Design Against Cracking

at Openings in Prestressed
Concrete Beams
Hany Abdalla, Ph.D.
Post-Doctoral Fellow
Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering
University of Windsor
Windsor, Ontario, Canada
Web openings in beams occur quite often in practice to
provide convenient passage of electrical and mechanical
conduits. In this paper, the analysis and design against
cracking of simply supported prestressed concrete beams
with rectangular openings are presented. Several design
parameters are varied, including opening width and depth,
horizontal and vertical locations of the opening, type of cross
section, and amount and arrangement of reinforcement
around the opening. The results from a finite element analysis
are substantiated by test results. A simple design method for
estimating the cracking load for the different crack patterns is
proposed and two illustrative design examples are presented.

n modern building construction, Several investigations have been

I openings through beams and gird

ers are required for the passage of
utility ducts. Passing these ducts
through openings in the webs of the
floor beams eliminates a significant
amount of dead space and results in a
more compact and, often, more eco
nomical design. However, the pres
ence of openings gives rise to exces
carried out on reinforced concrete
beams with openings (Mansur et al.” ).
2
Comparatively little attention has been
directed toward the behavior of pre
stressed beams with openings. Barney
3 suggested that the shear force at
et al.
an opening in a pretensioned pre
stressed beam be distributed to the
bottom and top chords of the opening

L
John B. Kennedy
D.Sc., Ph.D, P.Eng.
University Distinguished Professor
Department of Civil and
Environmental Engineering
University of Windsor
Windsor, Ontario, Canada
sive stresses that may be detrimental
unless properly assessed and designed.
Practical and experimental experi
ences have shown that, quite fre
quently, horizontal cracks develop at
openings at the transfer stage and in
clined cracks develop at the corners of
openings at the working stage. Such
cracks can seriously reduce the load
carrying capacity of the beam.
in proportion to their uncracked mo
ments of inertia until cracking occurs.
After cracking, the shear distribution
between the opening chords was based
on the extent of cracking in the tension
4 proposed
chord. Dinakaran and Sastry
that this force be distributed in propor
tion to the cross-sectional areas in
post-tensioned prestressed concrete T
beams with openings.

60 PCI JOURNAL
 More recently, Kennedy and Ab
dalla suggested a root ratio for dis
5 Ix
tributing the shear force between the II
top and bottom chords. However, none
of these investigations dealt specifi
cally with the analysis or the design
for the potentially splitting tension
forces that develop at the edges of the J- w___ L__ W .
mm
openings at the transfer stage and at 3.Om a-J

the corners of the openings at the

working stage. Kennedy and El
6 have investigated these forces
Laithy
at the transfer stage for post-tensioned
prestressed beams with rectangular
sections.
It should be noted that the design of
prestressed concrete beams with open
ings is more complicated than the de
sign of beams in reinforced concrete
construction. In the latter case, the
openings are usually provided in the
zone below the neutral axis where the
concrete is assumed cracked and,
therefore, flexurally inactive. In pre
stressed concrete construction, though,
the whole cross section is fully uti
lized and, hence, the presence of an
opening will reduce the cracking load
capacity of such beams.
In this paper, analytical procedures
are developed to predict and design
against the several types of cracking
that are likely to occur in simply
supported prestressed concrete beams
with rectangular openings. The effect
of the amount and arrangement of the
reinforcement at different locations
around the opening is studied. Results
from a nonlinear finite element analy
sis are substantiated by an experimen
tal investigation on several prestressed
concrete rectangular T- and I-beams.
THEORETICAL ANALYSIS
The theoretical study was based on
the nonlinear finite element program
ABAQUS (Hibbitt et al. ). The follow
7 The size of each increment depends on
ing design parameters were considered:
1. Horizontal and vertical locations
of the opening
2. Opening width and depth
3. Type of cross section
A rectangular plane stress element
was used to analyze beams of rectan
gular cross sections. For beams of T
sections and I-sections, the same rect
angular plane stress element was
utilized to model the web, whereas the
[ H h
Hh:
hr C
Lhb
b=102 mm b=102
H=254 mm tf=51
13=458
H=305
Section X—X
Fig. 1. Layout of tested beams.
flange(s) was modeled by a four-node
plate element with six degrees of free
dom. A parametric study was carried
out to determine the effect of the rein
forcement against the different types
of cracks around the opening. Rein
forcing bars were placed at different
locations around the opening with var
ious cross-sectional areas and arrange
ments. The direction of the reinforce
ment, whether horizontal, vertical, or
inclined, was also studied.
In the nonlinear analysis, the load is
applied gradually in small increments
as defined in the ABAQUS program.
the convergence of the iteration pro
cess in the previous increments. The
concrete under compression is mod
eled by an elastic-plastic theory, using
a simple form for the yield surface ex
pressed in terms of the equivalent
pressure stress and the Mises equiva
lent deviatoric stress (Hibbitt et al.
).
7 stressed concrete. The program pro
Isotropic hardening is also accounted
for. Cracking is assumed to occur
when the stress reaches the failure sur
F h3
Hh
hbj
_—_ B
mm b=102 mm
mm tf=51 mm
mm 13=458 mm
mm H=357 mm
Note: 1 in. 25.4 mm
face represented by a simple Coulomb
line in terms of the equivalent pres
sure, p, and the Mises equivalent devi
atoric stress, q (Hibbitt et al.
).
7
The model is a smeared crack
model, in the sense that it does not
track individual macro cracks. Instead,
constitutive calculations are performed
independently at each integration
point of the finite element model and
the presence of cracks enters into
these calculations by the way in which
the cracks affect the stresses and mate
rial stiffness associated with the inte
gration point. The cracking and com
pression responses of the concrete as
well as the influence of tension stiff
ening due to the presence of the rein
forcing steel are given elsewhere
(Kennedy and Abdalla).
The concrete model in ABAQUS is
designed to provide a general method
for modeling reinforced and pre
vides a REBAR option to model the
reinforcing bars. Reinforcing bars are
one-dimensional strain theory ele

November-December 1995 61
 • ,
457mm K
457 mm
448 mm bars
r mm bars

I 89J rf—2—4.8 mm bars

l2—4.8 mm bars
mm bars
2—6.4 mm bars
76t E]—4,8 mm stirrups
254 .8 mm stirrups
mml 4 mm bars
.
26
[j— 2—6.4 mm bars
4.8 mm stirrups
II ii 2—6 4 mm bars .2—64 mm bars
prestressing wires prestressing wires mm bars
102 mm 102mm
-6—6.4 mm bars
prestressing wires
(a) (b) cc)
102x356x19 mm
prestressing wires—
4.,, steel bearing plute

160 mm

—-‘
mm
32 mm

140 140 25 152 152 152 25102 254 254 51 25 mm

K K K Xl K - K XXIX

K
1524mm *
(d) Note: 1 in.=25.4 mm

Fig. 2. Reinforcement details for: (a) rectangular beam; (b) T-beam; (c) I-beam; and (d) tested I-beam BITI1A.

Lable 1. Characteristics of tested beams.

Concrete
Eccentricity and compressive
Dimensions of opening Location of opening prestressing force strength
Beam W h 1 C e F f
identification (mm) (mm) (m) (mm) (mm) (kN) (MPa)
Rectangular
BI1A 305 76 1.00 127 36 149 41
BI1B,BI3A 305 76 0.86 127 40 139 43
BI2A 406 76 0.81 152 46 118 50
BI2B,BI3B 406 76 0.81 127 48 141 43
BI2C 406 76 0.81 102 47 116 45
BI3C 508 76 0.76 127 45 116 42
T-beams
BII1A 457 102 0.84 165 85 194 44

457 102 0.69 165 82 171 54

BII1C 457 102 0.53 165 80 180 53

BII2B 457 102 0.69 127 84 173 48
BII4C 457 127 0.69 165 71 189 50
I-beams
B1I11A 457 127 0.69 178 62 294 47
BIII1C 457 127 0.46 178 55 270 41
Note: 1 in. = 25.4 mm; 1 kip = 4.45 kN; I ksi = 6.89 MPa.

62 PCI JOURNAL
 ments that are used with standard
metal plasticity models to describe the
behavior of the reinforcing bar mate
rial, and are superimposed on a mesh
of standard element types used
to model the plain concrete. Effects
associated with the reinforcing bar!
concrete interface, such as bond slip
and dowel action, are modeled by in
troducing tension stiffening to simu
late load transfer across cracks
through the reinforcing bar.
Three types of cross sections were
analyzed: a rectangular section, a T
section, and an I-section, denoted as
BI, BIT, and Bill, respectively. Each
cross section was divided into groups
accounting for changes in one of the
parameters mentioned earlier. The pa
rameters, horizontal location, vertical
location, opening width, and opening
depth, were assigned the numbers 1, 2,
3, and 4, respectively. For example,
Group B112 is for T-beams where the
varied parameter is the vertical loca
tion of the opening.
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY
The objectives of the experimental
investigation were to determine:
1. The crack propagation pattern
due to the prestressing force and due
to the vertically applied load
2. The strain distribution in the
vicinity of the opening
3. The deflection at the transfer and
service load stages
Tests were carried out on 13 post-
tensioned prestressed concrete beams:
six of the beams were rectangular in
section, five were of T-section and the
remaining two were of I-section. The
layout of the tested beams is shown in
Fig. 1. The concrete was designed for
a 7-day compressive strength of 41
MPa (6000 psi). The percentage of
fine aggregate to total aggregate was
48 percent. The water-cement ratio
was 0.4 with an aggregate-cement
ratio of 2.7, both by weight. High
early strength portland cement was
used and the maximum size of coarse
aggregate was 10 mm (/8 in.). High
tensile wires, each 7 mm (0.276 in.) in
diameter with an ultimate nominal
strength of 1760 MPa (255 ksi), were
used for prestressing.
Stirrups of mild steel wire of 300
November-December 1995
(1) Cracking at Transfer
(2) Cracking of the Opening Corners (Service Load Stage)
(3) Cracking at the Edges of the Opening (Service Load Stage)
(4) Cracking of the Tension Chord (Service Load Stge)
(5) Shar. Cracking (Service Load Stage) s
Fig. 3. Different types of cracking around opening.
MPa (44 ksi) nominal yield strength, thirteen beams tested are shown in
5 mm (0.2 in.) in diameter, were pro Table 1.
vided. It was decided to use the mini
mum ratio of shear reinforcement in
the top and bottom chords of the open RESULTS
ing following the ACT Code.8 The rea Results from the nonlinear finite el
son for this decision was to examine ement analysis were compared to
the shear strength of the chords with those from the tests on the thirteen
minimum shear reinforcement, as sug prestressed concrete beams as well as
gested earlier by Barney et al.3 to those from tests carried out by
The end bearing plates were 102 x Kennedy and El-Laithy.
6 The stress
254 x 20 mm (4 x 10 x 3/4 in.) thick for and strain distributions around the
rectangular beams, 102 x 305 x 20 mm opening were determined at the trans
(4 x 12 x 3/4 in.) thick for T-beams, and fer stage, where the beam is subjected
102x356x20mm(4x 14x /4in.)
3 to the prestressing force only, and at
thick for I-beams. Plastic tubes 11 mm the service load stage, where the pre
(/16 in.) in diameter housed the pre stressed beam is subjected to a verti
stressing wires during casting of the cal load just below the cracking load.
concrete. Typical reinforcement de This load was 18 kN (4 kips) for the
tails for the tested beams are shown in rectangular Beam BT2C, shown in
Fig. 2. Linear strain gauges were in Fig. 5, according to the experimental
stalled in the region of the opening. observations.
Mechanical dial gauges with a travel The influence of the opening on de
sensitivity of 0.025 mm (0.001 in.) flection, stresses, and crackiiig was ex
were used to measure the camber and amined. The effect of the amount and
deflection profile of the beam during arrangement of reinforcement around
prestressing and during the application the opening was also studied.
of the external vertical loading. A hy The experimental results revealed
draulic jack of 89 kN (20 kips) capac five critical locations for potential
ity was used for the post-tensioning cracking of prestressed beams with
operation, which involved the use of openings, as shown in Fig. 3. Those
washers and open type grips consist locations are: (1) at the edges of the
ing of an exterior cylinder and a split opening due to the prestressing force;
conical interior wedge. Details of the (2) at the corners of the opening due to
63

L_
1[’
Fig. 4. Crack patterns for prestressed concrete beams with openings.
the framing action at the opening re
gion; (3) in the opening chords due to
the flexural stresses resulting from the
secondary moments in these chords;
(4) in the tension chord due to the nor
mal tensile stresses in that chord; and
(5) in the opening chords due to shear.
The first of the five types of poten
tial cracking occurs at the transfer
stage due to the prestressing force
only, while the other four types occur
at the service load stage. It should be
noted that the last two types of crack
ing can trigger the complete collapse
of the beam.
It should also be mentioned that,
whether the beam is post-tensioned or
pretensioned, both types are designed
herein to include mild steel bonded rein
forcement around the opening. As far as
the mild steel reinforcing around the
opening is concerned, the structural re
sponse of both post-tensioned and
64
bonded pretensioned precast beams will
be similar at transfer as well as at the ser
vice load stage prior to initial cracking.
At the service load stage and for the
purpose of estimating the load causing
cracking around the opening, the pro
posed methods of analysis herein can
be applied to unbonded and bonded
post-tensioned beams as well as to
pretensioned precast beams (Lin and
). This is because the non-pre
9
Burns
stressed longitudinal reinforcement in
the opening chords and the vertical
stirrups around the opening provide
the required resistance against local
cracking at the opening. The prestress
ing steel, whether bonded or not, re
sists the flexural cracking at the beam
midspan. It should also be noted that
the buckling of the compression chord
at the opening is not addressed herein
because it was discussed in detail else
where (Abdalla and Kennedy’°).
.
:IJo
L
Cracking at Openings Due
to Prestressing Force
(Transfer Stage)
The prestressing force gives rise to
vertical splitting tensile stresses at the
opening edges causing horizontal
cracks, as shown in Fig. 4(a). The
maximum value of these stresses oc
curs very close to the mid-depth of the
opening, regardless of the position of
the opening or the position of the pre
stressing force, as shown in Fig. 5(a).
Furthermore, even in T-beams, where
the top and bottom chords are different
in shape, results show that the maxi
mum vertical tensile stress occurs very
close to the middle of the opening.
The results also reveal that as the
opening is moved vertically toward
the horizontal line of action of the pre
stressing force, the maximum vertical
splitting stress increases. The horizon-
PCI JOURNAL
 For a rectangular section:

Theoretical 3
1
F;—F
+
2 F (4)
— — —— Experimental It is assumed that the force F; is re
sisted by internal forces F; and F;, in
P=0.0 kN the top and bottom chords of the open
ing and that the diffusion of the force
F; is through the skeletal truss ABC, as
shown in Fig. 6. It can be shown (El
Laithy” and Kennedy and E1-Laithy
)
6
that the vertical splitting tensile force,
T, can be estimated as:
a(y a) -

T F (5)
frY
where
hb
a=y—e——
2
/3 = d + d

y=h++
3 2 (6)

d=l3—
hC
Note: 1 kip 4.45 kN
1 ksi 6.89 MPa d =
=
3h
in which
Fig. 5. Vertical stress distribution at the opening: (a) transfer stage; h = depth of opening
(b) service load stage. h, = depth of top chord
hb = depth of bottom chord
tal location of the opening and the third are the fractions of F
1 and F,
2 H = depth of beam
width of the opening have a minor ef- whose diffusions into the web are in- C distance from center of opening
fect on the splitting stresses at the terrupted by the presence of the web to bottom edge of beam
opening edges at the transfer stage. opening. Thus, it can be shown that [The numerical coefficient 13 in d is a
However, increasing the depth of the (Abdalla”): dimensional constant in mm (Kennedy
opening significantly increases the and El-Laithy
).1
6
maximum splitting stress at mid-depth
of the opening at the transfer stage.
1 + + F;
For design purposes, the vertical
tensile stress distribution can be as-
Kennedy and El-Laithy
6 and Kennedy
A — Af ,J A — A,
J sumed to be triangular. Thus, the max-
et al.” examined the relationship be- (1) imum vertical tensile stress, f, due to
tween the prestressing force and the the prestressing force can be calcu
in which A, Af,, Af , and A are the
2
vertical splitting stress at mid-depth of lated as:
areas of the web, bottom flange, top
the opening. As shown in Fig. 5(a), 21
flange, and total cross section, respec- =
the value of this stress is also high at
tively. The eccentricity of F, from the f db
(7)
the corners of the opening. It is this
center of gravity of the cross section,
stress at the corners of the opening Adding vertical non-prestressed re
e, can be determined from statics as:
that, when added to that due to the ap- inforcement at the edges of the open-
plied vertical load, causes cracking at ing increases the prestressing force
the corners of the opening.
Fig. 6 shows the free-body diagram
for an I-beam with a rectangular open-
e
= [ F
‘[A — Af,
e + 3
F;e needed to cause cracking at the open-
ing edges, as shown in Fig. 7. From
the results, it can be observed that
ing and subjected to applied prestress-
ing forces F,, F , and F
2 . The compo-
3
Fl’ A
A_Af}
]‘1ei F;
2 (2)
adding one closed stirrup 5 mm (0.2 in.)
in diameter increases the required
nent of the prestressing force causing cracking prestressing force by about
the vertical tensile force at the open- For a T-section: 17 percent.
ing, F;, is composed of three parts: one Increasing the amount of this verti
is the prestressing force F, applied di-
3
F; (.4-) + J
cal reinforcement increases the pre
rectly to the web; the second and the (3) stressing force, causing cracking, and
=

November-December 1995 65
 should be arranged within the distance
d and be placed as close as possible to
the opening edge.
If cracking is allowed at the transfer
stage, then stirrups can be designed to
resist the total splitting tensile force.
Because the splitting stress has a steep
gradient, it is recommended that the
design stress for the reinforcing steel
be taken as one-half the allowable
stress,f. Thus:

A=- (9)

Such reinforcement should be ar

Fig. 6. Development of vertical tensile force at an opening. ranged as closed stirrups, also within
the distance d, from the opening edge.
Considering the vertical tensile
stress at mid-depth of the opening at
the transfer stage to be equal to f, the
maximum value of the tensile stress,
f, at the four corners of the opening
due to the prestressing force only can
be estimated assuming a linear distri
bution, as shown in Fig. 8. Thus:

f=[f (10)

for hb h,
or

( h—t
(11)
H_c_tjJ
Fig. 7. Effect of vertical reinforcement on the prestressing force causing cracking for h hb
at the opening edges.
Using Eq. (7) and substituting:
decreases the rate of increase in that = length of tension field at open 2T
force. However, there is a certain opti ing edge, determined by Eq. (6) b
1
d
mum percentage of vertical reinforce b = beam width
ment beyond which no significant in d’ = distance between opening edge in Eqs. (10) and (11), the maximum
crease in this prestressing force and center of gravity of steel area tensile force at the four corners of the
occurs. From the finite element para uniformly disthbuted within dis opening can be estimated as:
metric study, it was determined that tance d, and equal to 0.5d
before cracking, the concrete and the (hb—t l
f direct tensile strength of con
=
I (12)
reinforcement both resist the vertical crete, 0.33,/ MPa (4.0f C tj
-

splitting tensile force according to the psi) (Collins and Mitchell’

)
4 for h,, h
modular ratio, n. It was found that the It can be observed from Eq. (8) that
total resisting tensile force, T, can be the splitting tensile stress was assumed or
expressed as follows: to have a triangular distribution. This
assumption was verified by the test re ( h—i
T=I IT (13)
i =)()+t’[(nl)A
1 sults. Havingj determined from above H—C—tf)
]jc
and equating the splitting tensile force,
for Ji hb
(8) T, calculated from Eq. (5) with Tr in
Eq.(8), the area of vertical stirrups, A,
4 This force Tf will be added to the
where required to resist the splitting stress at force due to the vertical load in order
A = cross-sectional area of closed the transfer stage can be estimated. It to determine the total reinforcement
stirrups at one edge of opening should be noted that these stirrups required at the opening edges, as will

PCI JOURNAL

Fig. 8. Vertical tensile stresses at opening.
P=0.0 kN
(a)
Fig. 9. Shear stress distribution at opening at: (a) transfer stage;
(b) service load stage.
be discussed later. It should be noted
that Eqs. (12) and (13) were developed
for I-sections. However, they can also
be applied to other sections by putting
tf = 0 in both equations for rectangular
beams and tf = 0 in Eq. (12) for T
beams.
Fig. 9(a) shows the shear stress dis
tribution around the opening at the
transfer stage. It can be seen from the
results that the prestressing force in
duces significant shear stresses at the
November-December 1995
(a) hb h ing were found to be the main factors
(b) h
1 hb
=ll3 kN
=113 kN
Note; 1 kip = 4.45 kN
1 ksi = 6.89 MPa
opening corners and insignificant
stresses at the chords of the opening.
While the horizontal location of the
opening and the width of the opening
have almost no effect on the shear
stresses at the transfer stage, the verti
cal location and depth of the opening
significantly affect these stresses. As
the opening is moved vertically to
ward the line of action of the pre
stressing force or as the depth of the
opening increases, the shear stresses
around the opening increase.
Considering the camber of the beam
due to the prestressing force, the di
mensions and the location of the open
affecting the maximum camber at the
center of the beam. The vertical rein
forcement at the opening edges was
found to have no effect on the camber
of the beam at this stage of loading.
Cracking at Opening
Due to Vertical Load
(Service Load Stage)
At the service load stage, the beam
is subjected to a vertically applied
load as well as the prestressing force.
For such loadings, different types of
cracks can develop around the open
ing, as shown in Figs. 3 and 4.
Cracking at the Opening Corners
— Based on the finite element analy
sis substantiated by the test results, it
was found that, due to the application
of an external vertical load, the maxi
mum splitting tensile stress shifts up
ward at the right edge of the opening
and downward at the left edge of the
opening, as shown in Fig. 5(b). This
can cause cracking of the opening
corners, as shown in Fig. 4(b).
The cracks at these corners are due
to the splitting stress, ff. resulting
1
from the prestressing force as well as
to the splitting stress, J,, resulting
from the external vertical load. Be
cause the tensile force generated from
the combination of ftf andf, is almost
vertical, vertical reinforcing steel be
comes more effective than inclined re
inforcing steel in controlling corner
cracking in prestressed beams with
openings. This is unlike reinforced
concrete beams where the resultant
force is inclined more to the longitu
dinal, in which case inclined reinforc
ing steel is more effective than verti
cal reinforcing steel.
,, due to the vertical
The stress, ff
1
load was found to have a distribution
along a horizontal plane passing by
Corner 3 in Fig. 10(a), changing from
tension to compression in a distance
d, as shown in Fig. 10(b). At Corner
2, f changes from compression to
tension in the same distance d, as
shown in Fig. 10(c). It can be seen
that similar stress distributions occur
67

t (a)
(L
‘cv
0
d
K ing chords shown in Fig. 11. The width
• (b)
Rg. 10. Vertical tensile stresses at opening.
j:
iMsb
It +
Mt
Fig. 11. Framing action around opening.
at Corners 1 and 4, respectively.
The horizontal location of the open
ing has a minor effect on these
stresses, while the vertical location of
the opening significantly affects these
stresses. The maximum splitting stress
at the service load stage occurs at the
opening corner corresponding to the
68
are transferred to the solid segments at
the opening edges, as shown in Fig. 11.
IF Because the deeper chord carries a
larger amount of shear, it is subjected
to higher splitting stresses. Increasing
the width of the opening increases the
secondary moment at the opening
edges and results in higher vertical
splitting stresses at the opening cor
ners. Increasing the depth of the open
ing significantly increases the vertical
splitting stress at the upper right and
the lower left corners of the opening.
From the above discussion, it can be
assumed that there is a segment of the
beam at each end of the opening con
tributing a framing action to the open
(C) of these beam segments is (4 + dr), as
shown in Fig. 11(a). A parametric
study has shown that the values for 4
and cI are almost the same as those
previously given in Eq. (6). It can also
be assumed that at Corner 3 [Fig.
10(a)], the moment transferred to Seg
ment CB is resisted by two forces, T
and C, shown in Fig. 10(b), where T
,s. is assumed to act at a distance 4/3
from Corner 3 and C is assumed to act
at the middle of the distance d. Thus,
the tensile force 7 due to the vertical
load can now be calculated from:
(14)
=
Msb
dt + 0
d
[. ..1 in which M 5 is the secondary moment
at the top chord of the opening. As
suming a triangular distribution for the
vertical splitting stress, the maximum
-4
tensile stress can be calculated as:
(15)
“Msb This stress is due to the vertical load
only. The vertical stresses due to pre
stressing at the corners should be
added to this stress to derive the total
vertical splitting stress at the opening
corner for design.
deeper chord. This is because the split A parametric study was carried out
ting stress occurs due to a framing ac to determine the effect of the amount
tion between the opening chords and and arrangement of reinforcement on
the solid concrete segments at the cracking at the corners of prestressed
edges of the opening. Through this beams with openings. The area, num
framing action, the secondary mo ber and direction of the reinforcing
ments at the opening chords resulting steel, whether vertical or inclined, were
from the shear forces at these chords studied. Fig. 12(a) shows the effect of
PCI JOURNAL
 the area of vertical reinforcement on
the cracking load capacity. It can be
observed from the results in Fig. 12(a)
that there is an optimum percentage of
reinforcing steel beyond which no in
crease in the above capacity will occur.
This is because this capacity is also af
fected by other capacity reducing fac
tors discussed below.
The arrangement of the vertical re
inforcement at the edges of the open
ing was also examined. It was found
that placing all the required reinforce
ment as close as possible to the open
ing edge instead of distributing this re
inforcement over the distance d 1
increases the cracking load by 10 to 15
percent. Therefore, it is recommended
that all the vertical reinforcement
should be placed within a distance d 1
from the opening edge and as close as
possible to the opening edge.
The effectiveness of using inclined
reinforcement at the four corners of
the opening in prestressed beams was
also studied. It was found that placing
the reinforcement at an inclination of
45 degrees increases the cracking load
by only 10 percent in comparison to
using vertical reinforcement. The bond
length of the vertical reinforcement z
should be checked for adequacy. This
bond can be improved by using more 0
-
branches of vertical closed stirrups.
C)
To estimate the area of reinforcing
steel required to resist a certain verti 0)

cal applied load, P, the Vierendeel

method of analysis, described by
Kennedy and Abdalla,
5 can be applied
to determine the secondary moments
0 0,1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
and M$b at the top and bottom
Percentage of Steel Area (A/bH)
chords of the opening, respectively.
The larger of the two moments M 5 and Note: 1 kip = 4.45 kN
MSb is used in Eq. (14) to determine
the tensile force T at the opening edge
due to the vertical load.
After replacing Tr with (T + Tf),
where T and Tf are given by Eq. (14), Fig. 12(b). Effect of reinforcement at opening chords on cracking load.
and Eqs. (12) or (13), respectively,
Eq. (8) is used to determine the re
quired area of reinforcing steel to pre opening corners may cause separation cracking occurs as a result of the pri
vent cracking at the corners of the along the interface between the flange mary moment and the secondary mo
opening. This area of reinforcement and the web of the section. Therefore, ment in the opening chords. These
should be added to the reinforcement the reinforcing steel should extend well moments cause flexural tensile
required to resist the shear stresses re into the flange with adequate anchorage stresses at the upper left and the lower
sulting from the external load on the length to resist such separation. right corners of the opening chords, as
beam. Cracking at the Edges of the shown in Fig. 3.
It should be noted that for beams Opening — Fig. 4(c) shows the third The secondary moments in the
with T- or I-sections, cracking at the type of cracking at the openings. This opening chords are formed by the

November-December 1995 69
shear forces in the chords. Therefore,
it is important to accurately predict the
distribution of shear between the top
and bottom chords of the opening.
From the finite element parametric
study substantiated by test results, it
was shown (Abdalla’
) that the shear
2 can be estimated from Eq. (17). It
force carried by the bottom chord of
an opening in prestressed concrete
beams can be determined from:
(16)
V +ji
- jAbWIb
where
Vb = shear force carried by bottom
chord
V = total shear force at center of
opening
AbW = x hb = area of bottom web
b
A = b x = area of top web
‘b’ ‘t = moments of inertia of bottom
and top chords about their cen
troidal axes, respectively
It should be noted that Eq. (16) is
valid as long as the tension chord is
not cracked. Having determined the
shear force distribution between the
top and bottom chords of the opening,
the Vierendeel method given by
Kennedy and Abdalla
5 can be applied
to determine the cracking load of the
opening chords. In that method, the
maximum tensile stress f in the ten
sion chord is calculated as:
iNMSby
f—
ts 17
Ab Ab ‘b
where
Fb = prestres sing force in bottom
chord
N tensile force resulting from
=
primary moment and equal
to MmIY in which Mm is the
primary moment at the cen
ter of the opening and Y is
the vertical distance be
tween the centroids of the
opening chords
MSb = secondary moment in bot
tom chord
y = distance from center of
gravity of bottom chord to
upper extreme fiber of same
chord
Ab, ‘b = area and moment of inertia
of transformed section con-
sisting of area of concrete A
and area of transformed steel
(n 1 )A of tension chord
— noted between the two cases.
By assuming an allowable flexural
tensile stress (ACI Code
), the area of
8 ing force gives rise to shear stresses
steel A required to prevent cracking
should also be noted that the presence
of secondary moments at the opening
edges may cause cracking in the
flange even if it is in the compression
chord. The effect of reinforcing the
top and bottom chords using longitudi
nal bars in the two chords was studied.
Fig. 12(b) shows that increasing the
steel area in the opening chords in
creases the cracking load of pre
stressed beams with openings.
Cracking of the Tension Chord
Cracks start at the corners of the bot
tom chord due to the tensile stresses
resulting from the combined effect of
the primary moment and the sec
ondary moments. For relatively shal
low bottom chords, it was further ob
served that when the net axial stresses
at the middle of the bottom chord ex
ceed the allowable tensile stress of the
concrete, a crack will extend the full
depth of the tensile chord, as shown in
Figs. 3 and 4(d).
The condition for such cracking can
be represented by:
T=N—FbO.62Ag[7c
where Fb is the prestressing force in
the bottom chord and is calculated as
suming a triangular stress distribution
in the top chord of the opening at the
transfer stage. For the bottom chord, a
rectangular stress distribution can be
assumed (Kennedy and Abdalla
).
5
To prevent this type of cracking,
longitudinal reinforcement should be
provided in the tensile chord. With
such a provision, the resisting tensile
strength of the tension chord in this
case becomes:
0.62.[.i’[ A +(n 1)A]
= —
Equating Tr to T, given by Eq. (18),
the required area of steel A can be es
timated. From the parametric study, it
was found that placing this reinforce
ment near the upper and lower fibers
of the tension chord, rather than dis
tributing the reinforcement uniformly
over the cross section, augments the
ultimate load capacity of the beam. A
difference of about 15 percent was
Shear Cracking — The prestress
close to the opening corners, while
the applied vertical load produces
shear stresses in the opening chords,
as shown in Fig. 9. The vertical loca
tion of the opening and the opening
depth are the major factors affecting
the shear stresses around the opening
at the working load stage before
cracking.
After cracking of the opening
chords, the shear force carried by each
chord depends on the level of cracking
of that chord. Before cracking, the
— ratio of the shear force carried by each
chord is given by Eq. (16). Excessive
shear stresses in the opening chords
may cause shear cracks similar to
those shown in Figs. 3 and 4(d). To
avoid such cracking of the opening
chords, the shear stresses must not ex
ceed the allowable shear stresses.
The effect of the axial forces,
whether compression or tension, has
to be taken into consideration. Before
cracking, the shear force is distributed
between the top and bottom chords ac
cording to the root ratio given by Eq.
(16).
After cracking, the following sim
(18) plified conservative procedure for esti
mating shear forces in the opening
chords is presented: if the crack in the
bottom chord extends the full depth
and the tension force in the tension
chord is:
T 0.62Ab-f
then it is recommended that the com
pression chord carries the total shear:
Vt—V
(20)
Vb 0
If, on the other hand:
T 0.62Ab-s[jL
(19)
then the shear force in the tensile
chord is calculated from Eq. (16) at
cracking, i.e., Vbcr, with the compres
sion chord carrying the remaining
shear:
(21)
VVVbcr
In this case, the shear force carried
PCI JOURNAL
by the bottom chord can be calculated Table 2. Cracking loads of tested beams.
from Eq. (16) for design purposes. Experimental Analytical Concrete Prestressing
The use of this simplified method for Beam cracking load cracking load strength force
determining the shear forces in the identification (kN)
-
(kN)
——
f’(MPa) F(kN)
opening chords results in a conserva Rectangular
tive design against shear failure in the BI1A 20 17 41 149
opening chords. BE1B 22 18 43 139
The calculated shear forces should BI2A 18 14 50 118
be compared to the ultimate shear ca BI2B 22 17 43 141
pacity, V, of a concrete section sub BI2C 22 18 45 116
jected to shear and prestressing forces BI3C 16 13 42 116
and given by the ACT Code
8 as:
T-bearn
BI11A 33 29 44 194
V (22)
Bill B 36 30 54 171
BIIIC 36 33 53 180
,d
1
0.l4Jb
BII2B 33 31 48 173
where BII4C 29 26 50 189

Mcr = cracking moment of opening I-beains

chord, estimated using method BIIIIA 53 47 47 294
given by Kennedy and Abdalla
5 BIII1B 49 45 41 270

f’ = concrete strength in MPa
W opening width
b = width of web
d = depth of opening chord
If the shear in either of the top or the
bottom chords exceeds V, given by
Eq. (22), vertical stirrups are required
to resist the difference. In this case,
the shear force carried by vertical stir
rups is given by:
vs=vc-vci (23)
where V is the shear force in any of
the opening chords and l’ is the shear
force carried by the concrete in that
chord.
The amount and arrangement of the
vertical stirrups in the opening chords
can be determined by applying the
well known formula of = Afd/s
where A is the cross-sectional area of
the vertical stirrups, d is the depth of
the chord, s is the spacing between
stirrups, and f is the yield strength of
the reinforcing steel.
In order to validate the above pro
posed design procedure, it was ap
plied to the tested beams. Table 2
shows a comparison between the test
and the analytical cracking loads of
the tested beams. The analytical
cracking loads were estimated accord
ing to the proposed design equations.
It can be observed from Table 2 that
the test results are invariably higher
than the analytical values. The reason
for this discrepancy is that the test
cracking loads were recorded when
Note: 1 kip = 4.45 kN; 1 ksi = 6.89 MPa.
cracks were observed by the naked A = Af
1 2 = 0.043 m 2 (68 sq in.)
eye and it is well known that hairline (271 sq in.)
2
A=0.175m
cracks precede this stage. Notwith The areas and moments of inertia of
standing, the results from the pro the top and bottom chords of the open
posed design procedure are on the ing are:
conservative side and, therefore, the 1 = 0.081 m
A 2 (126 sq in.)
procedure will yield a conservative = 1.16 x 10 m 4 (2778 in.
)
4
design. Ab = 0.062 m2 (96 sq in.)
0.275 x 10 m4 (659 in.
)
4
DESIGN EXAMPLE 1 I 17.9x10
3 m 4 (43,036 in.)(the
4
moment of inertia of the cross
A 9.2 m (30 ft) simply supported section at midspan)
post-tensioned prestressed concrete I-
girder has been designed to resist a
total moment of 422 kN-m (310 kip Cracking Due to
ft) due to a load P = 165 kN (37 kips) Prestressing Only
at midspan and due to its own weight, From Eqs. (1) and (2):
= 4 kN/m (0.27 kip/ft). Six 15 mm F
=
2 483kN(l09kips)
(0.6 in.) steel strands with an ultimate e= 236 mm (9.3 in.)
tensile strength of 1725 MPa (250 ksi) Using the geometries of the I-girder
were used for prestressing the 45 MPa shown in Fig. 13 in Eq. (6) gives the
(6.5 ksi) concrete. The effective pre following values:
stressing was estimated at 620 kN a = 94 mm (3.7 in.)
(140 kips). One web opening 255 mm /3 = 1010mm (39.8 in.)
(10 in.) deep by 914 mm (36 in.) 7=515mm (20.3 in.)
wide, shown in Fig. 13, was required 1 = 112 mm (4.4 in.)
d
for the passage of utility services. The d = 898 mm (35.4 in.).
center of the opening was to be lo From Eq. (5), T = 36.8 k.N (8.3 kips).
cated 3.05 m (10 ft) from the support. The allowable direct tensile strength
Design the reinforcement required = = 0.33-/ = 2.2 MPa
around the opening to resist cracking. (0.3 ksi). From Eq. (7), f 1 = 5.2 MPa
Defining A, , 11 Af
A , and A as the
2 (0.8 ksi) > 2,2 MPa (0.3 ksi). Hence,
areas of the web, bottom and top vertical reinforcement is required. Sub
flanges, and the total cross section, re 2 = 36.8 kN (8.3 kips) in
stituting Tr = T
spectively, then from Fig. 13: Eq. (8) yields A
2 = 3852 mm2 (6 sq in.)
A = 0.088 m 2 (137 sq in.) Use five #7, 2-branch stirrups within

November-December 1995 71
 430 mm
V L/
I’ I’
strand /

mm

of
#3 stirrups 305 mm

3 #6
910 mm

255 mm

3 #6
-2—15 mm 150 mm
steel strands

100 mm
chord
/

Section X—X

5—15 mm

A
3043 mm 914 mmlx steel strands
5243 mm

9200 mm
K

Fig. 13. Layout of I-girder in Design Example 1.

the distance d
1 along each side of the
opening. Using Eq. (13), the tensile
force at the upper right corner of the
opening, 7}= (305/432) x 368 26.0 kN
(5.8 kips).
Service Load Stage
The shear force at the center of the
opening, V = 165/2 + 4 (9.2/2 3.05)
—
= 89 kN (20 kips). From Eq. (16),
Vb/V = 0.28. Hence, Vb 25 kN (5.6
kips) and V = 64 lcN (14.4 ldps). The
Cracking at Opening Corners Cracking at the Edges
of the Opening
From Eq. (14), T 8 = 55.8 kN (12.5
kips). Hence, the total tensile force The prestressing forces in the top and
near the corner of the opening = + bottom chords can be determined
5 = 26.0 + 55.8 = 81.8 kN (18.4
T (Kennedy and Abdalla
) as F
5 1 = 150 kN
kips). Area of vertical reinforcement, (33.5 kips) and F,, = 470 kN (105.6
5 = (Tf + T)/0.5f
A kips). Also, the primary moment at the
, where f
5 5 is the al
lowable tensile stress of the steel. The center of the opening, Mm = 1 .525P +
factor 0.5 is recommended because wd = 1.525P + 37.5 kN-m. Hence,
7
3
.
9
the tensile stress has a steep gradient the axial tensile force in the tension
at the edges of the opening. Thus A 5= chord due to the primary moment,
1185 rmTi
2 (1.8 sq in.) < 3852 iTim2 (6 N = Mm/(0.91 0.088 0.145) = 2.25P
— —

secondary moments are MSb = 25 x sq in.) required at the transfer stage. +55.5kN.
0.914/2 = 11.4 kN-m (8.4 kip-ft), and Therefore, no additional reinforce Based on the minimum area of non
35 = 64 x 0.9 14/2 = 29.2 kN-m (21.5
M ment need be provided due to the ver prestressed steel specified by the ACT
kip-ft), respectively. tical load. 8 use three #6 steel bars along the
Code,

72 PCI JOURNAL
 2400 mm 1’
7’ 50 mm
r-2 #6

2 #6 100 mm’

250 mm 500 mm

100 mm
steel strands

I’ 1200 mm
A ‘I
110 mm

Section X—X
2 #6
x —

steel bars
#3 stirrups #7 stirrups

I I I
-J
I •

iL-—
‘

JE
II
I I I I I I 1 II
II’
4—13 mm...J
steel strands
4500 mm 1000 mm 8500 mm

14000 mm

Note: I in. = 25.4 mm

Fig. 14. Layout of double tee in Design Example 2.

top as well as along the bottom chords.
Taking into account this area of steel,
the area and moment of inertia of the
bottom chord are 0.07 m 2 (108 sq in.)
and 0.4 x 10 m 4 (958 in.
). Using Eq.
4 bottom chord can be determined using
(17), the load P causing cracking in
that chord can be shown to be 175 kN
(39.3 kips)> 165 kN (37.1 kips). Thus,
the three #6 steel bars can prevent
cracking in the opening chords.
Cracking of the Tension Chords
Because the axial tensile force in the
tension chord, N, is less than the pre
stressing force Fb in that chord, the net
axial force is compression in this case.
Therefore, cracking due to tension will
not occur. The three #6 steel bars, pro
vided above, are adequate for the ten
sion chord.
shears carried by the top and bottom
chords of the opening become V, =
107.2 kN (24.1 kips) and Vb = 41.7 lcN
(9.4 kips). The shear capacity of the
Eq. (22), in which the cracking mo
ment, Mcr, given by Kennedy and Ab
5 is 0.57 kN-m (0.4 kip-ft).
dalla,
Hence, from Eq. (22), the shear ca
pacity of the bottom chord, V = 17.2
kN (3.9 kips) 0.14 (J) (125)
(381 x 10-3) = 44.7 kN (10.0 kips)>
41.7 kN (9.4 kips). For the top chord,
= 118 kN (26.5 kips) > 107.2 kN
(24.1 kips). Therefore, only minimum
areas of stirrups (ACI Code
) should
8
be provided in the opening chords.
Use five #3 stirrups, spaced at 180
mm (7 in.).
as shown in Fig. 14. Design for a 2.4
2 (50 psO live load, 2.4 kN/m
kN/m 2
(50 psf) dead load, and a 1.0 kN/m
2
(20 psf) superimposed dead load.
Steel strands of 13 mm (1/2 in.) diam
eter with f = 1860 MPa (270 ksi)
are used for prestressing the concrete
of = 35 MPa (5000 psi) and f’= 45
MPa (6500 psi). The center of the
opening is to be located 5 m (16.4 ft)
from the support.
Loads
For a single leg of the tee:
W = 5.8 kN/m (0.4 kip/ft)
W=8.84kN(1.9kips)
M = 142 kN-m (105 kip-ft)
5 = 217 kN-m (160 kip-ft)
M

Shear Cracking
For P = 165 kN (37.1 kips), Wd =
4 kN/m (0.3 kip/ft) and using load fac
tors of 1.7 and 1.4, respectively, the
DESIGN EXAMPLE 2
Design a 14 m (46 ft) span 500 mm
(20 in.) deep precast pretensioned
double tee to accommodate an open
ing of 250 x 1000 mm (10 x 40 in.),
Number of Strands
Using tables given by the CPCI De
sign Manual,’
5 select eight strands for
the double tee (four in each leg).

November-December 1995 73
Ultimate Strength at Midspan Cracking at Opening to the axial tensile force in that chord;
Effective flange width: Due to Prestressing and (5) cracking of the opening chords
Using Eqs. (3) to (9): due to shear.
be = ‘/4 of span length = 3.5 m (138 in.)
3. In prestressed beams with wide
bW+161f= 155+ 12x50=755nun 5 =F
F =514kN(ll4kips)
3 openings, the second and third types of
(30 in.) a 408—338— 100/2
= crack patterns are likely to occur, while
1/2 clear distance to next beam
= 20 mm (0.8 in.) deep openings may induce the third and
= 522 mm (21 in.) [controls]
d, = 13 x (500)2/(250 x 225) fifth types of crack patterns. Beams
5 =400 mm (16 in.)
d = 58 mm (2.3 in.) with shallow bottom chords may ex
5
A 395 mm
2 (0.6 sq in.) 2 x 500 x 225/(3 x 250) hibit the fourth type of crack pattern.
=
d =

300mm (11.8 in.) 4. The presence of secondary mo

Assume a strand stress of 0.7f =
ments at the opening edges may cause
immediately after transfer and 15 per /3=58+300=358mm(14.1 in.) cracking of the flange even if it is
cent losses due to shrinkage, creep and
y= 250/2 + 150/3 + 100/2 under compression. Cracking at the
relaxation. = 225 mm (8.9 in.) opening corners may cause separation
= 395/(239000/2) = 0.0033 1 5 =20x514x(225—20)/(358x225)
T along the interface between the flange
f = 1860 [1 — (0.5 x 0.00331 x = 26.2 kN (5.8 kips) and the web of the section.
1860)145] 5. In the case of I-beams, the pres
1740 MPa(253 ksi)
f =2x26.2/(58x 125) ence of the flange in the tension chord
= 7 MPa (1.02 ksi)
Check reinforcement index: > 2.2 MPa (0.32 ksi)
reduces the possibility of having a
fully cracked tension chord (the fourth
w, = 0.00331 x 1740/45 Therefore, vertical reinforcement is type of cracking); in this case, crack
= 0.13<0.3 required. ing at the opening corners becomes
T’ = A = 395 x 1740/1000
f
5 Using Eq. (8): more likely.
= 687 kN (153 kips) 2.2x58x 125/2+
26.2x10
=
3
687 = 0.8
x
5 45x522/l000xa [(58 29)/58] x 5 x A
— 5 x 2.2
a 34.4 mm (1.4 in.) RECOMMENDATIONS
= Hence, A
5 = 3306 mm 2 (130 sq in.).
< 50 mm (2 in.) Use four #7, two-branch stirrups at 1. Longitudinal reinforcement
4M = 0.9 T’(d
5 a/2)
—
each side of the opening to prevent should be provided near the top and
= 0.9 x 687(400 34.4/2)/1000
—
cracking at the transfer stage. The de bottom of the two chords of the rect
= 236 kN-m (174 kip-ft) sign for the other reinforcement angular opening to resist cracking re
> 217 kN-m (160 kip-ft) around the opening follows the same sulting from the secondary moments,
procedure as in Design Example 1. and to prevent tension cracking result
ing from the axial tensile force in the
Transfer Stresses at tension chord.
End of Beam CONCLUSIONS 2. Cracking at the opening corners
Results from tests as well as from a may cause splitting along the interface
fb = -5 14/119.5 —(514 x 169)/7550 between the flange and the web. Such
parametric study were utilized to de
= -16 MPa (2.3 ksi) compression splitting should be resisted by vertical
velop design procedures against crack
= -514/1 19.5 + (514 x 169)/18800 ing in prestressed concrete beams with stirrup reinforcing or shear studs.
= +0.3 MPa (0.04 ksi) tension openings at transfer and under service 3. Prestressed beams with openings
load. Based on these results, the fol should be designed to be free from
lowing conclusions can be made: cracks under service load, especially
Transfer Stresses at Opening 1. Prestressed concrete beams with when subjected to repeated loads (Ab
openings can be accommodated in dalla and Kennedy’
).
5
Taking the opening into account
practice provided they are properly de 4. If the designer has the choice, it
when calculating the area and moment
signed as suggested in this paper. is recommended to limit the depth of
of inertia:
2. Prestressed beams with openings the opening because it is more critical
fb= -514/86.4 —(514 x 338)/4.2 + than the width of the opening.
may crack in five different patterns:
(142 x 10)/4.2
(1) cracking at the edges of the open
= -13.4 MPa (1.9 ksi) compression
ing at transfer; (2) cracking at the
f= -514/86.4 + (514 x 338)/18.7 —

upper right and lower left corners of ACKNOWLEDGMENT

(142 x 10)/18.7
= -4.3 MPa (0.6 ksi) compression
The above stresses are within the al
lowable stress limits at transfer.
the opening; (3) flexural cracking at
the corners of the opening chords due
to secondary moments in the chords;
(4) cracking of the tension chord due
The research reported in this paper
was supported by the Natural Sciences
and Engineering Research Council of
Canada, Grant Number A-1896.

74 PCI JOURNAL

1. Mansur, M. A., “Ultimate Strength
Design of Beams With Large Open
ings,” International Journal of Struc
tures, V. 8, No. 2, 1988, PP. 107-125.
2. Mansur, M. A., Tan, K. H., Lee,
Y. F., and Lee, S. L., “Piecewise Lin
ear Behavior of RC Beams With
Openings,” Journal of the Structural
Division, American Society of Civil
Engineers, V. 117, No. 6, 1991,
pp. 1607-1621.
3. Barney, G. B., Corley, W. G., Hanson,
J. M., and Parmelee, R. A., “Behavior
and Design of Prestressed Concrete
Beams With Large Web Openings,”
PCI JOURNAL, V. 22, No.6, Decem
ber 1977, pp. 32-6 1.
4. Dinakaran, V., and Sastry, M. K., “Be
havior of Post-Tensioned Prestressed
Concrete T-Beams With Large Web
Openings,” Indian Concrete Journal,
V. 58, No. 2, February 1984, pp. 34-38.
5. Kennedy, J. B., and Abdalla, H. A.,
“Static Response of Prestressed Gird
ers With Openings,” Journal of the
Structural Division, American Society
of Civil Engineers, V. 118, No. 2,
February 1992, pp. 488-504.
Ab, A = cross-sectional areas of bot
tom and top chords, réspec
tively
, Af
1
Af 2 = cross-sectional areas of bot
tom and top flanges, re
spectively
A = area of mild steel reinforce
ment
b = width of beam web
d, d = lengths of compression and
tension fields, respectively
e = eccentricity of force, F,
from centroidal axis of sec
tion
F = prestressing force
= 28-day compressive strength
of concrete
fr = allowable tensile stress in
concrete
November-December 1995
REFERENCES
6. Kennedy, J. B., and El-Laithy, A.,
“Cracking at Openings in Prestressed
Beams at Transfer,” Journal of the
Structural Division, American Society
of Civil Engineers, V. 108, No. 6,
1982, pp. 1250-1265.
7. Hibbitt, H. D., Karisson, B. I., and
Sorensen, E. P., ABA QUS Version 4-8,
Finite Element Program, Hibbitt,
Karisson & Sorensen, Inc., Provi
dence, RI, 1989.
8. ACI Committee 318, “Building Code
Requirements for Reinforced Concrete
(ACI 318-89),” American Concrete
Institute, Detroit, MI, 1989.
9. Lin, T. Y., and Burns, N. D., Design
of Prestressed Concrete Structures,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc, New York,
NY, 1981.
10. Abdalla, H. A., and Kennedy, J. B.,
“Design of Prestressed Concrete
Beams With Openings,” Journal of
the Structural Division, American So
ciety of Civil Engineers, V. 121, No.
5, May 1995, pp. 890-898.
11. Kennedy, J. B., Chami, S., and Grace,
N. F., “Dynamic and Fatigue Re
sponses of Prestressed Concrete Gird-
APPENDIX — NOTATION
f = maximum vertical tensile
stress at opening
H = total depth of cross section
of beam
h = depth of rectangular open
ing
depth of bottom and top
hb, h =
chords of opening, respec
tively
‘b’ I = moments of inertia of bot
tom and top chords of
opening, respectively
I = moment of inertia of beam
cross section
= moment causing flexural
cracks at section considered
Mm = applied moment at mid
opening
MSb, = secondary moments in bot
ers With Openings,” Canadian Jour
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1990, pp. 460-470.
12. Abdalla, H. A., “Static and Dynamic
Responses of Prestressed Concrete
Beams With Openings,” Doctoral The
sis presented at University of Windsor
at Windsor, Ontario, Canada, 1993.
13. El-Laithy, A., “Influence of Openings
on the Behavior of Rectangular Post-
Tensioned Prestressed Concrete
Beams,” MS Thesis presented at Uni
versity of Windsor at Windsor, On
tario, Canada, 1978.
14. Collins, M. P., and Mitchell, D., Pre
stressed Concrete Structures, Prentice
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1991.
15. Metric Design Manual: Precast and
Prestressed Concrete, Canadian Pre
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16. Abdalla, H. A., and Kennedy, J. B.,
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torn and top chords of open
ing, respectively
N = normal axial force in open
ing chords
P = externally applied load
T = vertical tensile force near
opening
tf = thickness of beam flange
V = total shear force
Vb, V, = shear force carried by bot
tom and top chords of
opening, respectively
W = width of rectangular open
ing
Y = distance between centroids
of opening chords
y = distance from center of
gravity of bottom chord to
upper extreme fiber of
same chord
75