expressed as kcal/24 h. It is most simply defined
as resting energy expenditure expressed in kcal
over a 24 h period [5]. This term is used when all
of the standard conditions required for BMR
have not been met.
27.3.1.6 Thermic Effect of Food
The thermic effect of food (TEF) is the energy we
spend to digest, absorb, distribute and store the
nutrients ingested [2]. The type of food that you
eat will have an effect on TEF, for example, spicy
foods increase TEF.
27.3.1.7 Energy Balance
Daily energy balance fluctuates considerably,
yet over the long term, energy balance is very
precise. Positive and negative energy balances
result in weight gain and weight loss, accord-
ingly, mainly in the form of fat. The amount of
fat stored in an adult of normal weight com-
monly ranges from 13.2 to 44 lb (6–20 kg).
Body fat energy reserves range from approxi-
mately 50,000–200,000 kcal since 1 g of fat
provides 9.4 kcal. This vast store of energy
reserves provides a large buffer capacity as
well as the ability to provide energy to survive
for several months of severe food deprivation.
Large deviations of energy balance, both posi-
tive and negative, occur daily by several hun-
dred kcal/day in both normal and overweight
subjects. Yet over the long term, energy bal-
ance is maintained implying that the cumula-
tive error in adjusting energy intake to
expenditure amounts to less than 2 % of energy
expenditure [2].
27.3.1.8 Estimated Energy
Requirement
According to the Dietary Reference Intakes [2],
the Estimated Energy Requirement (EER) is
414
defined as “the average dietary energy intake that
is predicted to maintain energy balance in a
healthy, adult of a defined age, gender, weight,
height, and level of physical activity consistent
with good health.”
27.3.1.9 Metabolic Equivalent
The Metabolic Equivalent of Task (MET), or
simply metabolic equivalent, is a physiological
measure expressing the energy cost of physical
activities and is defined as the ratio of metabolic
rate (and therefore the rate of energy consump-
tion) during a specific physical activity to a
reference metabolic rate, set by convention to
3.5 ml O2 kg−1 min−1 or equivalently, 1
MET = 1  kcal  kg−1 h−1 [6]. MET is used as a
means of expressing the intensity and energy
expenditure of activities in a way comparable
among persons of different weight. If someone
is working at 10 METs, it is implied that they are
working ten times above their resting rate.
27.3.1.10 C  ompendium of Physical
Activities
The Compendium of Physical Activities was
developed for use in epidemiologic studies to
standardize the assignment of MET intensities in
physical activity questionnaires. Compendium
activities are classified by a 5-digit code that
identifies the category (heading) as the first two
digits and type (description) of activity as the last
three digits. Metabolic equivalents are listed for
each activity. The calculation from METs to
­calories is very easy since 1 MET = 1 kcal kg−1 h−1.
For example if an activity has a MET value of 7
METs then 7 METs = 7 kcal kg−1 h−1. The com-
pendium has been used in studies worldwide to
assign intensity units to physical activity ques-
tionnaires and to develop innovative ways to
assess energy expenditure in physical activity
studies. The compendium was published in 1993
and updated in 2000 and 2011 [6]. Appendix 1
has the updated version published in 2011: You
can also find the compendium and modified ver-
sions of the compendium at https://sites.google.
com/site/compendiumofphysicalactivities/[7].
J.J. Robert-McComb et al.
27.3.2 Energy Requirements Versus
Nutrient Requirements
Recommendations for nutrient intakes are gener-
ally set to provide an ample supply of the various
nutrients needed for all healthy individuals in a
given life stage and gender group. Recommended
intakes are thus set to correspond to the median
amounts sufficient to meet a specific criterion of
adequacy plus two standard deviations to meet
the needs of nearly all healthy individuals.
However, this is not the case with energy.
Excess energy cannot be eliminated, and this
energy is eventually deposited in the form of
body fat. This reserve provides a means to main-
tain metabolism during periods of limited food
intake, but it can also result in obesity.
An excellent reference text entitled, Dietary
Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber,
Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino
Acids (Macronutrients) [2] details the nutrient and
energy needs of individuals at all stages of life.
This project was funded in part by the United States
Department of Health and Human Services Office
of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion.
A free PDF copy can be downloaded at http://www.
nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id = 10490.
27.3.3 Energy Requirements
Energy requirements are directly related to the
components of energy expenditure. In 1985, The
World Health Organization stated that “as a mat-
ter of principle, we believe the estimates of
energy requirements should, as far as possible, be
based on estimates of energy expenditure.” [8]
Several modifications are proposed in the updated
FAO Food and Nutrition Technical Report Series
1 published in 2004 from the former report pub-
lished in 1985 [1, 8]. The 2004 report is a result
of an expert consultation held in Rome, October
17–24 in 2001. Representing agencies included
The United Nations University, World Health
Organization and The Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations. This report
can be downloaded free of charge at http://www.
fao.org/docrep/007/y5686e/y5686e00.htm.
27  Estimating Energy Requirements
27.3.4 The Components of Energy
Expenditure
In the human body, TEE is the sum of: (1) BEE,
which includes a small component associated
with arousal, as compared to sleeping; (2) TEF
which is the energy we spend to digest, absorb,
distribute and store the nutrients ingested; (3)
EEPA which is the energy expended in physical
activity; and (4) the energy expended in deposit-
ing new tissues and in producing milk. Figure 27.1
depicts the components of TEE using the doubly
labeled water technique method. Total energy
expenditure from doubly labeled water does not
include the energy content of tissue development
kcal
3000-
2500- Energy expended
in physical activity
(EEPA)
~15% - 30%
2000-
Thermic effect of
feeding (TEF) ~ 10%
1500-
1000- Basal (BEE) and Resting energy
expenditure (REE)
~60% - 75%
REE is 10-20% higher than BEE
500-
Thermoregulation can elicit increases in
energy expenditure that are greater when
ambient temperatures are below the zone
of thermoneutrality.
0-
Fig. 27.1 Components of total energy expenditure from
the doubly labeled water method (DLW). Note: TEE from
DWL does not include the energy content of the maturing
tissue constituents during normal growth and pregnancy
or the milk produced during lactation
415
during normal growth and pregnancy or the milk
produced during lactation,.
Some sources may state that TEE is composed
of: (1) resting energy expenditure (REE); (2)
TEF; and (3) EEPA [5]. If all of the conditions
required for BEE have not been met then the term
REE is used.
Regardless of the term used, the resting or
basal component of energy expenditure consti-
tutes the largest portion (60–75 %) of the TEE
[9]. The only exception to this would be in
extremely active individuals. The TEF represents
approximately 10 % of the total daily energy
expenditure, although it depends on the macronu-
trient content of the food ingested. The most vari-
able component of TEE is the contribution of
physical activity (EEPA) which varies from
approximately 15–30 % depending on the activity
level of the individual [2].
There are many factors that affect the compo-
nents that make up TEE (BEE:TEF:EEPA)
whether or not that refers to BEE, REE, BMR, or
RMR. From a practical point of view, RMR is
usually used in equations to estimate TEE, there-
fore our discussion will center on the factors that
affect REE (RMR extrapolated to a 24 h period)
or RMR rather than BEE or BMR. We will also
discuss the factors that affect TEF and EEPA.
27.3.4.1 Factors Affecting Resting
Energy Expenditure
Numerous factors cause the REE to vary among
individuals. Interestingly, three factors, age, sex
and fat free mass (FFM), account for about 80 %
of the variability in REE [10]. Additional contrib-
uting variables include: (1) body size and weight
[body surface area (BSA)]; (2) hormonal status
[2, 5];(3) age; (4) sex; and (5) fat mass. Age, sex,
and FFM are highly correlated and these three
factors combined together account for about
80 % of the variability in REE [10].
Body surface area is computed from height and
weight, taller individuals who weigh more will
have the greatest surface area. Individuals with
greater surface area will have the greatest meta-
bolic rate. Various body surface formulas have
been developed over the years. There is debate
about which is the best formula to use since there is
416 J.J. Robert-McComb et al.

Table 27.1  Equations to estimate body surface area ing rest [12]. Henry [12] also states that “the fall
Name of formula Formula in BMR with ageing may be less dramatic than
Boyd previously perceived. Indeed, some subjects may
Haycock BSA (m2) = 0.024265 × Height show an increase in BMR with ageing.”
(cm)0.3964 × Weight (kg)0.5378 Sex differences in metabolic rates are primar -
DuBois and DuBois BSA (m2) = 0.20247 × Height ily contributed to differences in body size and
(m)0.725 × Weight (kg)0.425
composition. Women have approximately
Gehan and George BSA (m2) = 0.0235 × Height
(cm) 0.42246
 × Weight (kg)0.51456 5–10 % lower REE than men primarily due to
Mosteller BSA (m ) = ([Height (cm)
2 differences in LBM [5].
 × Weight (kg)]/3,600)½ Hormonal status also has an effect on the met-
or in inches and pounds: BSA abolic rate. The hormones associated with the
(m2) = ([Height (in.) × Weight sympathetic nervous system or those involved in
(lb.)]/3,131)½
the fight or flight response such as epinephrine
Adapted from Body Surface Area Calculator for medica- and norepinephrine increase metabolic rate.
tion doses at http://www.halls.md/body-surface-area/
bsa.htm Probably the hormones most closely aligned
with REE are the thyroid hormones since these
hormones are considered to be the permissive
no standardization of formulas at this time. The hormones and allow other hormones to exert
Mosteller formula is gaining support as a common their full effect. Also the metabolic rate of
standard because it is much simpler and can be eas- women fluctuates with the menstrual cycle. An
ily calculated with a handheld calculator. A Web average of 359 kcal/day difference in the BMR
site that can be used to estimate BSA ishttp://www. has been measured from 1 week before ovulation
halls.md/body-surface-­area/bsa.htm. Table 27.1 and just before the onset of menstruation. The
lists formulas to determine BSA. average increase in energy expenditure is about
As stated previously, one of the main 150 kcal/day during the second half of the men-
­determinants of REE is fat-free mass (FFM) or strual cycle [13].
lean body mass (LBM). Because of their greater
FFM, athletes or individuals who are extremely 27.3.4.2 Factors Affecting the Thermic
fit have approximately a 5 % higher BMR than Effect of Food
nonathletic individuals. The effect of age has on The TEF accounts for approximately 10 % of the
REE is highly correlated with FFM. Resting TEE. The TEF varies with the composition of the
energy expenditure is highest during periods of diet and is greater after the consumption of and
rapid growth, chiefly during the first and second proteins than after carbohydrates and fat. Spicy
years of life, and peaks throughout adolescence foods enhance and prolong the effect of TEF.
and puberty [11]. As a child becomes older, the Caffeine and nicotine also stimulate the TEF [5].
caloric requirement for growth is reduced to
about 1 % of the total energy expended. Resting 27.3.4.3 Factors Affecting the Energy
energy expenditure continues to decline with Expended in Physical Activity
increasing age in adulthood. The loss of FFM and Exercise
with aging can be attenuated with exercise; how- Before we begin our discussion of energy during
ever, exercise cannot completely negate the physical activity and exercise, we need to define
effects of age. There is approximately a 2–3 % and differentiate the terms physical activity and
decline in REE after early adulthood largely due exercise. According to Caspersen, Powell, and
to loss of FFM [11]. Some authors also account Christenson [14]:
for the reduction in brain weight with age on Physical activity is defined as any bodily move-
REE or basal metabolism, since it is an extremely ment produced by skeletal muscles that results in
metabolically active organ. In fact, the brain is energy expenditure. The energy expenditure can be
more metabolically active than muscle tissue dur- measured in kilocalories. Physical activity in daily
27  Estimating Energy Requirements 417

life can be categorized into occupational, sports, Table 27.2  MET values for physical activity levels
conditioning, household, or other activities.
Physical activity intensity MET
Exercise is a subset of physical activity that is
planned, structured, and repetitive and has as a Light intensity activities <3
final or an intermediate objective the improvement Sleeping 0.9
or maintenance of physical fitness. Watching television 1.0
In this chapter, when we speak of physical Writing, desk work, typing 1.8
Walking, 1.7 mph (2.7 km/h), level ground, 2.3
activity, we include the subset exercise. The
strolling, very slow
energy expended in physical activity (EEPA) is Walking, 2.5 mph (4 km/h) 2.9
the most variable component of TEE. To illus- Moderate intensity activities 3–6
trate this point think of this, the basal oxygen Bicycling, stationary, 50 W, very light effort 3.0
(O2) consumption rate of adults is approxi- Walking 3.0 mph (4.8 km/h) 3.3
mately 250 mL/min while elite athletes, such as Calisthenics, home exercise, light or moderate 3.5
marathon runners, can sustain O2 consumption effort, general
Walking 3.4 mph (5.5 km/h) 3.6
rates of 5,000 mL/min [2]. So you can see quite
Bicycling, <10 mph (16 km/h), leisure, to work 4.0
easily that the scale of metabolic responses to or for pleasure
exercise varies over a 20-fold range. The EEPA Bicycling, stationary, 100 W, light effort 5.5
not only includes the energy cost of the move- Vigorous intensity activities >6
ment but also includes energy during these Jogging, general 7.0
activities such as shivering and maintaining Calisthenics (e.g., push-ups, sit-ups, pull-ups, 8.0
postural control [2, 5]. jumping jacks), heavy, vigorous effort
Running jogging, in place 8.0
Energy cost of physical activity is related to
Rope jumping 10.0
intensity, duration, skill level, and FFM. As the
From compendium of Physical Activity found at https://
intensity of the physical activity and or duration
sites.google.com/site/compendiumofphysicalactivities/
of the activity increases, so does the energy home. Project supported by University of Arizona and the
expenditure. All else being equal, individuals National Cancer Institute
with less skill in performing an activity will
expend more energy in performing the motion.
Also, individuals with greater FFM will expend
more energy at the same intensity and or duration for measuring TEE in free-living individuals.
of the exercise. In order to estimate the energy The Doubly Labeled Water Technique (DLW) for
cost associated with activity or exercise, we will measuring TEE in free-living people uses two
refer to the Compendium of Physical Activity [7] stable isotopes of water (deuterium [2H2O] and
that can be found in Appendix 1. The MET value oxygen-18 [H218O]); the difference in the turn-
for each activity is listed. These values can then over rates of the two isotopes measures the car-
be converted to kcal by using the formula 1 bon dioxide production rate, from which total
MET = 1  kcal  kg−1 h−1. We also have a more gen- energy expenditure can be calculated [15]. The
eralized version of activity categories in premise of the method is that the O2 atoms in
Table 27.2 for the sake of simplicity. expired CO2 have isotopically equilibrated atoms.
Thus, after a loading dose of water labeled with
2H and 18O, the 2H is eliminated from the body
27.4 Contemporary as water, whereas the 18O is eliminated from the
Understanding of the Issues body as water and CO 2. The difference between
the elimination rates is therefore proportional to
27.4.1 Methods of Measuring Energy CO2 production and hence energy expenditure
Expenditure can be estimated using calculated O2 from the
equation of respiratory quotient (RQ = VCO2/
The Doubly Labeled Water Technique (DLW) is VO2); RQ is estimated from respiratory quotient
currently considered the most accurate technique of diet or assumed to be 0.85 (Western diet).
418
The primary advantage of this technique is its
accuracy (2–8 % precision) and that it provides a
measure of energy expenditure that incorporates
all the components of TEE [5, 15]. Also it can be
used to measure free-living energy expenditure,
while subjects engage in normal daily activities.
It is for these reasons, that the DLW technique
has been used for validation studies and to gener-
ate data to develop prediction equations [2].
Normally, estimates of EEPA using different
techniques are validated against the DLW technique.
However, the expense of the technique makes it
impractical for routine use by clinicians.
Direct calorimetry is a method for measuring
the amount of energy expended by monitoring the
rate at which a person loses heat from the body
using a structure called a whole-room calorimeter.
Direct calorimetry provides a measure of energy
expended in the form of heat but does not provide
information on the type of fuel being oxidized.
Indirect calorimetry is a method of estimating
energy expenditure by measuring oxygen con-
sumption and carbon dioxide utilizing a respirator
gas-exchange canopy or ventilation hood. The
amount of heat produced by oxidation of a nutri-
ent is proportional to the consumed O2 and the
CO2 produced. The energy per liter of oxygen will
be converted to kilocalories of heat produced and
extrapolated to energy expenditure in 24 h. Data
obtained from indirect calorimetry permit the cal-
culation of the respiratory quotient (RQ), which is
calculated as the ratio moles CO 2 expired/moles
O2 consumed. The volume of O2 used and CO 2
produced and the amount of heat released in the
oxidative process, depend on the type of nutrient
being oxidized. This allows determine the propor-
tion of each substrate being used, ranging nor-
mally from 1 (only carbohydrates) to 0.7. It is
assumed that all the O2 consumed is used to oxi-
dize substrates, that all the CO 2 produced can be
recovered, and that the proteins are not involved
primarily in energy production.
Accelerometers detect body displacement
electronically, using piezo-resistive or piezo-­
electric sensors, with varying degrees of sensitiv-
ity; the triaxial monitor uses three different planes
to measure movement rather than a single vertical
plane, as in the uniaxial monitor, and has been
J.J. Robert-McComb et al.
found to be more accurate than the uniaxial mon-
itor [16]. Portable uniaxial accelerometer units
have been widely used to detect physical activity,
but these instruments are not sufficiently sensi-
tive to quantify the physical activity of a given
free-living subject, although they are valuable for
comparing activity levels between groups of sub-
jects [17–19].
Minute-by-minute heart rate monitors have
been found to be valid in estimating habitual TEE
in certain populations but not in individuals, at
least in the absence of exercise [11]. Variance in
other factors that also affect heart rate, such as
emotion, also impact this relationship. According
to Levine [19]:
In humans, there is a significant relationship
between heart rate and energy expenditure, at least
in the absence of exercise. The conceptual limita-
tion is that energy expenditure and heart rate are
not linearly related for an individual in part because
cardiac stroke volume changes with changing heart
rate and even posture.
Many questionnaires have been developed to
measure physical activity in adults. Currently, the
most widely used are the different versions of the
International Physical Activity Questionnaire
(IPAQ). Van Poppel et al. [20] reviewed the validity,
reliability and responsiveness of 85 PA (physical
activity) questionnaires, including the IPAQ. In
light of their results, these authors conclude that, no
questionnaire or type of questionnaire for assessing
PA was superior and therefore could not be strongly
recommended above others. Furthermore, they
observed that there is a clear lack of standardization
of PA questionnaires, resulting in many variations
not well described and validated. Thus, researchers
should decide which questionnaire best fit their
purposes considering the content of the question-
naire, the nature of the sample and the available
validation studies [20, 21].
More recently, Bonn et al. [22] developed the
Web-based questionnaire, Active-Q. The authors
validate their questionnaire against DLW and
conclude that Active-Q is a valid method for
estimating total energy expenditure, and is also
reproducible and user-friendly method. However,
many methodological limitations make this con-
clusion perhaps too audacious.
27  Estimating Energy Requirements
27.4.2 Estimated Energy Expenditure
Prediction Equations
The Harris–Benedict formula published in 1919
[23] is one of the most widely used formulas to
determine RMR. Results of the accuracy of the
prediction equation are mixed. Daly et al. [24]
suggested that it overestimates RMR by 7–24 % in
many contemporary populations. However,
Hasson et al. [25] compared predicted RMR
derived from commonly used prediction regres-
sion equations to measured RMR in a diverse
group of individuals and found that the Harris–
Benedict equation was the most likely to predict
RMR to within 10 % of measured RMR. In
addition, the Harris–Benedict equation accurately
predicted RMR in both sexes, all body mass index
(BMI) categories, individuals aged 30–60 years
and all racial/ethnic groups. Table 27.3 includes
the original Harris–Benedict prediction equation
published in 1919 and a 1984 Harris–Benedict
equations revised by Roza and Shizgal [26].
The 1985 predictive equations included in the
Technical Report Series 724 [8] were developed
from a meta-analysis of about 100 studies con-
ducted over a long time period (1914–1980),
including the subjects studied by Harris and
Benedict. The current predictive equations pub-
lished in 2004 can be found in the FAO Food and
Nutrition Technical Report Series [1]. The full
report can be downloaded free of charge at the
World Health Organization Web site (seehttp://
www.who.int/nutrition/publications/nutrientre-
quirements/9251052123/en/index.html).
However, Henry et al. [27] found that the equa-
tions published in the FAO Food and Nutrition
Technical Report Series overestimated REE.
Frankenfield et al. [28] examined the validity
of RMR prediction equations applied to the gen-
eral public and concluded that the Mifflin–St Jeor
equation is the most likely to estimate RMR
within 10 % of that measured: However, note-
worthy limitations exist when it is generalized to
certain age and ethnic groups. This equation is
presented in Table 27.4 [29].
Hasson et al. [25] highlighted that one limitation
of the Frankenfield et al. [28] systematic review
of predictive equations for RMR was the absence
419
Table 27.3 Harris–Benedict prediction equations
Step 1: calculating the BMR
The original Harris–Benedict equations published in
1918 and 1919
Men BMR = 66.4730 + (13.7516 × weight
in kg) + (5.0033 × height in
cm) − (6.7550 × age in years)
Women BMR = 655.0955 + (9.5634 × weight
in kg) + (1.8496 × height in
cm) − (4.6756 × age in years)
The Harris–Benedict equations revised by Roza and
Shizgal in 1984
Men BMR = 88.362 + (13.397 × weight in
kg) + (4.799 × height in
cm) − (5.677 × age in years)
Women BMR = 447.593 + (9.247 × weight in
kg) + (3.098 × height in
cm) − (4.330 × age in years)
Step 2: applying the Harris–Benedict Principle
The following table enables calculation of an
individual’s recommended daily calorie intake to
maintain current weight
Little to no Daily calories needed = BMR × 1.2
exercise
Light exercise Daily calories needed = BMR × 1.375
(1–3 days/week)
Moderate exercise Daily calories needed = BMR × 1.55
(3–5 days/week)
Heavy exercise Daily calories needed = BMR × 1.725
(6–7 days/week)
Very heavy Daily calories needed = BMR × 1.9
exercise (twice
per day, extra
heavy workouts)
From Wikipedia at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Harris-Benedict_equation
of a direct comparison of these regression
equations to a criterion measure. Results from
Hasson’s study [25] suggest the Mifflin–St Jeor
equation is primarily useful in overweight/obese
groups, whereas the equations in the FAO Food
and Nutrition Technical Report Series 1 may be
optimal in younger adults aged 18–49 years.
A considerable number of prediction equa-
tions have been developed since 1990. Most of
the equations have not been adequately validated
and the equations have a poor predictive value for
individuals. The basis of several prediction
­methods is an estimation of REE to which is
added a “stress” or “injury” factor [27]. The main
advantage of these “newly” developed prediction
420
Table 27.4  An estimated energy expenditure prediction
equation using the Mifflin–St Jeor equation to determine
resting metabolic rate
Step 1: Estimate resting metabolic rate (RMR) using
the Mifflin–St Jeor equation
RMR = 9.99 × weight (kg) + 6.25 × height
(cm) − 4.92 × age (year) + 166 × sex (males, 1; females,
0) − 161.
Step 2: Determine additional caloric requirements
based on level of activity
Physical activity level Percentage above resting level
Bed rest 10
Quiet rest 30
Light activity 40–60
Moderate activity 60–80
Heavy activity 100
Additional caloric requirements = RMR × Percentage
above resting level
Step 3: Determine predicted total energy expenditure
(TEE)
TEE = RMR + Additional caloric requirements based on
activity
Adapted from Physiology of Fitness (3rd ed.) (p. 359) by
B. J. Sharkey, 1990, Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics
equations to estimate energy expenditure (EE) is
that they are easy to use and inexpensive [30].
The Standing Committee on the Scientific
Evaluation of Dietary Reference Intakes of the
Food and Nutrition Board, Institute of Medicine,
and the National Academies, in collaboration
with Health Canada developed prediction equa-
tions to estimate energy requirements (EER) for
people according to their life-stage group [2].
The EER incorporates age, weight, height, gen-
der, and level of physical activity for individuals
in various life-stages. The equations for girls and
women published in the 2005 Dietary Reference
Intakes for Energy Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat,
Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino
Acids can be found in Table 27.5. Equations for
both genders can be downloaded free of charge
on line at The National Academies Press at http://
www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id = 10490.
27.5 Future Directions
Recommendations for energy expenditure used
by exercise physiologists incorporate a thermic
constant in exercise physiology. One of the most
J.J. Robert-McComb et al.
commonly used thermic constants of exercise
physiology is the MET [6]. TEE can be estimated
after quantifying daily common activities (sleep-
ing, home activities, etc.) and multiplying by a
specific MET-activity value (see an example in
the case study at end of the chapter). MET-­
activity values can also be found in Table 27.2
and Appendix 1. You can also find the compen-
dium and modified versions of the compendium
at https://sites.google.com/site/compendiumof-
physicalactivities/. A noteworthy comment about
the compendium taken directly from their Web
site is as follows:
When using the Compendium to estimate the
energy cost of activities, investigators should
remind participants to recall only the time spent in
movement. The Compendium was not developed
to determine the precise energy cost of physical
activity within individuals, but rather to provide a
classification system that standardizes the MET
intensities of physical activities used in survey
research. The values in the Compendium do not
estimate the energy cost of physical activity in
individuals in ways that account for differences in
body mass, adiposity, age, sex, efficiency of
movement, geographic and environmental condi-
tions in which the activities are performed. Thus,
individual differences in energy expenditure for
the same activity can be large and the true energy
cost for an individual may or may not be close to
the stated mean MET level as presented in the
Compendium [7].
When estimating energy requirements using
the compendium, individuals must take into
account factors that affect the RMR as well as a
concept called adaptive thermogenesis. In the
information that ensues, these factors are dis-
cussed as well as a relatively new concept called
the non-exercise activity thermogenesis. Formulas
and examples of how to estimate energy using the
compendium are also presented.
27.5.1 Resting Metabolic Rate and
Adaptive Thermogenesis
RMR represents at least 60 % of TEE [31].
Measurements of RMR have been performed
extensively on animals and humans using tradi-
tional calorimeters [32]. Several definitions of
RMR have been reported in animals [4] and
Table 27.5  Physical activity level index (PAL) and physical activity coefficient (PA) used to derive estimated energy
requirements (EER) for women

Sedentary Low active Active Very active

PAL (1.0–1.39) (1.4–1.59) (1.6–1.89) (1.9–2.5)
Typical daily Typical daily living Typical daily living Typical daily living activities
living activities activities PLUS activities PLUS at PLUS at least 60 min of
(e.g., household 30–60 min of daily least 60 min of daily daily moderate activities an
tasks, walking moderate activities moderate activities additional 60 min of
to the bus) (e.g., walking at vigorous activity or 120 min
5–7 km/h) of moderate activity
PA PA (level 1) PA (level 2) PA (level 3) PA (level 4)
Girls 3–18 year 1.00 1.16 1.31 1.56
Women 19 year+ 1.00 1.12 1.27 1.45
Equations to estimate energy requirement using the PA
Infants and young children
Estimated energy requirement (kcal/day) = Total energy expenditure + Energy deposition
0–3 months EER = (89 × weight [kg] − 100) + 175
4–6 months EER = (89 × weight [kg] − 100) + 56
7–12 months EER = (89 × weight [kg] − 100) + 22
13–35 months EER = (89 × weight [kg] − 100) + 20
Children and adolescents 3–18 years
Estimated energy requirement (kcal/day) = Total energy expenditure + Energy deposition
Girls
3–8 years
EER = 135.3 − (30.8 × age [year]) + PA × [(10.0 × weight [kg]) + (934 × height [m])] + 20
9–18 years
EER = 135.3 − (30.8 × age [year]) + PA × [(10.0 × weight [kg]) + (934 × height [m])] + 25
Adults 19 years and older
Estimated energy requirement (kcal/day) = Total energy expenditure
Women
EER = 354 − (6.91 × age [year]) + PA × [(9.36 × weight [kg]) + (726 × height [m])]
Pregnancy
Estimated Energy Requirement (kcal/day) = Nonpregnant EER + Pregnancy Energy Deposition
First trimester EER = Nonpregnant EER + 0
Second trimester EER = Nonpregnant EER + 340
Third trimester EER = Nonpregnant EER + 452
Lactation
Estimated energy requirement (kcal/day) = Nonpregnant EER + Milk energy output − Weight loss
0–6 months EER = Nonpregnant EER + 500 − 170
postpartum
7–12 months EER = Nonpregnant EER + 400 − 0
postpartum
Note: These equations provide an estimate of energy requirement. Relative body weight (i.e., loss, stable, gain) is the
preferred indicator of energy adequacy
Adapted from A Report of the Panel on Macronutrients, Subcommittees on Upper Reference Levels of Nutrients and
Interpretation and Uses of Dietary Reference Intakes, and the Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of
Dietary Reference Intakes. Dietary reference intakes for energy carbohydrate, fiber, fat, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein,
and amino acids (macronutrients). Washington DC: National Academy Press; 2005
Complete report can be viewed and downloaded at http://fnic.nal.usda.gov/dietary-guidance/dietary-reference-intakes/
dri-reports
A Report of the Panel on Macronutrients, Subcommittees on Upper Reference Levels of Nutrients and Interpretation
and Uses of Dietary Reference Intakes, and the Standing Committee on the Scientific Evaluation of Dietary Reference
Intakes. Dietary reference intakes for energy carbohydrate, fiber, fat, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein, and amino acids
(macronutrients). Washington DC: National Academy Press; 2005
PAL = Physical activity level or physical activity index
PA = Physical activity coefficient
EER = Estimated energy requirement
422
Table 27.6  Equations to estimate resting metabolic rate (RMR) in women using body composition variables as paradigm
Author
Schofield [34]a
Arciero et al. [36]
Smith et al. [63]
Wang et al. [35]
Bosy-Westphal et al. [64]c
W weight (kg), H height (m), FFM fat free mass (kg), FM fat mass (%), VO2max maximal oxygen uptake (L min−1)
a
A specific model for each person must be selected after classifying women inside of age grade
b
To convert kJ to kcal, divide by 4.18
c
A specific model for each person must be selected after classifying women inside of %FM grade
humans [33]. As discussed in this chapter
equations to estimate RMR are in widespread
use. Since the first models created by Harris and
Benedict [23] several equations have been created
using anthropometric variables [34], body com-
position models [35], or VO2max [36] as predictors
of RMR. Nevertheless, FFM continue to be the
most important predictor in large heterogeneous
samples [37].
FFM is composed of skeletal muscle mass,
bone, internal organs, and residual mass, and
each one has specific metabolic rates [38]. The
latter presents a high variability between subjects
with different height, age, and weight body [39].
Indeed, one kg of FFM must have a different
RMR between individuals with the same FFM
but different height, age, or gender [40], and
­particularly in obese adults [39]. Moreover, FFM
has not been reported to be the principal determi-
nant of RMR in overweight in obese women [41].
In order to resolve this conundrum, new models,
which estimate individual masses of internal
organs and tissues, have been developed to apply
specific-organ metabolic rates to predict RMR
[37], whereas older equations, which used
anthropometric and two-compartment body com-
position models, have shown poor validity in
predicting RMR in several populations, mainly
J.J. Robert-McComb et al.
Equation (kcal/day)
<3 years: RMR = 16.252 W + 1,023.2 H − 413.5
3–10 years: RMR = 16.969 W + 161.8 H + 371.2
10–18 years: RMR = 8.365 W + 465.6 H + 200.0
18–30 years: RMR = 13.623 W + 283.0 H + 98.2
30–65 years: RMR = 8.126 W + 1.43 H + 843.7
>65 years: RMR=7.887 W+458.2 H−17.7
RMR = 13.7 FFM + 3.3 FM + 74 VO2max − 50 + 596
RMR = 3.39 FFM + 0.45 VO2max + 77.41 (kJ/dia)b
RMR = 24.6 FFM + 175
%FM between >10 and 30: RMR = 11.8 FFM + 14.4 FM + 629.2
%FM between >30 and 40: RMR = 5.5 FFM + 19.3 FM + 926.3
%FM between >40 and 50: RMR = 12.0 FFM + 10.4 FM + 886
%FM >50: RMR = 11.5 FFM + 7.1 FM + 1,097.2
among overweight and obese people [28, 34, 39].
Since 1918, when Harris and Benedict proposed
their classical equation to estimate RMR [23],
new models have been developed to estimate
RMR, some of them specific for women, ages,
and ethnics. Although body composition-based
equations should be the best approach, we pro-
pose several solutions for different assessment
context (see Table 27.6)
27.5.1.1 Adaptive Thermogenesis
Equations developed to estimate RMR have been
validated from cross-sectional studies, so those
must not always fit to apply in longitudinal inter-
ventions, where qualitative and quantitative
changes of FFM may result. Alterations in all
components of energy expenditure may occurs
following weight loss programs with either
energy restriction alone, exercise alone or a com-
bination of both [42]. When these alterations are
above or below the predictions we can say that an
“adaptive thermogenesis” (AT) has occurred. The
operational definition of adaptive thermogenesis
is: “heat production in response to environmental
temperature or diet, and serves the purpose of
protecting the organism from cold exposure or
regulating energy balance after changes in diet.”
[43] Adaptive thermogenesis has been considered
27  Estimating Energy Requirements
to be the result of adaptation to diet and tempera-
ture. Adaptive thermogenesis is thought to occur
principally in human brown adipose tissue. Since
studies have shown that exercise training can
modify the energy efficiency of skeletal muscle
mass [44], it may be possible that exercise training
promotes adaptive thermogenesis in skeletal
muscle. While brown adipose tissue is scarce in
adult humans, we cannot completely forget the
contribution of skeletal muscle to adaptive ther-
mogenesis. Even, the influence of brown adipose
tissue deposits have recently been effectively
demonstrated in humans also [45]. So greater
brown adipose tissue content is related to higher
RMR [46], which may have important implica-
tions for energy expenditure regulation [47].
Although by definition AT is a concept princi-
pally related to RMR, AT could also affect other
components of TDEE. Thus, the term “improved
energy efficiency” (reduction of the ratio; kJ or
kcal of work output/kJ or kcal of internal work)
has been coined in the past to explain the phenom-
enon of reduced EE after physical activity or exer-
cise interventions. However, changes in energy
efficiency are conceptually different to the changes
of adaptive thermogenesis [see (27.1)].
In this chapter, we only use the term “adaptive
thermogenesis” in connection with RMR; even
though reductions in walking EE after exercise
training may be a form of adaptive thermogene-
sis. Considering previous paragraphs, AT can be
result of increased or decreased EE. Herein, our
interest is focused on suppressed adaptive ther-
mogenesis. The importance of adaptive thermo-
genesis has generated some controversies in the
field of the physiology of energy expenditure
regulation. Some authors have postulated that
alterations on RMR are explained by changes on
FFM [42]; moreover, some have proposed that
after exercise training RMR is conserved [48].
Since that the concept of AT is governed by
reductions in RMR, which are not explained by
changes on body composition [49], an AT must
not be expected after exercise training, and so
RMR will have not any impact on weight control
[48]. On the other hand, small alterations in any
component of TEE can lead to a substantial
impact on daily energy balance [50], other
423
researchers have demonstrated that AT has a
clinically significant impact on TEE [47].
­
Furthermore, adaptive thermogenesis has been
confirmed in a number of reports [51]. However,
the assessment of AT is difficult and requires
good experimental control, large sample size and
high accuracy, as small differences can be clini-
cally important in the long-term [50].
Traditionally, a reduction in RMR after weight
loss has been associated with a parallel reduction
in FFM. Nonetheless, several studies have shown
that this adaptation is mostly dependent on FM
[52] and distribution of FM and FFM [53], since
the reductions in FFM-adjusted RMR present a
close relationship either with reductions of FM
and FFM after interventions with energy intake
restriction [54]. Also, in several studies where
exercise and diet were used, a reduction on RMR
was confirmed even though FFM was conserved
[55], therefore AT must trade on some compo-
nent of FFM possibly skeletal muscle.
Several molecular mechanism have been sug-
gested to explain an uncoupling between heat
produced and synthesized ATP, which may be
responsible for AT at skeletal muscle mass level.
The proposed molecular mechanisms include:
leakage of protons back across the mitochondrial
inner membrane which is catalyzed by uncou-
pling proteins (UCPs [47]); decreased proton
pumping by cytochrome oxidase by complex IV
[53]; contribution of Na+, K+, and Ca2+ ion leaks,
and substrate cycles like protein turnover which
consume ATP [43]. Considering the previous
arguments the study of AT is turning into a new
and exciting research area; however, the effect of
exercise training has not been fully explored yet.
The estimation of AT requires the assessment
of changes in RMR and body composition (FM
and FFM) following interventions, and statistical
procedures must be performed to create equa-
tions to estimate RMR of studied sample from
data at baseline, where physiological conditions
must be in steady-state. In this way, the changes
in RMR can be predicted using simple linear
regression models, which were created using
body composition variables at baseline as inde-
pendent variables (FM and FFM). AT can be cal-
culated as proposed by Doucet et al. [56]:
424
AT = [ EEmeasured − EEestimated ]after intervention
− [ EEmeasured − EEestimated ]baseline vlues
Where, AT, adaptive thermogenesis; EE was
energy expenditure either during resting; EEestimated
was calculated by stepwise simple linear regres-
sion, using FFM and/or FM.
AT has also been explained using the starva-
tion paradigm [56]; however, some questions
remain unanswered. The exclusive effects of
exercise or the influence of specific protocols of
training remains to be determined.
27.5.2 NEAT Definition
Another concept that the reader may come across
when discussing TEE is the term non-exercise activ-
ity thermogenesis (NEAT). When used in the equa-
tions to estimate TEE, NEAT is a highly variable
component of TEE, ranging from about 15 % in sed-
entary population to >50 % in highly active people
[57]. NEAT is composed of spontaneous physical
activity (SPA), which is included and lifestyle physi-
cal activities. So NEAT includes the energy expendi-
ture of occupation, leisure, sitting, standing, walking,
talking, toe tapping, shopping, household activities,
etc. There is a close relationship between change in
NEAT and fat mass gain. Since the EE of different
activities which are included in NEAT can change
after stimuli such as overfeeding or exercise, a theory
whereby an improved energetic efficiency after
weight loss interventions has been postulated [57],
and several neuroendocrine mechanisms have been
described to track this resistance to loss fat and
weight [58, 59].
Although the concept of NEAT is interesting,
its assessment requires measurement of TEE
which only can be measured directly by the isoto-
pic technique of doubly labeled water which is
highly expensive to apply in large cohorts (see
previous sections). Nonetheless, changes estima-
tions of NEAT it would be performed using some
devices as accelerometers or pedometers.
Physical activity recalls and pedometer can
also be used to perform estimations of NEAT
assuming the next paradigm:
J.J. Robert-McComb et al.
• EEPA = ExEE + MVEE + NEAT.
• ExEE = EE from exercise training physical
(27.1)
activities.
• MVEE = physical activities which are performed
commonly all days, as a job or compulsory
transportation, but with moderate/vigorous EE.
Now, we need to quantify total daily move-
ment (using a well-calibrated pedometer) and
how we used it. Additionally, a record of ExEE
and MVEE hours must be carried out, also steps
during both need to be registered. So an estima-
tion of NEAT change can be obtained from the
difference between total daily movement (steps)
and ExEE + MVEE (steps). A similar approach
could be done using accelerometers although
more expertise is needed to manage the data.
On the other hand, NEAT can be calculated by
a tight recall of daily activities to calculated
TDEE, afterwards the EE of EEPA components
can be obtained in order to estimate NEAT (see
case study).
27.5.3 Estimating TEE Using
the Compendium of PA
When estimating TEE using these steps, the
reader can use the MET values from Table 27.2
or can refer to Appendix 1 for a more detailed
list. The MET values listed are from the
Compendium of Physical Activities which can be
found in Appendix 1 or at https://sites.google.
com/site/compendiumofphysicalactivities/.
27.5.3.1 Estimating TEE: A Case Study
Alice is a 37-year-old woman, weight 64 kg,
12 % of fat mass (FM). She wants to know what
is her TEE and PAL, in order to know if her TEE
is enough to maintain the energy balance. Using
a recall of one typical day. Calculate total daily
energy expenditure (TDEE) of a woman who
does not perform any exercise training. Follow
the next steps of our example:
First step. Calculate RMR/24 h = kcal/h.
Second step. To count hours sleeping.
Third step. To count hours sitting. Check different
activities.
27  Estimating Energy Requirements 425

Table 27.7 Summary of daily activities from the case Total EE of sleeping = 65.6 × 5 = 328  kcal/
study
day.
Hours Code kcal Third step. EE of sitting hours:
24 PA 450 kcal/day 1. Hours to eat = 0.5 breakfast + 1 lunch + 0.5
23 PA dinner.
22 PA 2. Hours working = 8  h.
21 HA 563 kcal/day 3. Hours watching TV or something like
20 HA
that = 3  h.
19 HA
Total = 13  h/day.
18 ST 1,418 kcal/day
Use the compendium of PA METs in
17 ST
Appendix 1 to calculate EE:
16 ST
15 ST
1. 13030 self care = eating, sitting = 1.5
14 ST METs.
13 ST 2. 07022 inactivity quiet/light lying = sit-
12 ST ting quietly, fidgeting, general, fidget-
11 ST ing hands = 1.5 METs (or 11770 = 1.3).
10 ST 3. 07020 inactivity quiet/light lying = sit-
9 ST ting and watching television = 1.3 METs
8 ST Calculations:
7 ST
General Equation : EE = Hours × METs ( kcal / kg / hr )
6 ST
5 S 328 kcal/day × BW (body weight )
4 S 1. EE to eat = 2  h × 1.5 METs = 3  kcal/
3 S kg × 75  kg = 225  kcal/day.
2 S
2. EE to work = 8 h × 1.5 METs = 12 kcal/
1 S
kg × 75  kg = 900  kcal/day.
S sleeping, ST sitting, HA home activities, PA habitual 3. EE during sedentary leisure = 3  h × 1.3
physical activity
METs = 3.9 kcal/kg × 75 kg = 293 kcal/day.
Total daily EE of sitting hours = 1,418 kcal/
Fourth step. To count hours with house activities. day.
Fifth step. To count hours with physical activities. Fourth step. EE of home activities:
Note: The sum of total Hours must be equal to 1. Cleaning = 1 h.
24 h (Table 27.7). 2. Cooking = 1 h.
First step. To calculate RMR by hour (it will be 3. Self-care = 1 h.
useful in order to calculate EE of sleeping): Total = 3  h/day.
RMR (kcal/day) = 24.6 × FFM + 175. Use the compendium of PA METs in Appendix 1
FFM = BW − (%FM × BW). to calculate EE:
FFM = 75 − (0.12 × 75) = 75 − (9) = 64  kg. 1. 05026 3.5 home activities = multiple house-
RMR = 24.6 × (64 kg) + 175 = 1,749 kcal/day. hold tasks all at once, moderate effort.
RMR (kcal/h) = 1,749/24 = 72.9  kcal/h. 2. 05050 2.0 home activities  = cooking or
Second step. EE of sleeping: food preparation-standing or sitting or in
1. Hours sleeping = 5  h. general (not broken into stand/walk com-
2. EE of sleeping = 0.9 × RMR (kcal/h) or ponents), manual appliances, light effort.
0.9 METs. 3. 13040 2.0 self-care = grooming, washing
3. EE of sleeping = 0.9 × 72.9  kcal/h hands, shaving, brushing teeth/showering,
= 65.6  kcal/h. toweling off, standing.
426
Calculations:
1. EE to clean home = 1  h × 3.5
METs = 3.5  kcal/kg × 75  kg = 263  kcal/day.
2. EE to cook = 1  h × 2.0 METs = 2  kcal/
kg × 75  kg = 150  kcal/day.
3. EE during sedentary leisure = 1  h × 2.0
METs = 3.9  kcal/kg × 75  kg = 150  kcal/day.
Total Daily EE of Home activities = 563 kcal/
day.
Fifth step. EE of other physical, leisure, or trans-
portation activities:
1. Reading = 2  h.
2. Walking = 0.5  h.
3. Walking for transportation = 0.5 h.
Total = 3  h/day.
Use the compendium of PA METs in Appendix 1
to calculate EE:
1. 11580 1.5 occupation = sitting tasks, light
effort (e.g., office work, chemistry lab
work, computer work, light assembly
repair, watch repair, reading, desk work).
2. 17161 2.5 walking = walking from house to
car or bus, from car or bus to go places,
from car or bus to and from the worksite.
3. 16060 3.5 transportation = walking for
transportation, 2.8–3.2 mph, level, moder-
ate pace, firm surface.
Calculations:
1. EE during sedentary leisure = 2.0  h × 1.5
METs = 3.0  kcal/kg × 75  kg = 225  kcal/day.
2. EE during public transportation = 0.5 h × 3.5
METs = 1.75  kcal/kg × 75  kg = 131  kcal/
day.
3. Walking EE to pick up public transporta-
tion or from = 0.5  h × 2.5 METs = 1.25  kcal/
kg × 75  kg = 94  kcal/day.
Total Daily EE of PA or transporta-
tion = 450  kcal/day.
Sixth step. TEE and PAL Calculations:
Final results
TEE = 2759 kcal / day
PAL = 2759 ( kcal / day ) / 1749 ( kcal / day ) = 1.5
As suggested in the literature her PAL is
equivalent with a sedentary lifestyle, moreover
in order to prevent herself from weight gain, a
minimum PAL of 1.70 has been reported
(Table 27.8) [60].
J.J. Robert-McComb et al.
Table 27.8  Table of physical activity levels
Classification PAL range
Sedentary or light active lifestyle 1.40–1.69
Active or moderately active lifestyle 1.70–1.99
Highly active lifestyle 2.00–2.40
Adapted from FAO/WHO/UNU 2001. Human energy
requirements. Report of a Joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert
Consultation Rome, 17–24 October 2001
27.5.4 Estimating NEAT
27.5.5 NEAT Estimation
Components of PAEE:
• EEPA = ExEE + MVEE + NEAT
• NEAT = EEPA − (ExEE + MVEE)
Where:
• ExEE = 0 kcal/day (she does not perform any
exercise training).
• MVEE = 0 kcal/day (she is not involved at
moderate or vigorous physical activity, which
is mandatory).
• NEAT  = 1,418 kcal/day (sitting activities) 
+ 563 kcal/day (home activities) ± 450 kcal/day
(other activities) = 2,431  kcal/day.
Since MET units include RMR we need to
subtract the latter factor in order to obtain the
final net EEPA. All together NEAT physical
activities lasted 13 h, and RMR was 72.9 kcal/h.
So we need to multiply 13h × 72.9 kcal/h in order
to calculate kcal that were expended for resting
during NEAT activities, which were 948 kcal. So
final net NEAT was 1,483 kcal during a day.
Final NEAT Results 2,431 kcal/
day − 948  kcal/day = 1,483  kcal/day
27.6 Concluding Remarks
The equations presented in this chapter should
only be used as a guide to promote optimal energy
balance; the individual should be monitored
closely to adjust caloric intake based on target
goals and changes in body mass. As in all predic-
tion equations, standard errors are inherent [24,
28, 61]. Most of the equations have been devel-
oped to maintain current body weight for the par-
27  Estimating Energy Requirements 427

ticipant’s current activity level; these equations
have not been developed to promote weight loss.
The equations discussed in this chapter should
be used only as a guide in maintaining energy
balance. Even though numerous energy predic-
tion equations to promote energy balance are
widely cited in the literature, there are limitations
in the use of these equations. Prediction errors
are inherent when using any estimated equations.
Further validation studies of predictive equations
are needed to minimize prediction error in certain
age and ethnic groups. Older adults and US resid-
ing ethnic minorities have been underrepresented
both in the development of predictive equations
and in validation studies [28].
Another methodological problem in measur-
ing energy balance, in particular energy intake, is
the phenomena of subjects reporting lower
energy intake than physiologically required,
noted as underreporting. Under reporting of
energy intake is expressed as a ratio of reported
energy intake to estimated BMR [61].
Underreporting is especially problematic in the
obese, but also occurs in the relatively lean popu-
lation also [62].
A clinical decision of whether an accurate met-
abolic rate by measurement is required to provide
nutritional care and counseling should be made on
a case-by-case basis. If the target goals are not
being met, the client should be monitored closely
utilizing any dietary intake records, energy expen-
diture logs, and physiological measurements of
body mass and or weight change. Indirect calorim-
etry may be an important tool when, in the judg-
ment of the clinician, the predictive methods fail
an individual in a clinically relevant way [15].

Appendix 1: 2011 Compendium of

Physical Activities

Code METs Major heading Specific activities

01003 14.0 Bicycling Bicycling, mountain, uphill, vigorous
01004 16.0 Bicycling Bicycling, mountain, competitive, racing
01008 8.5 Bicycling Bicycling, BMX
01009 8.5 Bicycling Bicycling, mountain, general
01010 4.0 Bicycling Bicycling, <10 mph, leisure, to work or for pleasure (Taylor Code 115)
01011 6.8 Bicycling Bicycling, to/from work, self selected pace
01013 5.8 Bicycling Bicycling, on dirt or farm road, moderate pace
01015 7.5 Bicycling Bicycling, general
01018 3.5 Bicycling Bicycling, leisure, 5.5 mph
01019 5.8 Bicycling Bicycling, leisure, 9.4 mph
01020 6.8 Bicycling Bicycling, 10–11.9 mph, leisure, slow, light effort
01030 8.0 Bicycling Bicycling, 12–13.9 mph, leisure, moderate effort
01040 10.0 Bicycling Bicycling, 14–15.9 mph, racing or leisure, fast, vigorous effort
01050 12.0 Bicycling Bicycling, 16–19 mph, racing/not drafting or >19 mph drafting, very
fast, racing general
01060 15.8 Bicycling Bicycling, >20 mph, racing, not drafting
01065 8.5 Bicycling Bicycling, 12 mph, seated, hands on brake hoods or bar drops, 80 rpm
01066 9.0 Bicycling Bicycling, 12 mph, standing, hands on brake hoods, 60 rpm
01070 5.0 Bicycling Unicycling
02001 2.3 Conditioning exercise Activity promoting video game (e.g., Wii Fit), light effort
(e.g., balance, yoga)
02003 3.8 Conditioning exercise Activity promoting video game (e.g., Wii Fit), moderate effort
(e.g., aerobic, resistance)
02005 7.2 Conditioning exercise Activity promoting video/arcade game (e.g., Exergaming, Dance
Dance Revolution), vigorous effort
(continued)
428 J.J. Robert-McComb et al.

Appendix 1 (continued)
Code METs Major heading Specific activities
02008 5.0 Conditioning exercise Army-type obstacle course exercise, boot camp training program
02010 7.0 Conditioning exercise Bicycling, stationary, general
02011 3.5 Conditioning exercise Bicycling, stationary, 30–50 W, very light to light effort
02012 6.8 Conditioning exercise Bicycling, stationary, 90–100 W, moderate to vigorous effort
02013 8.8 Conditioning exercise Bicycling, stationary, 101–160 W, vigorous effort
02014 11.0 Conditioning exercise Bicycling, stationary, 161–200 W, vigorous effort
02015 14.0 Conditioning exercise Bicycling, stationary, 201–270 W, very vigorous effort
02017 4.8 Conditioning exercise Bicycling, stationary, 51–89 W, light-to-moderate effort
02019 8.5 Conditioning exercise Bicycling, stationary, RPM/Spin bike class
02020 8.0 Conditioning exercise Calisthenics (e.g., push-ups, sit-ups, pull-ups, jumping jacks),
vigorous effort
02022 3.8 Conditioning exercise Calisthenics (e.g., push-ups, sit-ups, pull-ups, lunges), moderate effort
02024 2.8 Conditioning exercise Calisthenics (e.g., sit-ups, abdominal crunches), light effort
02030 3.5 Conditioning exercise Calisthenics, light or moderate effort, general (e.g., back exercises),
going up and down from floor (Taylor Code 150)
02035 4.3 Conditioning exercise Circuit training, moderate effort
02040 8.0 Conditioning exercise Circuit training, including kettle bells, some aerobic movement with
minimal rest, general, vigorous intensity
02045 3.5 Conditioning exercise Curves TM exercise routines in women
02048 5.0 Conditioning exercise Elliptical trainer, moderate effort
02050 6.0 Conditioning exercise Resistance training (weightlifting, free weight, nautilus or universal),
power lifting or body building, vigorous effort (Taylor Code 210)
02052 5.0 Conditioning exercise Resistance (weight) training, squats, slow or explosive effort
02054 3.5 Conditioning exercise Resistance (weight) training, multiple exercises, 8–15 repetitions at
varied resistance
02060 5.5 Conditioning exercise Health club exercise, general (Taylor Code 160)
02061 5.0 Conditioning exercise Health club exercise classes, general, gym/weight training combined
in one visit
02062 7.8 Conditioning exercise Health club exercise, conditioning classes
02064 3.8 Conditioning exercise Home exercise, general
02065 9.0 Conditioning exercise Stair-treadmill ergometer, general
02068 12.3 Conditioning exercise Rope skipping, general
02070 6.0 Conditioning exercise Rowing, stationary ergometer, general, vigorous effort
02071 4.8 Conditioning exercise Rowing, stationary, general, moderate effort
02072 7.0 Conditioning exercise Rowing, stationary, 100 W, moderate effort
02073 8.5 Conditioning exercise Rowing, stationary, 150 W, vigorous effort
02074 12.0 Conditioning exercise Rowing, stationary, 200 W, very vigorous effort
02080 6.8 Conditioning exercise Ski machine, general
02085 11.0 Conditioning exercise Slide board exercise, general
02090 6.0 Conditioning exercise Slimnastics, jazzercise
02101 2.3 Conditioning exercise Stretching, mild
02105 3.0 Conditioning exercise Pilates, general
02110 6.8 Conditioning exercise Teaching exercise class (e.g., aerobic, water)
02112 2.8 Conditioning exercise Therapeutic exercise ball, Fit ball exercise
02115 2.8 Conditioning exercise Upper body exercise, arm ergometer
02117 4.3 Conditioning exercise Upper body exercise, Stationary bicycle—Air dyne (arms only)
40 rpm, moderate
02120 5.3 Conditioning exercise Water aerobics, water calisthenics, water exercise
(continued)
27  Estimating Energy Requirements 429

Appendix 1  (continued)
Code METs Major heading Specific activities
02135 1.3 Conditioning exercise Whirlpool, sitting
02140 2.3 Conditioning exercise Video exercise workouts, TV conditioning programs (e.g., yoga,
stretching), light effort
02143 4.0 Conditioning exercise Video exercise workouts, TV conditioning programs (e.g., cardio-
resistance), moderate effort
02146 6.0 Conditioning exercise Video exercise workouts, TV conditioning programs (e.g., cardio-
resistance), vigorous effort
02150 2.5 Conditioning exercise Yoga, Hatha
02160 4.0 Conditioning exercise Yoga, Power
02170 2.0 Conditioning exercise Yoga, Nadi sodhana
02180 3.3 Conditioning exercise Yoga, Surya Namaskar
02200 5.3 Conditioning exercise Native New Zealander physical activities (e.g., Haka Powhiri,
Moteatea, Waiata Tira, Whakawatea), general, moderate effort
02205 6.8 Conditioning exercise Native New Zealander physical activities (e.g., Haka, Taiahab),
general, vigorous effort
03010 5.0 Dancing Ballet, modern, or jazz, general, rehearsal or class
03012 6.8 Dancing Ballet, modern, or jazz, performance, vigorous effort
03014 4.8 Dancing Tap
03015 7.3 Dancing Aerobic, general
03016 7.5 Dancing Aerobic, step, with 6–8 in. step
03017 9.5 Dancing Aerobic, step, with 10–12 in. step
03018 5.5 Dancing Aerobic, step, with 4-in. step
03019 8.5 Dancing Bench step class, general
03020 5.0 Dancing Aerobic, low impact
03021 7.3 Dancing Aerobic, high impact
03022 10.0 Dancing Aerobic dance wearing 10–15 lb weights
03025 4.5 Dancing Ethnic or cultural dancing (e.g., Greek, Middle Eastern, hula, salsa,
merengue, bomba y plena, flamenco, belly, and swing)
03030 5.5 Dancing Ballroom, fast (Taylor Code 125)
03031 7.8 Dancing General dancing (e.g., disco, folk, Irish step dancing, line dancing,
polka, contra, country)
03038 11.3 Dancing Ballroom dancing, competitive, general
03040 3.0 Dancing Ballroom, slow (e.g., waltz, foxtrot, slow dancing, samba, tango,
nineteenth century dance, mambo, cha-cha)
03050 5.5 Dancing Anishinaabe Jingle Dancing
03060 3.5 Dancing Caribbean dance (Abakua, Beguine, Bellair, Bongo, Brukin’s,
Caribbean Quadrills, Dinki Mini, Gere, Gumbay, Ibo, Jonkonnu,
Kumina, Oreisha, Jambu)
04001 3.5 Fishing and hunting Fishing, general
04005 4.5 Fishing and hunting Fishing, crab fishing
04007 4.0 Fishing and hunting Fishing, catching fish with hands
04010 4.3 Fishing and hunting Fishing related, digging worms, with shovel
04020 4.0 Fishing and hunting Fishing from river bank and walking
04030 2.0 Fishing and hunting Fishing from boat or canoe, sitting
04040 3.5 Fishing and hunting Fishing from river bank, standing (Taylor Code 660)
04050 6.0 Fishing and hunting Fishing in stream, in waders (Taylor Code 670)
04060 2.0 Fishing and hunting Fishing, ice, sitting
04061 1.8 Fishing and hunting Fishing, jog or line, standing, general
04062 3.5 Fishing and hunting Fishing, dip net, setting net and retrieving fish, general
(continued)
430 J.J. Robert-McComb et al.

Appendix 1  (continued)
Code METs Major heading Specific activities
04063 3.8 Fishing and hunting Fishing, set net, setting net and retrieving fish, general
04064 3.0 Fishing and hunting Fishing, fishing wheel, setting net and retrieving fish, general
04065 2.3 Fishing and hunting Fishing with a spear, standing
04070 2.5 Fishing and hunting Hunting, bow and arrow, or crossbow
04080 6.0 Fishing and hunting Hunting, deer, elk, large game (Taylor Code 170)
04081 11.3 Fishing and hunting Hunting large game, dragging carcass
04083 4.0 Fishing and hunting Hunting large marine animals
04085 2.5 Fishing and hunting Hunting large game, from a hunting stand, limited walking
04086 2.0 Fishing and hunting Hunting large game from a car, plane, or boat
04090 2.5 Fishing and hunting Hunting, duck, wading
04095 3.0 Fishing and hunting Hunting, flying fox, squirrel
04100 5.0 Fishing and hunting Hunting, general
04110 6.0 Fishing and hunting Hunting, pheasants or grouse (Taylor Code 680)
04115 3.3 Fishing and hunting Hunting, birds
04120 5.0 Fishing and hunting Hunting, rabbit, squirrel, prairie chick, raccoon, small game (Taylor
Code 690)
04123 3.3 Fishing and hunting Hunting, pigs, wild
04124 2.0 Fishing and hunting Trapping game, general
04125 9.5 Fishing and hunting Hunting, hiking with hunting gear
04130 2.5 Fishing and hunting Pistol shooting or trap shooting, standing
04140 2.3 Fishing and hunting Rifle exercises, shooting, lying down
04145 2.5 Fishing and hunting Rifle exercises, shooting, kneeling or standing
05010 3.3 Home activities Cleaning, sweeping carpet or floors, general
05011 2.3 Home activities Cleaning, sweeping, slow, light effort
05012 3.8 Home activities Cleaning, sweeping, slow, moderate effort
05020 3.5 Home activities Cleaning, heavy or major (e.g., wash car, wash windows, clean
garage), moderate effort
05021 3.5 Home activities Cleaning, mopping, standing, moderate effort
05022 3.2 Home activities Cleaning windows, washing windows, general
05023 2.5 Home activities Mopping, standing, light effort
05024 4.5 Home activities Polishing floors, standing, walking slowly, using electric polishing
machine
05025 2.8 Home activities Multiple household tasks all at once, light effort
05026 3.5 Home activities Multiple household tasks all at once, moderate effort
05027 4.3 Home activities Multiple household tasks all at once, vigorous effort
05030 3.3 Home activities Cleaning, house or cabin, general, moderate effort
05032 2.3 Home activities Dusting or polishing furniture, general
05035 3.3 Home activities Kitchen activity, general (e.g., cooking, washing dishes, cleaning
up), moderate effort
05040 2.5 Home activities Cleaning, general (straightening up, changing linen, carrying out
trash), light effort
05041 1.8 Home activities Wash dishes, standing or in general (not broken into stand/walk
components)
05042 2.5 Home activities Wash dishes, clearing dishes from table, walking, light effort
05043 3.3 Home activities Vacuuming, general, moderate effort
05044 3.0 Home activities Butchering animals, small
05045 6.0 Home activities Butchering animal, large, vigorous effort
05046 2.3 Home activities Cutting and smoking fish, drying fish or meat
(continued)
27  Estimating Energy Requirements 431

Appendix 1  (continued)
Code METs Major heading Specific activities
05048 4.0 Home activities Tanning hides, general
05049 3.5 Home activities Cooking or food preparation, moderate effort
05050 2.0 Home activities Cooking or food preparation—standing or sitting or in general (not
broken into stand/walk components), manual appliances, light effort
05051 2.5 Home activities Serving food, setting table, implied walking or standing
05052 2.5 Home activities Cooking or food preparation, walking
05053 2.5 Home activities Feeding household animals
05055 2.5 Home activities Putting away groceries (e.g., carrying groceries, shopping without a
grocery cart), carrying packages
05056 7.5 Home activities Carrying groceries upstairs
05057 3.0 Home activities Cooking Indian bread on an outside stove
05060 2.3 Home activities Food shopping with or without a grocery cart, standing or walking
05065 2.3 Home activities Non-food shopping, with or without a cart, standing or walking
05070 1.8 Home activities Ironing
05080 1.3 Home activities Knitting, sewing, light effort, wrapping presents, sitting
05082 2.8 Home activities Sewing with a machine
05090 2.0 Home activities Laundry, fold or hang clothes, put clothes in washer or dryer,
packing suitcase, washing clothes by hand, implied standing, light
effort
05092 4.0 Home activities Laundry, hanging wash, washing clothes by hand, moderate effort
05095 2.3 Home activities Laundry, putting away clothes, gathering clothes to pack, putting
away laundry, implied walking
05100 3.3 Home activities Making bed, changing linens
05110 5.0 Home activities Maple syruping/sugar bushing (including carrying buckets, carrying
wood)
05120 5.8 Home activities Moving furniture, household items, carrying boxes
05121 5.0 Home activities Moving, lifting light loads
05125 4.8 Home activities Organizing room
05130 3.5 Home activities Scrubbing floors, on hands and knees, scrubbing bathroom, bathtub,
moderate effort
05131 2.0 Home activities Scrubbing floors, on hands and knees, scrubbing bathroom, bathtub,
light effort
05132 6.5 Home activities Scrubbing floors, on hands and knees, scrubbing bathroom, bathtub,
vigorous effort
05140 4.0 Home activities Sweeping garage, side walk or outside of house
05146 3.5 Home activities Standing, packing/unpacking boxes, occasional lifting of light
weight household items, loading or unloading items in car, moderate
effort
05147 3.0 Home activities Implied walking, putting away household items, moderate effort
05148 2.5 Home activities Watering plants
05149 2.5 Home activities Building a fire inside
05150 9.0 Home activities Moving household items upstairs, carrying boxes or furniture
05160 2.0 Home activities Standing, light effort tasks (pump gas, change light bulb, etc.)
05165 3.5 Home activities Walking, moderate effort tasks, non-cleaning (readying to leave,
shut/lock doors, close windows, etc.)
05170 2.2 Home activities Sitting, playing with child(ren), light effort, only active periods
05171 2.8 Home activities Standing, playing with child(ren) light effort, only active periods
05175 3.5 Home activities Walking/running, playing with child(ren), moderate effort, only
active periods
(continued)
432 J.J. Robert-McComb et al.

Appendix 1  (continued)
Code METs Major heading Specific activities
05180 5.8 Home activities Walking/running, playing with child(ren), vigorous effort, only
active periods
05181 3.0 Home activities Walking and carrying small child, child weighing 15 lb or more
05182 2.3 Home activities Walking and carrying small child, child weighing less than 15 lb
05183 2.0 Home activities Standing, holding child
05184 2.5 Home activities Child care, infant, general
05185 2.0 Home activities Child care, sitting/kneeling (e.g., dressing, bathing, grooming,
feeding, occasional lifting of child), light effort, general
05186 3.0 Home activities Child care, standing (e.g., dressing, bathing, grooming, feeding,
occasional lifting of child), moderate effort
05188 1.5 Home activities Reclining with baby
05189 2.0 Home activities Breastfeeding, sitting or reclining
05190 2.5 Home activities Sit, playing with animals, light effort, only active periods
05191 2.8 Home activities Stand, playing with animals, light effort, only active periods
05192 3.0 Home activities Walk/run, playing with animals, general, light effort, only active periods
05193 4.0 Home activities Walk/run, playing with animals, moderate effort, only active periods
05194 5.0 Home activities Walk/run, playing with animals, vigorous effort, only active periods
05195 3.5 Home activities Standing, bathing dog
05197 2.3 Home activities Animal care, household animals, general
05200 4.0 Home activities Elder care, disabled adult, bathing, dressing, moving into and out of
bed, only active periods
05205 2.3 Home activities Elder care, disabled adult, feeding, combing hair, light effort, only
active periods
06010 3.0 Home repair Airplane repair
06020 4.0 Home repair Automobile body work
06030 3.3 Home repair Automobile repair, light or moderate effort
06040 3.0 Home repair Carpentry, general, workshop (Taylor Code 620)
06050 6.0 Home repair Carpentry, outside house, installing rain gutters (Taylor Code 640),
carpentry, outside house, building a fence
06052 3.8 Home repair Carpentry, outside house, building a fence
06060 3.3 Home repair Carpentry, finishing or refinishing cabinets or furniture
06070 6.0 Home repair Carpentry, sawing hardwood
06072 4.0 Home repair Carpentry, home remodeling tasks, moderate effort
06074 2.3 Home repair Carpentry, home remodeling tasks, light effort
06080 5.0 Home repair Caulking, chinking log cabin
06090 4.5 Home repair Caulking, except log cabin
06100 5.0 Home repair Cleaning gutters
06110 5.0 Home repair Excavating garage
06120 5.0 Home repair Hanging storm windows
06122 5.0 Home repair Hanging sheetrock inside house
06124 3.0 Home repair Hammering nails
06126 2.5 Home repair Home repair, general, light effort
06127 4.5 Home repair Home repair, general, moderate effort
06128 6.0 Home repair Home repair, general, vigorous effort
06130 4.5 Home repair Laying or removing carpet
06140 3.8 Home repair Laying tile or linoleum, repairing appliances
06144 3.0 Home repair Repairing appliances
06150 5.0 Home repair Painting, outside home (Taylor Code 650)
(continued)
27  Estimating Energy Requirements 433

Appendix 1  (continued)
Code METs Major heading Specific activities
06160 3.3 Home repair Painting inside house, wallpapering, scraping paint
06165 4.5 Home repair Painting (Taylor Code 630)
06167 3.0 Home repair Plumbing, general
06170 3.0 Home repair Put on and removal of tarp—sailboat
06180 6.0 Home repair Roofing
06190 4.5 Home repair Sanding floors with a power sander
06200 4.5 Home repair Scraping and painting sailboat or powerboat
06205 2.0 Home repair Sharpening tools
06210 5.0 Home repair Spreading dirt with a shovel
06220 4.5 Home repair Washing and waxing hull of sailboat or airplane
06225 2.0 Home repair Washing and waxing car
06230 4.5 Home repair Washing fence, painting fence, moderate effort
06240 3.3 Home repair Wiring, tapping-splicing
07010 1.0 Inactivity quiet/light Lying quietly and watching television
07011 1.3 Inactivity quiet/light Lying quietly, doing nothing, lying in bed awake, listening to music
(not talking or reading)
07020 1.3 Inactivity quiet/light Sitting quietly and watching television
07021 1.3 Inactivity quiet/light Sitting quietly, general
07022 1.5 Inactivity quiet/light Sitting quietly, fidgeting, general, fidgeting hands
07023 1.8 Inactivity quiet/light Sitting, fidgeting feet
07024 1.3 Inactivity quiet/light Sitting, smoking
07025 1.5 Inactivity quiet/light Sitting, listening to music (not talking or reading) or watching a
movie in a theater
07026 1.3 Inactivity quiet/light Sitting at a desk, resting head in hands
07030 0.95 Inactivity quiet/light Sleeping
07040 1.3 Inactivity quiet/light Standing quietly, standing in a line
07041 1.8 Inactivity quiet/light Standing, fidgeting
07050 1.3 Inactivity quiet/light Reclining, writing
07060 1.3 Inactivity quiet/light Reclining, talking or talking on phone
07070 1.3 Inactivity quiet/light Reclining, reading
07075 1.0 Inactivity quiet/light Meditating
08009 3.3 Lawn and garden Carrying, loading or stacking wood, loading/unloading or carrying
lumber, light-to-­moderate effort
08010 5.5 Lawn and garden Carrying, loading or stacking wood, loading/unloading or carrying
lumber
08019 4.5 Lawn and garden Chopping wood, splitting logs, moderate effort
08020 6.3 Lawn and garden Chopping wood, splitting logs, vigorous effort
08025 3.5 Lawn and garden Clearing light brush, thinning garden, moderate effort
08030 6.3 Lawn and garden Clearing brush/land, undergrowth, or ground, hauling branches,
wheelbarrow chores, vigorous effort
08040 5.0 Lawn and garden Digging sandbox, shoveling sand
08045 3.5 Lawn and garden Digging, spading, filling garden, composting, light-to-moderate effort
08050 5.0 Lawn and garden Digging, spading, filling garden, compositing (Taylor Code 590)
08052 7.8 Lawn and garden Digging, spading, filling garden, composting, vigorous effort
08055 2.8 Lawn and garden Driving tractor
08057 8.3 Lawn and garden Felling trees, large size
08058 5.3 Lawn and garden Felling trees, small-medium size
08060 5.8 Lawn and garden Gardening with heavy power tools, tilling a garden, chain saw
(continued)
434 J.J. Robert-McComb et al.

Appendix 1  (continued)
Code METs Major heading Specific activities
08065 2.3 Lawn and garden Gardening, using containers, older adults >60 years
08070 4.0 Lawn and garden Irrigation channels, opening and closing ports
08080 6.3 Lawn and garden Laying crushed rock
08090 5.0 Lawn and garden Laying sod
08095 5.5 Lawn and garden Mowing lawn, general
08100 2.5 Lawn and garden Mowing lawn, riding mower (Taylor Code 550)
08110 6.0 Lawn and garden Mowing lawn, walk, hand mower (Taylor Code 570)
08120 5.0 Lawn and garden Mowing lawn, walk, power mower, moderate or vigorous effort
08125 4.5 Lawn and garden Mowing lawn, power mower, light or moderate effort (Taylor
Code 590)
08130 2.5 Lawn and garden Operating snow blower, walking
08135 2.0 Lawn and garden Planting, potting, transplanting seedlings or plants, light effort
08140 4.3 Lawn and garden Planting seedlings, shrub, stooping, moderate effort
08145 4.3 Lawn and garden Planting crops or garden, stooping, moderate effort
08150 4.5 Lawn and garden Planting trees
08160 3.8 Lawn and garden Raking lawn or leaves, moderate effort
08165 4.0 Lawn and garden Raking lawn (Taylor Code 600)
08170 4.0 Lawn and garden Raking roof with snow rake
08180 3.0 Lawn and garden Riding snow blower
08190 4.0 Lawn and garden Sacking grass, leaves
08192 5.5 Lawn and garden Shoveling dirt or mud
08195 5.3 Lawn and garden Shoveling snow, by hand, moderate effort
08200 6.0 Lawn and garden Shoveling snow, by hand (Taylor Code 610)
08202 7.5 Lawn and garden Shoveling snow, by hand, vigorous effort
08210 4.0 Lawn and garden Trimming shrubs or trees, manual cutter
08215 3.5 Lawn and garden Trimming shrubs or trees, power cutter, using leaf blower, edge,
moderate effort
08220 3.0 Lawn and garden Walking, applying fertilizer or seeding a lawn, push applicator
08230 1.5 Lawn and garden Watering lawn or garden, standing or walking
08239 3.5 Lawn and garden Weeding, cultivating garden, light-to-­moderate effort
08240 4.5 Lawn and garden Weeding, cultivating garden (Taylor Code 580)
08241 5.0 Lawn and garden Weeding, cultivating garden, using a hoe, moderate-to-vigorous effort
08245 3.8 Lawn and garden Gardening, general, moderate effort
08246 3.5 Lawn and garden Picking fruit off trees, picking fruits/vegetables, moderate effort
08248 4.5 Lawn and garden Picking fruit off trees, gleaning fruits, picking fruits/vegetables,
climbing ladder to pick fruit, vigorous effort
08250 3.3 Lawn and garden Implied walking/standing—picking up yard, light, picking flowers
or vegetables
08251 3.0 Lawn and garden Walking, gathering gardening tools
08255 5.5 Lawn and garden Wheelbarrow, pushing garden cart or wheelbarrow
08260 3.0 Lawn and garden Yard work, general, light effort
08261 4.0 Lawn and garden Yard work, general, moderate effort
08262 6.0 Lawn and garden Yard work, general, vigorous effort
09000 1.5 Miscellaneous Board game playing, sitting
09005 2.5 Miscellaneous Casino gambling, standing
09010 1.5 Miscellaneous Card playing, sitting
09013 1.5 Miscellaneous Chess game, sitting
09015 1.5 Miscellaneous Copying documents, standing
(continued)
27  Estimating Energy Requirements 435

Appendix 1  (continued)
Code METs Major heading Specific activities
09020 1.8 Miscellaneous Drawing, writing, painting, standing
09025 1.0 Miscellaneous Laughing, sitting
09030 1.3 Miscellaneous Sitting, reading, book, newspaper, etc.
09040 1.3 Miscellaneous Sitting, writing, deskwork, typing
09045 1.0 Miscellaneous Sitting, playing traditional video game, computer game
09050 1.8 Miscellaneous Standing, talking in person, on the phone, computer, or text
messaging, light effort
09055 1.5 Miscellaneous Sitting, talking in person, on the phone, computer, or text
messaging, light effort
09060 1.3 Miscellaneous Sitting, studying, general, including reading and/or writing, light effort
09065 1.8 Miscellaneous Sitting, in class, general, including note-taking or class discussion
09070 1.8 Miscellaneous Standing, reading
09071 2.5 Miscellaneous Standing, miscellaneous
09075 1.8 Miscellaneous Sitting, arts and crafts, carving wood, weaving, spinning wool,
light effort
09080 3.0 Miscellaneous Sitting, arts and crafts, carving wood, weaving, spinning wool,
moderate effort
09085 2.5 Miscellaneous Standing, arts and crafts, sand painting, carving, weaving, light effort
09090 3.3 Miscellaneous Standing, arts and crafts, sand painting, carving, weaving,
moderate effort
09095 3.5 Miscellaneous Standing, arts and crafts, sand painting, carving, weaving, vigorous effort
09100 1.8 Miscellaneous Retreat/family reunion activities involving sitting, relaxing,
talking, eating
09101 3.0 Miscellaneous Retreat/family reunion activities involving playing games with
children
09105 2.0 Miscellaneous Touring/traveling/vacation involving riding in a vehicle
09106 3.5 Miscellaneous Touring/traveling/vacation involving walking
09110 2.5 Miscellaneous Camping involving standing, walking, sitting, light-to-moderate
effort
09115 1.5 Miscellaneous Sitting at a sporting event, spectator
10010 1.8 Music playing Accordion, sitting
10020 2.3 Music playing Cello, sitting
10030 2.3 Music playing Conducting orchestra, standing
10035 2.5 Music playing Double bass, standing
10040 3.8 Music playing Drums, sitting
10045 3.0 Music playing Drumming (e.g., bongo, conga, bembe), moderate, sitting
10050 2.0 music playing Flute, sitting
10060 1.8 Music playing Horn, standing
10070 2.3 Music playing Piano, sitting
10074 2.0 Music playing Playing musical instruments, general
10077 2.0 Music playing Organ, sitting
10080 3.5 Music playing Trombone, standing
10090 1.8 Music playing Trumpet, standing
10100 2.5 Music playing Violin, sitting
10110 1.8 Music playing Woodwind, sitting
10120 2.0 Music playing Guitar, classical, folk, sitting
10125 3.0 Music playing Guitar, rock and roll band, standing
10130 4.0 Music playing Marching band, baton twirling, walking, moderate pace, general
(continued)
436 J.J. Robert-McComb et al.

Appendix 1  (continued)
Code METs Major heading Specific activities
10131 5.5 Music playing Marching band, playing an instrument, walking, brisk pace, general
10135 3.5 Music playing Marching band, drum major, walking
11003 2.3 Occupation Active workstation, treadmill desk, walking
11006 3.0 Occupation Airline flight attendant
11010 4.0 Occupation Bakery, general, moderate effort
11015 2.0 Occupation Bakery, light effort
11020 2.3 Occupation Bookbinding
11030 6.0 Occupation Building road, driving heavy machinery
11035 2.0 Occupation Building road, directing traffic, standing
11038 2.5 Occupation Carpentry, general, light effort
11040 4.3 Occupation Carpentry, general, moderate effort
11042 7.0 Occupation Carpentry, general, heavy or vigorous effort
11050 8.0 Occupation Carrying heavy loads (e.g., bricks, tools)
11060 8.0 Occupation Carrying moderate loads up stairs, moving boxes 25–49 lb
11070 4.0 Occupation Chambermaid, hotel housekeeper, making bed, cleaning bathroom,
pushing cart
11080 5.3 Occupation Coalmining, drilling coal, rock
11090 5.0 Occupation Coalmining, erecting supports
11100 5.5 Occupation Coalmining, general
11110 6.3 Occupation Coalmining, shoveling coal
11115 2.5 Occupation Cook, chef
11120 4.0 Occupation Construction, outside, remodeling, new structures (e.g., roof repair,
miscellaneous)
11125 2.3 Occupation Custodial work, light effort (e.g., cleaning sink and toilet, dusting,
vacuuming, light cleaning)
11126 3.8 Occupation Custodial work, moderate effort (e.g., electric buffer, feathering
arena floors, mopping, taking out trash, vacuuming)
11128 2.0 Occupation Driving delivery truck, taxi, shuttle bus, school bus
11130 3.3 Occupation Electrical work (e.g., hookup wire, tapping-splicing)
11135 1.8 Occupation Engineer (e.g., mechanical or electrical)
11145 7.8 Occupation Farming, vigorous effort (e.g., baling hay, cleaning barn)
11146 4.8 Occupation Farming, moderate effort (e.g., feeding animals, chasing cattle by
walking and/or horseback, spreading manure, harvesting crops)
11147 2.0 Occupation Farming, light effort (e.g., cleaning animal sheds, preparing
animal feed)
11170 2.8 Occupation Farming, driving tasks (e.g., driving tractor or harvester)
11180 3.5 Occupation Farming, feeding small animals
11190 4.3 Occupation Farming, feeding cattle, horses
11191 4.3 Occupation Farming, hauling water for animals, general hauling water, farming,
general hauling water
11192 4.5 Occupation Farming, taking care of animals (e.g., grooming, brushing, shearing
sheep, assisting with birthing, medical care, branding), general
11195 3.8 Occupation Farming, rice, planting, grain milling activities
11210 3.5 Occupation Farming, milking by hand, cleaning pails, moderate effort
11220 1.3 Occupation Farming, milking by machine, light effort
11240 8.0 Occupation Fire fighter, general
11244 6.8 Occupation Fire fighter, rescue victim, automobile accident, using pike pole
11245 8.0 Occupation Fire fighter, raising and climbing ladder with full gear, simulated fire
suppression
(continued)
27  Estimating Energy Requirements 437

Appendix 1  (continued)
Code METs Major heading Specific activities
11246 9.0 Occupation Fire fighter, hauling hoses on ground, carrying/hoisting equipment,
breaking down walls etc., wearing full gear
11247 3.5 Occupation Fishing, commercial, light effort
11248 5.0 Occupation Fishing, commercial, moderate effort
11249 7.0 Occupation Fishing, commercial, vigorous effort
11250 17.5 Occupation Forestry, ax chopping, very fast, 1.25 kg ax, 51 blows/min,
extremely vigorous effort
11260 5.0 Occupation Forestry, ax chopping, slow, 1.25 kg ax, 19 blows/min, moderate effort
11262 8.0 Occupation Forestry, ax chopping, fast, 1.25 kg ax, 35 blows/min, vigorous effort
11264 4.5 Occupation Forestry, moderate effort (e.g., sawing wood with power saw,
weeding, hoeing)
11266 8.0 Occupation Forestry, vigorous effort (e.g., barking, felling, or trimming trees,
carrying or stacking logs, planting seeds, sawing lumber by hand)
11370 4.5 Occupation Furriery
11375 4.0 Occupation Garbage collector, walking, dumping bins into truck
11378 1.8 Occupation Hairstylist (e.g., plaiting hair, manicure, make-up artist)
11380 7.3 Occupation Horse grooming, including feeding, cleaning stalls, bathing,
brushing, clipping, lunging, and exercising horses
11381 4.3 Occupation Horse, feeding, watering, cleaning stalls, implied walking and
lifting loads
11390 7.3 Occupation Horse racing, galloping
11400 5.8 Occupation Horse racing, trotting
11410 3.8 Occupation Horse racing, walking
11413 3.0 Occupation Kitchen maid
11415 4.0 Occupation Lawn keeper, yard work, general
11418 3.3 Occupation Laundry worker
11420 3.0 Occupation Locksmith
11430 3.0 Occupation Machine tooling (e.g., machining, working sheet metal, machine
fitter, operating lathe, welding) light-to-moderate effort
11450 5.0 Occupation Machine tooling, operating punch press, moderate effort
11472 1.8 Occupation Manager, property
11475 2.8 Occupation Manual or unskilled labor, general, light effort
11476 4.5 Occupation Manual or unskilled labor, general, moderate effort
11477 6.5 Occupation Manual or unskilled labor, general, vigorous effort
11480 4.3 Occupation Masonry, concrete, moderate effort
11482 2.5 Occupation Masonry, concrete, light effort
11485 4.0 Occupation Massage therapist, standing
11490 7.5 Occupation Moving, carrying or pushing heavy objects, 75 lb or more, only
active time (e.g., desks, moving van work)
11495 12.0 Occupation Skin diving or SCUBA diving as a frogman, Navy Seal
11500 2.5 Occupation Operating heavy duty equipment, automated, not driving
11510 4.5 Occupation Orange grove work, picking fruit
11514 3.3 Occupation Painting, house, furniture, moderate effort
11516 3.0 Occupation Plumbing activities
11520 2.0 Occupation Printing, paper industry worker, standing
11525 2.5 Occupation Police, directing traffic, standing
11526 2.5 Occupation Police, driving a squad car, sitting
11527 1.3 Occupation Police, riding in a squad car, sitting
11528 4.0 Occupation Police, making an arrest, standing
(continued)
438 J.J. Robert-McComb et al.

Appendix 1  (continued)
Code METs Major heading Specific activities
11529 2.3 Occupation Postal carrier, walking to deliver mail
11530 2.0 Occupation Shoe repair, general
11540 7.8 Occupation Shoveling, digging ditches
11550 8.8 Occupation Shoveling, more than 16 lb/min, deep digging, vigorous effort
11560 5.0 Occupation Shoveling, less than 10 lb/min, moderate effort
11570 6.5 Occupation Shoveling, 10–15 lb/min, vigorous effort
11580 1.5 Occupation Sitting tasks, light effort (e.g., office work, chemistry lab work,
computer work, light assembly repair, watch repair, reading,
deskwork)
11585 1.5 Occupation Sitting meetings, light effort, general, and/or with talking involved
(e.g., eating at a business meeting)
11590 2.5 Occupation Sitting tasks, moderate effort (e.g., pushing heavy levers, riding
mower/forklift, crane operation)
11593 2.8 Occupation Sitting, teaching stretching or yoga, or light effort exercise class
11600 3.0 Occupation Standing tasks, light effort (e.g., bartending, store clerk, assembling,
filing, duplicating, librarian, putting up a Christmas tree, standing
and talking at work, changing clothes when teaching physical
education, standing)
11610 3.0 Occupation Standing, light/moderate effort (e.g., assemble/repair heavy parts,
welding, stocking parts, auto repair, standing, packing boxes,
nursing patient care)
11615 4.5 Occupation Standing, moderate effort, lifting items continuously, 10–20 lb, with
limited walking or resting
11620 3.5 Occupation Standing, moderate effort, intermittent lifting 50 lb, hitch/twisting
ropes
11630 4.5 Occupation Standing, moderate/heavy tasks (e.g., lifting more than 50 lb,
masonry, painting, paper hanging)
11708 5.3 Occupation Steel mill, moderate effort (e.g., fettling, forging, tipping molds)
11710 8.3 Occupation Steel mill, vigorous effort (e.g., hand rolling, merchant mill rolling,
removing slag, tending furnace)
11720 2.3 Occupation Tailoring, cutting fabric
11730 2.5 Occupation Tailoring, general
11740 1.8 Occupation Tailoring, hand sewing
11750 2.5 Occupation Tailoring, machine sewing
11760 3.5 Occupation Tailoring, pressing
11763 2.0 Occupation Tailoring, weaving, light effort (e.g., finishing operations, washing,
dyeing, inspecting cloth, counting yards, paperwork)
11765 4.0 Occupation Tailoring, weaving, moderate effort (e.g., spinning and weaving
operations, delivering boxes of yam to spinners, loading of warp
bean, pin winding, cone winding, warping, cloth cutting)
11766 6.5 Occupation Truck driving, loading and unloading truck, tying down load,
standing, walking and carrying heavy loads
11767 2.0 Occupation Truck, driving delivery truck, taxi, shuttle bus, school bus
11770 1.3 Occupation Typing, electric, manual or computer
11780 6.3 Occupation Using heavy power tools such as pneumatic tools (e.g.,
jackhammers, drills)
11790 8.0 Occupation Using heavy tools (not power) such as shovel, pick, tunnel bar, spade
11791 2.0 Occupation Walking on job, less than 2.0 mph, very slow speed, in office or lab area
11792 3.5 Occupation Walking on job, 3.0 mph, in office, moderate speed, not carrying
anything
(continued)
27  Estimating Energy Requirements 439

Appendix 1  (continued)
Code METs Major heading Specific activities
11793 4.3 Occupation Walking on job, 3.5 mph, in office, brisk speed, not carrying
anything
11795 3.5 Occupation Walking on job, 2.5 mph, slow speed and carrying light objects less
than 25 lb
11796 3.0 Occupation Walking, gathering things at work, ready to leave
11797 3.8 Occupation Walking, 2.5 mph, slows peed, carrying heavy objects more than 25 lb
11800 4.5 Occupation Walking, 3.0 mph, moderately and carrying light objects less than 25 lb
11805 3.5 Occupation Walking, pushing a wheelchair
11810 4.8 Occupation Walking, 3.5 mph, briskly and carrying objects less than 25 lb
11820 5.0 Occupation Walking or walk downstairs or standing, carrying objects about
25 to 49 lb
11830 6.5 Occupation Walking or walk downstairs or standing, carrying objects about
50–74 lb
11840 7.5 Occupation Walking or walk downstairs or standing, carrying objects about
75–99 lb
11850 8.5 Occupation Walking or walk downstairs or standing, carrying objects about
100 lb or more
11870 3.0 Occupation Working in scene shop, theater actor, backstage employee
12010 6.0 Running Jog/walk combination (jogging component of less than 10 min)
(Taylor Code 180)
12020 7.0 Running Jogging, general
12025 8.0 Running Jogging, in place
12027 4.5 Running Jogging, on a mini-tramp
12029 6.0 Running Running, 4 mph (13 min/mile)
12030 8.3 Running Running, 5 mph (12 min/mile)
12040 9.0 Running Running, 5.2 mph (11.5 min/mile)
12050 9.8 Running Running, 6 mph (10 min/mile)
12060 10.5 Running Running, 6.7 mph (9 min/mile)
12070 11.0 Running Running, 7 mph (8.5 min/mile)
12080 11.5 Running Running, 7.5 mph (8 min/mile)
12090 11.8 Running Running, 8 mph (7.5 min/mile)
12100 12.3 Running Running, 8.6 mph (7 min/mile)
12110 12.8 Running Running, 9 mph (6.5 min/mile)
12120 14.5 Running Running, 10 mph (6 min/mile)
12130 16.0 Running Running, 11 mph (5.5 min/mile)
12132 19.0 Running Running, 12 mph (5 min/mile)
12134 19.8 Running Running, 13 mph (4.6 min/mile)
12135 23.0 Running Running, 14 mph (4.3 min/mile)
12140 9.0 Running Running, cross country
12150 8.0 Running Running (Taylor code 200)
12170 15.0 Running Running, stairs, up
12180 10.0 Running Running, on a track, team practice
12190 8.0 Running Running, training, pushing a wheelchair or baby carrier
12200 13.3 Running Running, marathon
13000 2.3 Self care Getting ready for bed, general, standing
13009 1.8 Self care Sitting on toilet, eliminating while standing or squatting
13010 1.5 Self care Bathing, sitting
13020 2.5 Self care Dressing, undressing, standing or sitting
13030 1.5 Self care Eating, sitting
(continued)
440 J.J. Robert-McComb et al.

Appendix 1  (continued)
Code METs Major heading Specific activities
13035 2.0 Self care Talking and eating or eating only, standing
13036 1.5 Self care Taking medication, sitting or standing
13040 2.0 Self care Grooming, washing hands, shaving, brushing teeth, putting on
make-up, sitting or standing
13045 2.5 Self care Hairstyling, standing
13046 1.3 Self care having Hair or nails done by someone else, sitting
13050 2.0 Self care Showering, toweling off, standing
14010 2.8 Sexual activity Active, vigorous effort
14020 1.8 Sexual activity General, moderate effort
14030 1.3 Sexual activity Passive, light effort, kissing, hugging
15000 5.5 Sports Alaska Native Games, Eskimo Olympics, general
15010 4.3 Sports Archery, non-hunting
15020 7.0 Sports Badminton, competitive (Taylor Code 450)
15030 5.5 Sports Badminton, social singles and doubles, general
15040 8.0 Sports Basketball, game (Taylor Code 490)
15050 6.0 Sports Basketball, non-game, general (Taylor Code 480)
15055 6.5 Sports Basketball, general
15060 7.0 Sports Basketball, officiating (Taylor Code 500)
15070 4.5 Sports Basketball, shooting baskets
15072 9.3 Sports Basketball, drills, practice
15075 7.8 Sports Basketball, wheelchair
15080 2.5 Sports Billiards
15090 3.0 Sports Bowling (Taylor Code 390)
15092 3.8 Sports Bowling, indoor, bowling alley
15100 12.8 Sports Boxing, in ring, general
15110 5.5 Sports Boxing, punching bag
15120 7.8 Sports Boxing, sparring
15130 7.0 Sports Broomball
15135 5.8 Sports Children’s games, adults playing (e.g., hopscotch, 4-square, dodge
ball, playground apparatus, t-ball, tetherball, marbles, arcade
games), moderate effort
15138 6.0 Sports Cheerleading, gymnastic moves, competitive
15140 4.0 Sports Coaching, football, soccer, basketball, baseball, swimming, etc.
15142 8.0 Sports Coaching, actively playing sport with players
15150 4.8 Sports Cricket, batting, bowling, fielding
15160 3.3 Sports Croquet
15170 4.0 Sports Curling
15180 2.5 Sports Darts, wall or lawn
15190 6.0 Sports Drag racing, pushing or driving a car
15192 8.5 Sports Auto racing, open wheel
15200 6.0 Sports Fencing
15210 8.0 Sports Football, competitive
15230 8.0 Sports Football, touch, flag, general (Taylor Code 510)
15232 4.0 Sports Football, touch, flag, light effort
15235 2.5 Sports Football or baseball, playing catch
15240 3.0 Sports Frisbee playing, general
15250 8.0 Sports Frisbee, ultimate
15255 4.8 Sports Golf, general
(continued)
27  Estimating Energy Requirements 441

Appendix 1  (continued)
Code METs Major heading Specific activities
15265 4.3 Sports Golf, walking, carrying clubs
15270 3.0 Sports Golf, miniature, driving range
15285 5.3 Sports Golf, walking, pulling clubs
15290 3.5 Sports Golf, using power cart (Taylor Code 070)
15300 3.8 Sports Gymnastics, general
15310 4.0 Sports Hacky sack
15320 12.0 Sports Handball, general (Taylor Code 520)
15330 8.0 Sports Handball, team
15335 4.0 Sports High ropes course, multiple elements
15340 3.5 Sports Hang gliding
15350 7.8 Sports Hockey, field
15360 8.0 Sports Hockey, ice, general
15362 10.0 Sports Hockey, ice, competitive
15370 5.5 Sports Horseback riding, general
15375 4.3 Sports Horse chores, feeding, watering, cleaning stalls, implied walking
and lifting loads
15380 4.5 Sports Saddling, cleaning, grooming, harnessing and unharnessing horse
15390 5.8 Sports Horseback riding, trotting
15395 7.3 Sports Horseback riding, canter or gallop
15400 3.8 Sports Horseback riding, walking
15402 9.0 Sports Horseback riding, jumping
15408 1.8 Sports Horse cart, driving, standing or sitting
15410 3.0 Sports Horseshoe pitching, quoits
15420 12.0 Sports Jai alai
15425 5.3 Sports Martial arts, different types, slower pace, novice performers, practice
15430 10.3 Sports Martial arts, different types, moderate pace (e.g., judo, jujitsu,
karate, kickboxing, taekwondo, Tae Bo, Muay Thai boxing)
15440 4.0 Sports Juggling
15450 7.0 Sports Kickball
15460 8.0 Sports Lacrosse
15465 3.3 Sports Lawn bowling, bocce ball, outdoor
15470 4.0 Sports Moto-cross, off-road motor sports, all-terrain vehicle, general
15480 9.0 Sports Orienteering
15490 10.0 Sports Paddleball, competitive
15500 6.0 Sports Paddleball, casual, general (Taylor Code 460)
15510 8.0 Sports Polo, on horseback
15520 10.0 Sports Racquetball, competitive
15530 7.0 Sports Racquetball, general (Taylor Code 470)
15533 8.0 Sports Rock or mountain climbing (Taylor Code 470)(Formerly
code = 17120)
15535 7.5 Sports Rock climbing, ascending rock, high difficulty
15537 5.8 Sports Rock climbing, ascending or traversing rock, low-to-moderate
difficulty
15540 5.0 Sports Rock climbing, rappelling
15542 4.0 Sports Rodeo sports, general, light effort
15544 5.5 Sports Rodeo sports, general, moderate effort
15546 7.0 Sports Rodeo sports, general, vigorous effort
15550 12.3 Sports Rope jumping, fast pace, 120–160 skips/min
(continued)
442 J.J. Robert-McComb et al.

Appendix 1  (continued)
Code METs Major heading Specific activities
15551 11.8 Sports Rope jumping, moderate pace, 100–120 skips/min, general, 2 foot
skip, plain bounce
15552 8.8 Sports Rope jumping, slow pace, <100 skips/min, 2 foot skip, rhythm bounce
15560 8.3 Sports Rugby, union, team, competitive
15562 6.3 Sports Rugby, touch, non-competitive
15570 3.0 Sports Shuffleboard
15580 5.0 Sports Skateboarding, general, moderate effort
15582 6.0 Sports Skateboarding, competitive, vigorous effort
15590 7.0 Sports Skating, roller (Taylor Code 360)
15591 7.5 Sports Rollerblading, in-line skating, 14.4 km/h (9.0 mph), recreational pace
15592 9.8 Sports Rollerblading, in-line skating, 17.7 km/h (11.0 mph), moderate
pace, exercise training
15593 12.3 Sports Rollerblading, in-line skating, 21.0–21.7 km/h (13.0–13.6 mph), fast
pace, exercise training
15594 14.0 Sports Rollerblading, in-line skating, 24.0 km/h (15.0 mph), maximal effort
15600 3.5 Sports Skydiving, base jumping, bungee jumping
15605 10.0 Sports Soccer, competitive
15610 7.0 Sports Soccer, casual, general (Taylor Code 540)
15620 5.0 Sports Softball or baseball, fast or slow pitch, general (Taylor Code 440)
15625 4.0 Sports Softball, practice
15630 4.0 Sports Softball, officiating
15640 6.0 Sports Softball, pitching
15645 3.3 Sports Sports spectator, very excited, emotional, physically moving
15650 12.0 Sports Squash (Taylor Code 530)
15652 7.3 Sports Squash, general
15660 4.0 Sports Table tennis, ping pong (Taylor Code 410)
15670 3.0 Sports Tai chi, qigong, general
15672 1.5 Sports Tai chi, qigong, sitting, light effort
15675 7.3 Sports Tennis, general
15680 6.0 Sports Tennis, doubles (Taylor Code 430)
15685 4.5 Sports Tennis, doubles
15690 8.0 Sports Tennis, singles (Taylor Code 420)
15695 5.0 Sports Tennis, hitting balls, non-game play, moderate effort
15700 3.5 Sports Trampoline, recreational
15702 4.5 Sports Trampoline, competitive
15710 4.0 Sports Volleyball (Taylor Code 400)
15711 6.0 Sports Volleyball, competitive, in gymnasium
15720 3.0 Sports Volleyball, non-competitive, 6–9 member team, general
15725 8.0 Sports Volleyball, beach, in sand
15730 6.0 Sports Wrestling (one match = 5 min)
15731 7.0 Sports Wallyball, general
15732 4.0 Sports Track and field (e.g., shot, discus, hammer throw)
15733 6.0 Sports Track and field (e.g., high jump, long jump, triple jump, javelin,
pole vault)
15734 10.0 Sports Track and field (e.g., steeplechase, hurdles)
16010 2.5 Transportation Automobile or light truck (nota semi) driving
16015 1.3 Transportation Riding in a car or truck
16016 1.3 Transportation Riding in a bus or train
(continued)
27  Estimating Energy Requirements 443

Appendix 1  (continued)
Code METs Major heading Specific activities
16020 1.8 Transportation Flying airplane or helicopter
16030 3.5 Transportation Motor scooter, motorcycle
16035 6.3 Transportation Pulling rickshaw
16040 6.0 Transportation Pushing plane in and out of hangar
16050 2.5 Transportation Truck, semi, tractor, >1 ton, or bus, driving
16060 3.5 Transportation Walking for transportation, 2.8–3.2 mph, level, moderate pace, firm
surface
17010 7.0 Walking Backpacking (Taylor Code 050)
17012 7.8 Walking Backpacking, hiking or organized walking with a daypack
17020 5.0 Walking Carrying 15 lb load (e.g., suitcase), level ground or downstairs
17021 2.3 Walking Carrying 15 lb child, slow walking
17025 8.3 Walking Carrying load upstairs, general
17026 5.0 Walking Carrying 1–15 lb load, upstairs
17027 6.0 Walking Carrying 16–24 lb load, upstairs
17028 8.0 Walking Carrying 25–49 lb load, upstairs
17029 10.0 Walking Carrying 50–74 lb load, upstairs
17030 12.0 Walking Carrying >74 lb load, upstairs
17031 3.5 Walking Loading/unloading a car, implied walking
17033 6.3 Walking Climbing hills, no load
17035 6.5 Walking Climbing hills with 0–9 lb load
17040 7.3 Walking Climbing hills with 10–20 lb load
17050 8.3 Walking Climbing hills with 21–42 lb load
17060 9.0 Walking Climbing hills with 42+ lb load
17070 3.5 Walking Descending stairs
17080 6.0 Walking Hiking, cross country (Taylor Code 040)
17082 5.3 Walking Hiking or walking at a normal pace through fields and hillsides
17085 2.5 Walking Bird watching, slow walk
17088 4.5 Walking Marching, moderate speed, military, no pack
17090 8.0 Walking Marching rapidly, military, no pack
17100 4.0 Walking Pushing or pulling stroller with child or walking with children,
2.5–3.1 mph
17105 3.8 Walking Pushing a wheelchair, non-occupational
17110 6.5 Walking Race walking
17130 8.0 Walking Stair climbing, using or climbing up ladder (Taylor Code 030)
17133 4.0 Walking Stair climbing, slow pace
17134 8.8 Walking Stair climbing, fast pace
17140 5.0 Walking Using crutches
17150 2.0 Walking Walking, household
17151 2.0 Walking Walking, less than 2.0 mph, level, strolling, very slow
17152 2.8 Walking Walking, 2.0 mph, level, slow pace, firm surface
17160 3.5 Walking Walking for pleasure (Taylor Code 010)
17161 2.5 Walking Walking from house to car or bus, from car or bus to go places, from
car or bus to and from the worksite
17162 2.5 Walking Walking to neighbor’s house or family’s house for social reasons
17165 3.0 Walking Walking the dog
17170 3.0 Walking Walking, 2.5 mph, level, firm surface
17180 3.3 Walking Walking, 2.5 mph, downhill
17190 3.5 Walking Walking, 2.8–3.2 mph, level, moderate pace, firm surface
(continued)
444 J.J. Robert-McComb et al.

Appendix 1  (continued)
Code METs Major heading Specific activities
17200 4.3 Walking Walking, 3.5 mph, level, brisk, firm surface, walking for exercise
17210 5.3 Walking Walking, 2.9–3.5 mph, uphill, 1–5 % grade
17211 8.0 Walking Walking, 2.9–3.5 mph, uphill, 6–15 % grade
17220 5.0 Walking Walking, 4.0 mph, level, firm surface, very brisk pace
17230 7.0 Walking Walking, 4.5 mph, level, firm surface, very, very brisk
17231 8.3 Walking Walking, 5.0 mph, level, firm surface
17235 9.8 Walking Walking, 5.0 mph, uphill, 3 % grade
17250 3.5 Walking Walking, for pleasure, work break
17260 4.8 Walking Walking, grass track
17262 4.5 Walking Walking, normal pace, plowed field or sand
17270 4.0 Walking Walking, to work or class (Taylor Code 015)
17280 2.5 Walking Walking, to and from an outhouse
17302 4.8 Walking Walking, for exercise, 3.5–4 mph, with ski poles, Nordic walking,
level, moderate pace
17305 9.5 Walking Walking, for exercise, 5.0 mph, with ski poles, Nordic walking,
level, fast pace
17310 6.8 Walking Walking, for exercise, with ski poles, Nordic walking, uphill
17320 6.0 Walking Walking, backwards, 3.5 mph, level
17325 8.0 Walking Walking, backwards, 3.5 mph, uphill, 5 % grade
18010 2.5 Water activities Boating, power, driving
18012 1.3 Water activities Boating, power, passenger, light
18020 4.0 Water activities Canoeing, on camping trip (Taylor Code 270)
18025 3.3 Water activities Canoeing, harvesting wild rice, knocking rice off the stalks
18030 7.0 Water activities Canoeing, portaging
18040 2.8 Water activities Canoeing, rowing, 2.0–3.9 mph, light effort
18050 5.8 Water activities Canoeing, rowing, 4.0–5.9 mph, moderate effort
18060 12.5 Water activities Canoeing, rowing, kayaking, competition, >6 mph, vigorous effort
18070 3.5 Water activities Canoeing, rowing, for pleasure, general (Taylor Code 250)
18080 12.0 Water activities Canoeing, rowing, in competition, or crew or sculling (Taylor Code 260)
18090 3.0 Water activities Diving, springboard or platform
18100 5.0 Water activities Kayaking, moderate effort
18110 4.0 Water activities Paddleboat
18120 3.0 Water activities Sailing, boat and board sailing, windsurfing, ice sailing, general
(Taylor Code 235)
18130 4.5 Water activities Sailing, in competition
18140 3.3 Water activities Sailing, Sunfish/Laser/Hobby Cat, Keelboats, ocean sailing,
yachting, leisure
18150 6.0 Water activities Skiing, water or wakeboarding (Taylor Code 220)
18160 7.0 Water activities Jet skiing, driving, in water
18180 15.8 Water activities Skin diving, fast
18190 11.8 Water activities Skin diving, moderate
18200 7.0 Water activities Skin diving, scuba diving, general (Taylor Code 310)
18210 5.0 Water activities Snorkeling (Taylor Code 310)
18220 3.0 Water activities Surfing, body or board, general
18222 5.0 Water activities Surfing, body or board, competitive
18225 6.0 Water activities Paddle boarding, standing
18230 9.8 Water activities Swimming laps, freestyle, fast, vigorous effort
18240 5.8 Water activities Swimming laps, freestyle, front crawl, slow, light or moderate effort
(continued)
27  Estimating Energy Requirements 445

Appendix 1  (continued)
Code METs Major heading Specific activities
18250 9.5 Water activities Swimming, backstroke, general, training or competition
18255 4.8 Water activities Swimming, backstroke, recreational
18260 10.3 Water activities Swimming, breaststroke, general, training or competition
18265 5.3 Water activities Swimming, breaststroke, recreational
18270 13.8 Water activities Swimming, butterfly, general
18280 10.0 Water activities Swimming, crawl, fast speed, ~75 yards/min, vigorous effort
18290 8.3 Water activities Swimming, crawl, medium speed, ~50 yards/min, vigorous effort
18300 6.0 Water activities Swimming, lake, ocean, river (Taylor Codes 280, 295)
18310 6.0 Water activities Swimming, leisurely, not lap swimming, general
18320 7.0 Water activities Swimming, sidestroke, general
18330 8.0 Water activities Swimming, synchronized
18340 9.8 Water activities Swimming, treading water, fast, vigorous effort
18350 3.5 Water activities Swimming, treading water, moderate effort, general
18352 2.3 Water activities Tubing, floating on a river, general
18355 5.5 Water activities Water aerobics, water calisthenics
18360 10.0 Water activities Water polo
18365 3.0 Water activities Water volleyball
18366 9.8 Water activities Water jogging
18367 2.5 Water activities Water walking, light effort, slow pace
18368 4.5 Water activities Water walking, moderate effort, moderate pace
18369 6.8 Water activities Water walking, vigorous effort, brisk pace
18370 5.0 Water activities Whitewater rafting, kayaking, or canoeing
18380 5.0 Water activities Windsurfing, not pumping for speed
18385 11.0 Water activities Windsurfing or kite surfing, crossing trial
18390 13.5 Water activities Windsurfing, competition, pumping for speed
19005 7.5 Winter activities Dog sledding, mushing
19006 2.5 Winter activities Dog sledding, passenger
19010 6.0 Winter activities Moving ice house, set up/drill holes
19011 2.0 Winter activities Ice fishing, sitting
19018 14.0 Winter activities Skating, ice dancing
19020 5.5 Winter activities Skating, ice, 9 mph or less
19030 7.0 Winter activities Skating, ice, general (Taylor Code 360)
19040 9.0 Winter activities Skating, ice, rapidly, more than 9 mph, not competitive
19050 13.3 Winter activities Skating, speed, competitive
19060 7.0 Winter activities Ski jumping, climb up carrying skis
19075 7.0 Winter activities Skiing, general
19080 6.8 Winter activities Skiing, cross country, 2.5 mph, slow or light effort, ski walking
19090 9.0 Winter activities Skiing, cross country, 4.0–4.9 mph, moderate speed and effort, general
19100 12.5 Winter activities Skiing, cross country, 5.0–7.9 mph, brisk speed, vigorous effort
19110 15.0 Winter activities Skiing, cross country, >8.0 mph, elite skier, racing
19130 15.5 Winter activities Skiing, cross country, hard snow, uphill, maximum, snow
mountaineering
19135 13.3 Winter activities Skiing, cross-country, skating
19140 13.5 Winter activities Skiing, cross-country, biathlon, skating technique
19150 4.3 Winter activities Skiing, downhill, alpine or snowboarding, light effort, active time only
19160 5.3 Winter activities Skiing, downhill, alpine or snowboarding, moderate effort, general,
active time only
19170 8.0 Winter activities Skiing, downhill, vigorous effort, racing
(continued)
446 J.J. Robert-McComb et al.

Appendix 1  (continued)
Code METs Major heading Specific activities
19175 12.5 Winter activities Skiing, roller, elite racers
19180 7.0 Winter activities Sledding, tobogganing, bobsledding, luge (Taylor Code 370)
19190 5.3 Winter activities Snowshoeing, moderate effort
19192 10.0 Winter activities Snowshoeing, vigorous effort
19200 3.5 Winter activities Snowmobiling, driving, moderate
19202 2.0 Winter activities Snowmobiling, passenger
19252 5.3 Winter activities Snow shoveling, by hand, moderate effort
19254 7.5 Winter activities Snow shoveling, by hand, vigorous effort
19260 2.5 Winter activities Snow blower, walking and pushing
20000 1.3 Religious activities Sitting in church, in service, attending a ceremony, sitting quietly
20001 2.0 Religious activities Sitting, playing an instrument at church
20005 1.8 Religious activities Sitting in church, talking or singing, attending a ceremony, sitting,
active participation
20010 1.3 Religious activities Sitting, reading religious materials at home
20015 1.3 Religious activities Standing quietly in church, attending a ceremony
20020 2.0 Religious activities Standing, singing in church, attending a ceremony, standing, active
participation
20025 1.3 Religious activities Kneeling in church or at home, praying
20030 1.8 Religious activities Standing, talking in church
20035 2.0 Religious activities Walking in church
20036 2.0 Religious activities Walking, less than 2.0 mph, very slow
20037 3.5 Religious activities Walking, 3.0 mph, moderate speed, not carrying anything
20038 4.3 Religious activities Walking, 3.5 mph, brisk speed, not carrying anything
20039 2.0 Religious activities Walk–stand combination for religious purposes, usher
20040 5.0 Religious activities Praise with dance or run, spiritual dancing in church
20045 2.5 Religious activities Serving food at church
20046 2.0 Religious activities Preparing food at church
20047 3.3 Religious activities Washing dishes, cleaning kitchen at church
20050 1.5 Religious activities Eating at church
20055 2.0 Religious activities Eating/talking at church or standing eating, American Indian
Feast days
20060 3.3 Religious activities Cleaning church
20061 4.0 Religious activities General yard work at church
20065 3.5 Religious activities Standing, moderate effort (e.g., lifting heavy objects, assembling
at fast rate)
20095 4.5 Religious activities Standing, moderate-to-heavy effort, manual labor, lifting ≥50 lb,
heavy maintenance
20100 1.3 Religious activities Typing, electric, manual, or computer
21000 1.5 Volunteer activities Sitting, meeting, general, and/or with talking involved
21005 1.5 Volunteer activities Sitting, light office work, in general
21010 2.5 Volunteer activities Sitting, moderate work
21015 2.3 Volunteer activities Standing, light work (filing, talking, assembling)
21016 2.0 Volunteer activities Sitting, child care, only active periods
21017 3.0 Volunteer activities Standing, child care, only active periods
21018 3.5 Volunteer activities Walk/run play with children, moderate, only active periods
21019 5.8 Volunteer activities Walk/run play with children, vigorous, only active periods
21020 3.0 Volunteer activities Standing, light/moderate work (e.g., pack boxes, assemble/repair,
setup chairs/furniture)
(continued)
27  Estimating Energy Requirements 447

Appendix 1  (continued)
Code METs Major heading Specific activities
21025 3.5 Volunteer activities Standing, moderate (lifting 50 lb., assembling at fast rate)
21030 4.5 Volunteer activities Standing, moderate/heavy work
21035 1.3 Volunteer activities Typing, electric, manual, or computer
21040 2.0 Volunteer activities Walking, less than 2.0 mph, very slow
21045 3.5 Volunteer activities Walking, 3.0 mph, moderate speed, not carrying anything
21050 4.3 Volunteer activities Walking, 3.5 mph, brisk speed, not carrying anything
21055 3.5 Volunteer activities Walking, 2.5 mph slowly and carrying objects less than 25 lb
21060 4.5 Volunteer activities Walking, 3.0 mph moderately and carrying objects less than 25 lb,
pushing something
21065 4.8 Volunteer activities Walking, 3.5 mph, briskly and carrying objects less than 25 lb
21070 3.0 Volunteer activities Walk–stand combination, for volunteer purposes
Italicized codes and METs are estimated values

energy recommendations for children and adolescents

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